過去現在因果經

[620c] Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was dwelling with the bhikkhus at the Bamboo Grove Monastery in Prince Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park^[2], in the kingdom of Sravasti. Every morning, the bhikkhus donned their robes, took up their bowls, and entered the city to seek alms; they then returned to the monastery to partake of the meal. After the meal, they cleaned their teeth and rinsed their mouths, put away their robes and bowls, and assembled in the lecture hall. They all wished to hear about causes and conditions from past lives.

At that time, the Blessed One, with his purified faculty of hearing, transcending the world, heard the bhikkhus discussing this matter together. He rose from his seat, went to the lecture hall, sat down amid the assembly, and asked:

“Bhikkhus, for what Dharma discourse have you assembled here?”

The bhikkhus replied:

“Blessed One, after partaking of the meal and cleaning our teeth and rinsing our mouths, we assembled here together, all wishing to hear about causes and conditions from past lives.”

“If you wish to hear about causes and conditions from past lives, then calm your minds, listen attentively, and reflect carefully. I shall explain this matter to you.”

“May the Blessed One instruct us; we wish to hear!”

The Buddha said:

“In the distant past, immeasurable, boundless asamkhya kalpas ago, there was then a seer named Sumedha, who diligently cultivated the pure life^[3] and sought omniscient wisdom. Wishing to perfect this vast wisdom, he vowed to enter the ocean of birth and death, taking birth among the five paths^[4], assuming one body after another, immeasurably many times. [0621a] Even if all the grasses and trees beneath heaven were gathered and split into counting slips to calculate the number of bodies in which Sumedha had taken birth, the total still could not be exhausted. The span from the formation to the destruction of heaven and earth is called one kalpa; the number of times heaven and earth formed and perished during the succession of Sumedha’s bodies likewise could not be calculated.

“The seer pitied sentient beings, who remained infatuated with sensual desire and submerged in the ocean of suffering, and he aroused compassion, wishing to rescue them from that place. He further thought: ‘Sentient beings today are submerged in birth and death and cannot liberate themselves because of greed, hatred, and delusion, and because they are enthralled by the objects of form, sound, fragrance, taste, touch, and dharmas.

I shall now resolve to eradicate all these afflictions for them. Though I take birth within the various paths, I shall never forget this resolve. I regard all sentient beings equally, whether enemy or kin.

Through generosity I shall deliver the poor and destitute; through moral discipline, those who violate the precepts; through patience, those filled with anger; through diligence, the indolent; through meditative concentration, the distracted; and through wisdom, the deluded. In this way, I shall bring sentient beings lasting benefit and become a secure refuge for them. Toward the Tathagatas in particular, I shall always make offerings with reverence and delight in hearing the Dharma.

I shall also expound the true Dharma to everyone; I shall constantly make the four requisites^[5] as offerings to the Sangha; and I shall always honor and preserve the Buddha-Dharma. Deeds such as these I have performed beyond enumeration.’

“At that time, in that land there was a king named Dipankara, who dwelt in the city of Dipavati. The people of that kingdom had lifespans of eighty thousand years. Their lives were peaceful, joyful, abundant, and exceedingly prosperous; all their wishes were fulfilled, and they possessed every provision as though dwelling in a heavenly realm.

That king always governed his people according to the true Dharma, without oppression or painful punishments such as execution and beating. He loved his people as his only child. When the crown prince, King Dipankara’s son, was born, his countenance was dignified and noble, and he was fully endowed with majestic virtue.

He possessed the thirty-two auspicious marks and the eighty excellent characteristics, peerless in every respect. On the day the crown prince was born, every place shone brilliantly, rendering the light of the sun and moon ineffectual. Seeing such auspicious signs accompanying the crown prince, the king immediately summoned his ministers to assemble in the palace.

“The king said:

“‘The crown prince manifested these extraordinary signs as soon as he was born. What name do you think should be given to him?’

“The ministers replied:

“‘Your Majesty, the crown prince should be named Universal Light.’

“The king then invited a physiognomist to examine him. After completing his examination, the physiognomist reported:

“‘If the crown prince remains in worldly life and inherits the throne, he will become a wheel-turning monarch who rules all four continents^[6] beneath heaven. If he renounces the household life, he will attain perfect and complete enlightenment.’

“When the king, the queen, and the palace women heard this, they loved the crown prince even more. Devas, nagas, yakshas^[7], gandharvas^[8], asuras^[9], garudas^[10], kinnaras^[11], mahoragas^[12], humans, and nonhumans^[13] also revered him, made offerings to him, honored him, and praised him.

“[0621b] At that time, the crown prince remained in the palace and taught the Dharma to the queen and the palace women. When he reached the age of twenty-nine thousand years, he relinquished the position of wheel-turning monarch and asked his parents for permission to renounce the household life, but they did not consent. He asked three times, yet still was not permitted.

However, because his compassionate heart wished to rescue sentient beings, the crown prince accepted the minor fault of disobedience in order to fulfill his great aspiration. Thus, he entered a deep forest, went beneath a tree, shaved off his beard and hair, donned a robe of subdued color, and diligently practiced austerities for a full six thousand years, attaining unsurpassed perfect and complete enlightenment. Thereafter, for devas, humans, and the eight classes of beings, he turned the Dharma wheel that no deva, human, mara, or Brahma^[14] in the world could turn.

He taught and transformed sentient beings through the Dharma of the Three Vehicles^[15], bringing immeasurable benefit.

“When the king, his father, together with the queen and the palace women, heard that Crown Prince Universal Light had attained Buddhahood, they all rejoiced greatly. When the ministers, the people, the brahmins, and others throughout the kingdom heard that the crown prince had attained enlightenment, each thought: ‘Crown Prince Universal Light abandoned the position of wheel-turning monarch, shaved off his beard and hair, donned a robe of subdued color, renounced the household life, cultivated the path, and attained perfect and complete enlightenment. We too should now renounce the household life.’ Having thought this, they went together to the presence of the Buddha Universal Light.

“At that time, the Buddha Universal Light contemplated each person’s mind and expounded the various teachings according to their capacities and conditions. He enabled four thousand ministers, brahmins, and others among them to attain arhatship. More than eighty thousand people from throughout the kingdom and from the four directions who came to hear the Dharma attained the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas^[16].

“At that time, the Tathagata Universal Light, accompanied by eighty-four thousand arhats, returned to his own kingdom, traveling about and teaching. When the king, his father, heard this news, his heart rejoiced greatly. He immediately ordered all the people of the kingdom to repair the roads, sprinkle the ground with fragrant water, hang banners, streamers, and canopies made of precious silk, and scatter many kinds of flowers.

Such splendid adornments extended throughout twelve yojanas^[17]. The king also had drums beaten to proclaim an order throughout the kingdom: Whoever possessed flowers was not permitted to sell them but had to present them to the king. At the same time, he commanded that not a single person among all the people was to make offerings to the Buddha before he did.

The king then ordered his ministers to play various kinds of music, burn incense, scatter flowers, and go to invite the Tathagata Universal Light.

“At that time, the seer Sumedha was in the mountains and dreamed of five exceedingly extraordinary things:

1. He saw himself lying upon the great ocean.

2. He saw himself resting his head upon Mount Sumeru.

3. He saw all species of sentient beings in the ocean entering his body.

4. He saw his hand grasping the sun.

5. He saw his hand grasping the moon.

[0621c] Startled awake, he thought: “These dreams are no trifling matter, but whom can I ask about them? I should enter the city and consult the wise.” Having thought thus, he put on his deerskin garment, took a water vessel in his hand, raised a parasol, and entered the city. On the way, Sumedha stopped at the dwelling place of non-Buddhist ascetics. There were five hundred of them, all highly accomplished.

Sumedha thought: “I should ask these people about those dreams.” At the same time, he perceived the nature of their spiritual practices and expounded the meaning of the Way to them, dispelling their erroneous views and attachments. The five hundred non-Buddhist ascetics submitted and asked to become disciples of the seer. With the utmost reverence, each offered Sumedha one coin.

Afterward, another five hundred non-Buddhist ascetics, seeing that Sumedha was intelligent and accomplished, also gave rise to sympathetic joy. The ascetics discussed among themselves: “The Tathagata Universal Light has now appeared in the world.” When Sumedha heard this, his whole body trembled and he rejoiced beyond measure. He immediately took leave of the ascetics and departed.

The ascetics asked:

– Master, where are you going now?

Sumedha replied:

– I am now going to make offerings to the Buddha Universal Light.

– If the Master is going there, please allow us to accompany you!

– I have urgent business now and must go on ahead.

Sumedha set out, carrying the five hundred coins. The ascetics, sorrowful at heart and reluctant to part, bade him farewell and returned. On the way, Sumedha saw the royal attendants repairing the roads, sprinkling fragrant water upon the ground, and hanging many banners, streamers, and jeweled canopies, adorning everything with radiant splendor.

Sumedha asked:

– For what reason are you making such preparations?

They replied:

– A Buddha has appeared in the world, named Universal Light. King Lamp-Illumination has invited him into the palace. Therefore, the roads must be repaired and adorned with all haste!

Sumedha further asked:

– Do you know where flowers are sold?

Those people replied:

– Venerable sir! King Lamp-Illumination has ordered the drum to be beaten and a command proclaimed throughout the entire kingdom: no flowers of any kind may be sold; all must be delivered to the king.

Hearing this, Sumedha was deeply saddened, yet he did not lose heart. He went about seeking a place where flowers might be sold.

After a while, Sumedha saw a female royal attendant secretly passing by with seven blue lotuses. Fearing the king’s prohibition, she had concealed the flowers in a vessel. Yet, in response to Sumedha’s sincere devotion, the lotuses rose above the mouth of the vessel. Seeing them from afar, Sumedha hurried after her and called aloud:

– Young lady! Please stop! Are these flowers for sale?

Hearing his question, the attendant was greatly astonished and thought to herself:

– I concealed the flowers very carefully. Who is this man, that he can see them and asks to buy them?

[0622a] The attendant looked into the vessel and indeed saw the flowers rising out of it. She thought, “How extraordinary!” and replied:

– Sir! These blue lotuses must be taken into the palace as offerings to the Buddha, so they cannot be sold!

Sumedha earnestly pleaded:

– I ask only to exchange these five hundred coins for five of the flowers!

The attendant became suspicious and thought to herself: “These flowers are worth no more than a few coins, yet this man offers as many as five hundred coins to buy five of them.”

She then asked:

– What do you intend to do with these flowers?

Sumedha replied:

– A Tathagata has now appeared in the world, and King Lamp-Illumination has invited him into the palace. Therefore, I wish to buy these flowers as an offering to the Buddha. You should know that Tathagatas are exceedingly difficult to encounter, just as the udumbara flower^[18] blooms only once at its appointed time.

– What do you seek by making offerings to the Tathagata?

– I wish to attain the wisdom of all modes^[19] and liberate immeasurable suffering sentient beings.

Hearing these words, the attendant thought to herself: “This man has handsome and dignified features. He wears only a deerskin garment sufficient to cover his body, yet his heart is utterly sincere, and he does not begrudge his wealth.” She then said:

– I will now give these flowers to you, on the condition that, life after life, we shall always be husband and wife.

Sumedha said:

– I cultivate the pure life and seek the unsurpassed Way. I cannot accept forming with you a bond in the cycle of birth and death.

The young woman said:

– If you do not consent to my wish, I cannot give you these flowers!

Sumedha then said:

– If you are firmly resolved not to give them otherwise, I accept this wish of yours. However, I delight in giving and do not disappoint those who seek something from me. If anyone should come asking me for my head, eyes, marrow, brain, or even my wife and children, you must not hinder me and impair my resolve to give.

The young woman replied:

– Excellent! Excellent! I shall comply with your wish. Now, bearing the lowly body of a woman, I cannot approach the Blessed One. Therefore, I entrust these two flowers to you so that you may offer them to the Buddha on my behalf. May I never forget this vow, life after life. Whether we are beautiful or ugly, may we never be separated from one another. May this vow remain forever in our hearts. May the Buddha bear witness and know it!

At that time, King Lamp-Illumination, together with the princes, ministers, brahmins, and others, carried incense, flowers, and articles of offering as they reverently welcomed the Tathagata Universal Light. All the people throughout the kingdom also followed them.

Then Sumedha’s five hundred disciples said to one another:

– Today, the king and all his ministers and subjects are going to the Buddha Universal Light. Our master will also go there. We should go and bow in homage to the Buddha.

Having said this, they all set out together. [0622a] Before they had gone far, they encountered Sumedha. When master and disciples met, they rejoiced greatly and went together to the Buddha Universal Light. Upon arriving, they saw that King Lamp-Illumination had already come before the Buddha. The king was the first to make offerings and bow in homage to the Buddha. In turn, the ministers also reverently bowed and scattered flowers as offerings to the Buddha, but all the flowers fell to the ground.

When everyone had finished making offerings, Sumedha and his five hundred disciples gazed upon the Tathagata’s majestic bearing and excellent marks. They vowed to eradicate all suffering and affliction for sentient beings and attain the wisdom of all modes. Sumedha then tossed five flowers into the air. They remained suspended in midair and formed a canopy. Afterward, he tossed the remaining two flowers, which likewise hovered in the air, one on either side of the Buddha.

When the king, his retinue, the ministers and people, devas, nagas, yakshas, gandharvas, asuras, garudas, kimnaras, mahoragas, humans, and nonhumans witnessed this marvel, they all praised it as an exceedingly rare occurrence.

Then the Tathagata Universal Light, with unobstructed wisdom, praised Sumedha:

– Excellent! Excellent! Good man! Because of this deed, after immeasurable asamkhya^[20] kalpas, you will become a Buddha named Shakyamuni Tathagata, Worthy One, Perfectly Enlightened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.

When the Buddha bestowed this prediction upon Sumedha, immeasurable devas, nagas, yakshas, gandharvas, asuras, garudas, kimnaras, mahoragas, humans, and nonhumans scattered precious flowers throughout the sky and made this vow: “In a future age, when Sumedha becomes a Buddha, we all vow to become members of his retinue.”

At that time, the Tathagata Universal Light bestowed this prediction: “In a future age, all of you will be born in that land!”

After the Tathagata had bestowed the prediction, Sumedha still retained the appearance of an ascetic, with matted hair and a deerskin garment. Wishing to cause him to relinquish this appearance, the Tathagata manifested a pool of filthy mud and indicated His intention to cross it. Sumedha thought, “How could the Buddha’s feet, marked with thousand-spoked wheels,^[21] be allowed to tread upon this?” He immediately removed his deerskin garment and spread it over the ground, but it was not enough to cover the entire pool, so he loosened his matted hair and spread it over the remaining place.

The Tathagata then stepped upon it and crossed. Thereupon, the Buddha bestowed this prediction: “In the future, you will attain Buddhahood during an evil age of the five defilements,^[22] universally liberating devas and humans without ever growing weary, just as I do.”

Upon hearing the Buddha’s prediction, Sumedha rejoiced greatly. He immediately penetrated the emptiness of all dharmas, attained the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, and rose into the air to a height of seven tala trees above the ground. [0622c] He then spoke this verse in praise of the Buddha:

Now I have encountered the Guiding Teacher,

Who has opened my eye of wisdom.

The Buddha teaches the pure Dharma,

Free from every attachment.

Encountering the Honored One of Devas and Humans,

I have attained the patience of non-arising.

May I attain the fruit in a future life,

Like the Honored One, Perfect in Wisdom and Merit.^[24]

After speaking this verse in praise of the Buddha, Sumedha descended from the air, approached the Buddha, prostrated with all five limbs touching the ground, bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet, and entreated Him:

“May the Blessed One compassionately permit me to leave the household life!”

The Tathagata Universal Light replied:

“Excellent! Come, bhiksu!”

At once, Sumedha’s hair and beard fell away by themselves, a kasaya robe clothed his body, and he became a sramana.

At that time, two destitute elderly men arrived, each accompanied by one hundred relatives. Seeing the Buddha’s excellent marks and majestic, awe-inspiring virtue, they grieved over their own poverty and their lack of anything to offer. The Tathagata, moved by compassion for their sincere hearts, then manifested a great amount of grass and refuse on the ground before them. Seeing the filth, the two poor men joyfully resolved to sweep the area clean. The Tathagata Universal Light then bestowed this prediction upon them: “After immeasurable asamkhya kalpas have passed, when Buddha Sakyamuni appears in the world, you will become His first sravaka disciples.”

After bestowing this prediction, the Tathagata Universal Light entered the city of Dipavati in procession, together with eighty-four thousand bhiksus, King Lamp Illumination, the brahmins, ministers, citizens, and others. At that time, King Lamp Illumination and his retinue presented the four requisites to the Tathagata and the eighty-four thousand bhiksus.

After forty thousand years had passed, the king abdicated and handed the throne to his son. Together with his own eighty-four thousand attendants and his queen’s eighty-four thousand attendants, he left the household life to cultivate the path, attaining the various samadhis and dharanis. Bhiksu Sumedha likewise followed the Tathagata Universal Light and received the king’s offerings for the full forty thousand years. He attained dharanis and the various gateways of samadhi, and taught and transformed incalculable numbers of sentient beings.

At that time, Bhiksu Sumedha addressed the Tathagata Universal Light:

“Blessed One! Formerly, while dwelling deep within a forest, I beheld five exceedingly extraordinary dreams:

1. I dreamed that I was lying upon a great ocean.

2. I dreamed that my head rested upon Mount Sumeru.

3. I dreamed that all the sentient beings in the ocean entered my body.

4. I dreamed that my hand grasped the sun.

5. I dreamed that my hand grasped the moon.

“I humbly beseech the Blessed One to explain clearly to me the significance of these dreams.”

[0622c] The Tathagata Universal Light replied:

“Excellent! If you wish to know the meaning of these dreams, I shall explain them clearly.

1. The dream of lying upon the great ocean signifies that you are presently within the great ocean of birth and death.

2. The dream of resting your head upon Mount Sumeru signifies that you will transcend birth and death and attain nirvana.

3. The dream in which all sentient beings in the ocean entered your body signifies that you will enter the great ocean of birth and death and become a refuge for sentient beings.

4. The dream of grasping the sun in your hand signifies that you will attain the light of wisdom, illuminating the Dharma realm everywhere.

5. The dream of grasping the moon in your hand signifies that, through skillful wisdom, you will enter the ocean of birth and death and teach and transform sentient beings with the cooling Dharma, enabling them to leave the afflictions far behind.

“These dreams are precisely the signs that you will attain Buddhahood in a future life.”

Hearing this, Sumedha rejoiced greatly. He bowed to the Buddha and withdrew.

After a short time, the Tathagata Universal Light entered nirvana. Bhiksu Sumedha preserved and upheld the true Dharma for twenty thousand years, teaching and transforming sentient beings through the Dharma of the Three Vehicles and bringing them incalculable benefit. When Bhiksu Sumedha passed away, he was reborn in the heavenly realm as one of the Four Heavenly Kings,^[25] where he taught and transformed the devas through the Dharma of the Three Vehicles. When his lifespan in that heavenly realm ended, he was reborn in the human world as a holy wheel-turning king,^[26] ruling the four continents and possessing the seven treasures:

1. The golden wheel.

2. The white elephant.

3. The blue-purple horse.

4. The divine jewel.

5. The precious woman.

6. The great minister who guarded the treasury.

7. The general who commanded the armed forces.

That king had one thousand sons, all exceedingly valiant and capable of subduing enemies. He governed the country according to the true Dharma, and there were no causes of grief or distress. He constantly instructed the people in the ten wholesome deeds.^[27] At the end of his life, he was reborn in the Trayastrimsa Heaven as Lord of the Devas.

When that lifespan ended, he was again reborn in the human world as a holy wheel-turning king; and when that life ended, he was reborn in the Brahma Heaven. Above, he became a king of the heavens; below, he became a holy sovereign. In each such form, he underwent birth thirty-six times.

During that period, he sometimes became an ascetic; at other times, one of the six non-Buddhist teachers,^[28] a brahmin, or a minor king. His manifestations in this manner were incalculable.

At that time, his meritorious practices having reached perfection, Bodhisattva Sumedha entered the stage of the Ten Grounds^[29] and became one destined to attain Buddhahood after one more birth,^[30] drawing near to the wisdom that knows all aspects. The bodhisattva was then reborn in the Tusita Heaven,^[31] where he was named Holy Pure Goodness. There he expounded the practice of one destined to attain Buddhahood after one more birth to the heavenly kings. He also manifested various forms throughout the lands of the ten directions and simultaneously taught the Dharma in accordance with the capacities of sentient beings. When the appointed time approached for him to descend into the human world and attain Buddhahood, the bodhisattva examined five matters:

1. He examined whether the capacities of sentient beings had matured.

2. He examined whether the proper time had arrived.

[0623b] 3. He examined where and in which land he should be born.

4. He examined which lineage was the most noble.

5. He examined the causes and conditions of past lives to determine which upright persons were suitable to become his parents.

Having examined these five matters, he thought: “From the time I first aroused the aspiration until now, all these sentient beings have matured and are capable of receiving the pure, sublime, and wondrous true Dharma. Within this three-thousand-great-thousand world system,^[32] the kingdom of Kapilavastu^[33] in Jambudvipa is foremost among all lands. Among the later descendants of the lineage of the holy King Iksvaku, the Sakya clan is foremost.

Examining the causes and conditions of past lives, King Suddhodana and his wife are upright and can become my parents.” He further examined the lifespan of Lady Maya. The bodhisattva saw that, after carrying the prince in her womb for the full ten months, the queen would pass away seven days after the prince’s birth. Having completed his examination, the bodhisattva thought: “If I descend and take birth at this very moment, I will be unable to benefit devas and humans universally.” He therefore manifested five signs in the heavenly palace, causing the devas to know that the time had arrived for the bodhisattva to descend and attain Buddhahood.

The five signs were:

1. The bodhisattva’s eyes continually twitched.

2. The flowers upon his head withered.

3. His garments become soiled.

4. His armpits exude sweat.

5. He no longer delights in sitting upon his own seat.

When the devas saw the bodhisattva manifest such unusual signs, they became greatly frightened. Blood flowed like rain from the pores of their bodies, and they said to one another: “Before long, the bodhisattva will depart from us.”

At that time, the bodhisattva further manifested five auspicious signs:

1. He emitted a great light that illuminated the entire three-thousand-great-thousand world system.

2. The earth displayed eighteen signs of trembling^[34], causing the oceans, Mount Sumeru, and the celestial palaces all to quake.

3. All the palaces of Mara disappeared.

4. The light of the sun, moon, and stars ceased to have any effect.

5. The bodies of the eight classes of devas, dragons, and others all trembled uncontrollably.

At that time, the devas of the Tusita Heaven saw that the bodhisattva’s body had manifested the five signs, and they also witnessed these five exceedingly rare external events. They immediately assembled, went to the bodhisattva, bowed their heads in homage at his feet, and said:

“Venerable One! Today, upon seeing such signs, our entire bodies tremble beyond our control. We earnestly beseech the Venerable One to explain this matter clearly to us!”

The bodhisattva said:

“Good men! You should know that all conditioned phenomena are impermanent. Before long, I shall leave this celestial palace and descend to be born in Jambudvipa.”

When the devas heard this, their hearts were filled with grief. Weeping sorrowfully, blood suffused their entire bodies, making them red like palasa flowers^[35]. [0623b] Some no longer delighted in their seats; some cast aside their exquisite ornaments; some fainted and fell to the ground; and others lamented the suffering of impermanence. At that time, a devaputra spoke these verses:

The bodhisattva dwells here,

Opening our Dharma eyes;

Now that you are about to depart,

We shall be like the blind,

With no one to guide the way.

It will be as if, wishing to cross a river,

We suddenly lose both bridge and boat;

Or like a foolish young child

Who loses his loving mother too soon.

We too shall be thus,

With nowhere to take refuge,

Drifting along the stream of birth and death,

With utterly no path of escape.

Throughout the long night,

We are struck by the arrows of ignorance;

Now we shall also lose our excellent physician—

Who then will save us?

Forever lying upon the bed of ignorance,

Submerged in the ocean of craving and desire,

When the Venerable One’s words are heard no more,

When shall we ever be freed from suffering?

Seeing the devaputras weeping in grief and anguish, and hearing these verses of loving attachment, the bodhisattva comforted them with compassionate words:

“Good men! For all who are born, birth is inevitably followed by death; those joined together in affection must one day part. From the Akanistha Heaven^[36] above to the Avici Hell^[37] below, there is not a single sentient being therein who is not scorched by the flames of impermanence. Therefore, you should not cling to me with longing. At present, neither you nor I have yet escaped the burning torment of birth and death, nor can we avoid such distinctions as poverty and wealth, nobility and lowliness.”

The bodhisattva then spoke these verses:

All conditioned phenomena are impermanent;

They are subject to arising and ceasing.

When arising and ceasing themselves have ceased,

Quiescent cessation is bliss.

The bodhisattva said to the devaputras:

“All the Buddhas of the past spoke this verse. Such is the nature and character of all conditioned phenomena; you should not grieve. For immeasurable kalpas until now, I have remained within birth and death.

Only one final life remains, and before long I shall leave all conditioned existence behind. You should know that the time has now come to guide sentient beings. I shall descend and be born in Jambudvipa, in the house of King Suddhodana, as a descendant of the Sakya clan, of the Sugarcane lineage, in the kingdom of Kapilavastu. [0624a] Thereafter, I shall leave my parents, forsake my wife and child and the station of a wheel-turning sage king, renounce the household life to train in the Way, diligently practice austerities, subdue the armies of Mara, attain omniscience in all its aspects, and turn the Dharma wheel that no deva, human, Mara, or Brahma^[38] in any world can turn.

Following the manner in which the Buddhas of the past taught and transformed beings, I shall benefit all devas and humans, raise the great banner of the Dharma, cast down the banner of Mara, dry up the ocean of afflictions, reveal the Noble Eightfold Path^[39], imprint the minds of sentient beings with the seals of the Dharma, and establish a great Dharma assembly to which devas and humans shall be invited. At that time, all of you will attend that Dharma assembly and receive the nourishment of the Dharma.

Therefore, you should not grieve.”

The bodhisattva then spoke these verses:

I shall not remain here long,

But shall descend and be born in Jambudvipa,

In the kingdom of Kapilavastu,

Within the palace of King Suddhodana.

I shall leave my parents and kin,

Forsake the throne of a wheel-turning king,

Renounce the household life and practice the Buddha Way,

And attain omniscience in all its aspects.

I shall raise the banner of the true Dharma,

Dry up the ocean of afflictions,

Close the gates to the evil destinies,

And open the Noble Eightfold Path.

I shall benefit devas and humans everywhere,

In numbers beyond all reckoning;

For reasons such as these,

You should not give rise to sorrow.

At that time, every pore of the bodhisattva’s body emitted light. Hearing the bodhisattva’s words and seeing brilliant light radiating from his entire body, the devaputras rejoiced greatly and were no longer afflicted by sorrow. They thought to themselves: “Before long, the bodhisattva will attain perfect awakening.”

The bodhisattva contemplated and saw that the time had come to enter the womb. He then mounted a white elephant with six tusks and descended from the Tusita celestial palace into the human realm. At that time, immeasurable devas played celestial music, burned fragrant incense, and scattered many celestial flowers. They followed the bodhisattva, filling the whole of space, while a great light shone throughout the ten directions. On the eighth day of the fourth month, just as dawn broke, the bodhisattva’s consciousness entered his mother’s womb.

At that time, Lady Maya was asleep. Suddenly, she saw the bodhisattva riding a white elephant with six tusks, descending from the sky and entering her right side. His luminous body remained visible from without, as though enclosed within crystal. The lady felt peaceful and joyful in body, as if she had just drunk amrita. Looking at herself, she saw her body shining like the sun and moon, and her heart was filled with great joy. Having seen these signs, she awoke at once, regarded them as extraordinary, and went to report them to King Suddhodana:

“While I was asleep, I dreamed of exceedingly extraordinary auspicious signs.”

The king said:

“Just now, I too saw a brilliant light. Moreover, your countenance at this moment appears most unusual. [0624b] Quickly tell me about your dream.”

The lady recounted everything in full and spoke these verses:

I saw one riding a white elephant,

Pure and radiant as the sun and moon;

Sakra, Brahma, and all the devas

Each held precious banners.

They burned incense and scattered celestial flowers,

And played many kinds of music,

Filling all of space,

As they descended in orderly procession.

He entered my right side,

As though entering crystal.

I now ask Your Majesty:

What auspicious sign is this?

When King Suddhodana heard Lady Maya recount these auspicious signs, he rejoiced greatly and immediately sent for brahmins skilled in interpreting signs. The king presented incense, flowers, food, and drink as offerings to them. After making the offerings, the king pointed to the lady’s right side, recounted her dream, and asked:

“Please discern what sign this may be.”

After examining it, the brahmins reported to the king:

“Your Majesty! The lady has conceived a crown prince. The auspicious signs are too numerous to recount fully, so we shall tell Your Majesty only their principal meaning. Your Majesty should know that the child in the lady’s womb will bring glory to the Sakya clan. When he descended and entered his mother’s womb, there was a great light, and devas, Sakra, and Brahma surrounded and attended him. This foretells that the crown prince will attain perfect awakening. If he does not renounce the household life, he will become a wheel-turning sage king, ruling over the four continents, possessing the seven treasures, and having one thousand sons.”

Hearing the brahmins speak, the king was filled with joy and happiness. He immediately bestowed upon them precious objects, gold, silver, elephants, horses, carriages, and villages. Lady Maya likewise presented the brahmins with maidservants and various treasures.

From the time she conceived the bodhisattva, Lady Maya practiced the six paramitas each day. The devas offered her food and drink, and she no longer delighted in the flavors of the mundane world. The entire trichiliocosm shone brilliantly. Even those dark places that the light of the sun and moon could not reach were fully illuminated. The sentient beings dwelling there could all see one another and said together, “Why have sentient beings suddenly appeared in this place?”

[0624c] When the bodhisattva entered the womb, the trichiliocosm quaked in eighteen ways. Fragrant breezes spread coolness everywhere, all who were ill were healed, and the greed, anger, and delusion in everyone’s mind were entirely extinguished.

At that time, in the Tusita Heaven, a deva thought, “The bodhisattva has been born into the palace of King Suddhodana. I too shall be born into the human realm. When the bodhisattva attains Buddhahood, I shall become one of his first attendants, make offerings to him, and hear the Dharma.” Having thought thus, that deva was born into the palace of King Candragupta, of the Bright Moon lineage, in Rajagrha.

Likewise, nine billion nine hundred million devas were born together into the human realm. Some devas were born into the royal palace of the kingdom of Sravasti; some into the royal palace of the kingdom of Suraksa; some into the royal palace of the kingdom of Vatsa; some into the royal palace of the kingdom of Bhadra; some into the royal palace of the kingdom of Rora; some into the royal palace of Taksasila; and some into the royal palace of Kaurava.

Some devas were born into brahmin households, while others were born into the households of wealthy elders, householders, vaisyas, and sudras. Another five hundred were born into the Sakya clan.

Furthermore, from the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations^[40] down to the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings, incalculable numbers descended and were born into the human realm. The kings of the Form Realm heavens and their retinues were likewise born below as seers.

Although the bodhisattva dwelt within the womb, his walking, standing, lying down, and sitting were entirely unobstructed, nor did he cause his mother any suffering or weariness. While in the womb, the bodhisattva taught the Dharma to the devas of the Form Realm in the morning, to the devas of the Desire Realm at midday, and to ghosts and spirits in the evening. He did likewise during the three periods of the night, constantly benefiting immeasurable sentient beings.

While the bodhisattva was dwelling in the womb, ladies and maidservants came to bow before him and make offerings. Whenever he heard someone wish that the prince would later become a wheel-turning sage king, the bodhisattva was displeased. Whenever he heard someone pray that the prince would attain omniscient wisdom, the bodhisattva was greatly delighted.

As the bodhisattva approached the completion of ten months in the womb, his limbs and excellent marks were already fully formed. His mother’s faculties became serene; she delighted in quiet places and disliked noise and commotion.

[0625a] At that time, King Suddhodana thought, “The lady has been pregnant for nearly the full term, yet why are there no signs that she is about to give birth?” As the king was thinking this, Lady Maya happened to send a messenger with the news, “The lady wishes to go out and stroll in the garden.” Hearing this, the king was filled with joy. He immediately ordered the people outside the city to sweep and clean Lumbini Garden.

He also had them plant many kinds of precious flowers and fruit trees. The streams and bathing pools were all purified, and the balustrades and steps were adorned with the seven treasures. Many kinds of birds—including kingfishers, mandarin ducks, luan birds, phoenixes, and other birds—gathered there and sang.

Banners and canopies were hung, incense was burned, flowers were scattered, and music was played, making the garden resemble the Garden of Delight belonging to Sakra, Lord of the Devas. The king further ordered that every place through which the lady would pass be thoroughly cleaned and adorned. At the same time, he prepared one hundred thousand carriages made of the seven treasures, each exquisitely carved.

He also ordered the deployment of the four divisions of the army: elephants, cavalry, chariots, and infantry. From within the palace, he selected eighty-four thousand maidservants of upright and beautiful appearance, neither old nor young, gentle in temperament, intelligent, and discerning, to attend Lady Maya. He also selected eighty-four thousand maidens of upright and beautiful appearance, adorned with necklaces of the seven treasures, and sent them ahead to Lumbini Garden bearing incense and flowers.

The king commanded all his ministers and officials to accompany and guard the lady’s procession. When the lady mounted her carriage, the great ministers and maidservants proceeded in order to Lumbini Garden. At that time, the eight classes of devas, nagas, and other beings also followed, filling the entire sky.

After the lady entered the garden, all her faculties became serene. When her pregnancy had completed exactly ten months, on the eighth day of the second month, just as the sun was rising, she saw in the garden a great tree called the sorrowless tree. Its blossoms were brilliantly colored and exquisitely fragrant, while its branches and leaves spread broadly in great beauty.

She reached out with her right hand, intending to pluck one of its flowers. At that very moment, the bodhisattva emerged from her right side. Beneath the tree there also appeared seven lotus flowers made of the seven treasures, each as large as a chariot wheel.

Without anyone’s assistance, the bodhisattva stood upon a lotus flower, took seven steps by himself, raised his right arm, and proclaimed in a lion’s roar, “Among all devas and humans, I am the most honored. My immeasurable rounds of birth and death have today come to an end. In this life, I shall benefit all sentient beings.” As soon as he had spoken, the Four Heavenly Kings received the prince in celestial silk and placed him upon a jeweled seat. [0625b] Sakra, Lord of the Devas, stood attending on one side, holding a jeweled canopy, while Great Brahma, holding a fly whisk, stood on the other.

The naga kings Nanda and Upananda, from the sky above, poured forth one stream of warm water and one stream of cool, pure water to bathe the prince. The prince’s body was the color of pure gold and possessed the thirty-two marks. It emitted brilliant light that illuminated the entire trichiliocosm.

In the sky above, the eight classes of devas, nagas, and other beings played music, sang hymns of praise, burned fragrant incense, and scattered many precious flowers. Celestial robes and radiant necklaces rained down in incalculable numbers.

After giving birth to the prince, Lady Maya rested beneath the tree’s canopy. Her body was peaceful, comfortable, and joyful, entirely free from suffering and distress, and her heart overflowed with delight. Suddenly, four wells of pure, fragrant water, endowed with the eight qualities,^[41] appeared around her.

Lady Maya and her attendants then bathed freely according to their needs. Yaksa kings also surrounded and protected the prince and the lady. At that very moment, all beings from the realm of Jambudvipa up to the Akanistha Heaven, though those in the higher realms had transcended ordinary joy and pleasure, nevertheless rejoiced in this event and proclaimed in praise, “One who possesses omniscient wisdom has now appeared in the world, and immeasurable sentient beings shall receive benefit.

May he swiftly attain perfect enlightenment, turn the wheel of Dharma, and universally liberate sentient beings.” Only Mara, the demon king, was filled with sorrow and could not remain at ease upon his throne. At that very moment, thirty-four auspicious signs appeared:

1. All the worlds throughout the ten directions shone brilliantly.

2. The trichiliocosm quaked in eighteen ways, and all mounds and hollows became level.

3. All withered trees revived, and rare and precious trees sprang up throughout the land.

4. Wondrously sweet fruits appeared in the gardens.

5. Jeweled lotus flowers as large as chariot wheels sprang from the earth.

6. All treasures hidden beneath the earth revealed themselves.

7. The repositories of jewels emitted brilliant light.

8. Fine celestial garments appeared spontaneously.

9. All the rivers became pure and flowed gently.

10. The winds ceased, the clouds dispersed, and the sky became clear.

11. Fragrant breezes blew in from every direction, and a fine rain moistened the earth, leaving no dust anywhere.

12. Throughout the kingdom, all who were ill were healed.

13. Throughout the kingdom, all palaces and houses shone brightly, without any need for lamps or torches.

14. The sun, moon, and stars all ceased moving.

15. The star Visakha^[42] appeared in the human realm to await the birth of the prince.

[0625c] 16. The Brahma kings held precious canopies that covered the entire royal palace.

17. Sages and holy ones from the eight directions brought precious objects as offerings.

18. A hundred celestial delicacies naturally appeared before them.

19. Countless precious vessels appeared, filled with amrita.

20. Chariots from the celestial realms arrived bearing jewels.

21. Countless white elephants, each bearing a lotus flower upon its head, stood everywhere before the palace hall.

22. Celestial horses with bluish-purple coats arrived of their own accord.

23. Five hundred white lion kings came forth from the Snow Mountains. Their ferocity ceased, their hearts were filled with joy, and they stood everywhere before the city gates.

24. Celestial musicians in the sky performed wondrous music.

25. Celestial maidens holding fly-whisks made of peacock feathers appeared upon the walls of the royal palace.

26. Celestial maidens holding precious vessels filled with fragrant water stood throughout the sky.

27. The devas extolled the virtues of the prince.

28. All painful torments in the hells ceased.

29. Venomous creatures hid themselves, and fierce birds became gentle.

30. Those who followed evil disciplines^[43] suddenly gave rise to compassion.

31. All pregnant women in the kingdom gave birth to sons, and even those afflicted by a hundred kinds of illness naturally became healthy.

32. All the tree spirits transformed themselves into human form and came to bow at his feet and attend upon him.

33. The kings of other countries all brought precious objects as tribute.

34. All devas and humans spoke at the proper time.

At that time, when the palace women saw such auspicious signs, their hearts were filled with joy, and they said to one another: “Today, at the birth of the prince, such excellent marvels have appeared. May the prince enjoy long life and remain free from illness and suffering, so that we need not grieve or worry.” Having spoken thus, they wrapped the prince’s body in celestial cloth and carried him to the queen. At once, the Four Heavenly Kings respectfully followed through the sky, while Sakra, Lord of the Devas, held a precious canopy over him, and twenty-eight great kings of the ghost spirits stood at the four corners of the garden to guard and protect him.

Then an intelligent and discerning palace maid returned from Lumbini Garden to the palace, went before King Suddhodana, and reported: “The majestic virtue of the great king grows ever greater. Queen Maya has given birth to a prince whose features are upright and handsome. He possesses the thirty-two noble marks and eighty excellent characteristics.

Standing upon a lotus flower, he took seven steps, raised his right arm, and proclaimed in a lion’s roar: ‘Among all devas and humans, I am the most honored. Today, immeasurable birth and death have come to an end. In this life, I shall bring benefit to all devas and humans.’ [0626a] Such extraordinary events cannot all be recounted.” When King Suddhodana heard the palace maid speak thus, his heart was filled with joy, and he immediately removed the necklace of seven precious substances from his body and bestowed it upon her.

King Suddhodana then arrayed the four divisions of his army and, surrounded by his retinue, proceeded in due order to Lumbini Garden together with one hundred million members of the Sakya clan. Upon entering, the king saw the eight classes of devas, nagas, and other beings all assembled there. When he came to the queen, he beheld the prince’s extraordinary excellent marks, and his heart was filled with boundless joy, like great waves rising upon rivers and seas.

Yet he then became fearful that the prince’s lifespan might be short. Mount Sumeru is difficult to shake; only when the whole great earth trembles does that mountain move. King Suddhodana was by nature calm and ordinarily displayed neither joy nor anxiety, yet today he was both joyful and apprehensive.

Queen Maya was gentle by nature, and when she gave birth to the prince and witnessed these extraordinary auspicious signs, she became gentler still.

King Suddhodana then joined his palms and bowed at the feet of the heavenly spirits. He carried the prince and placed him upon an elephant-drawn carriage adorned with the seven precious substances. Accompanied by his ministers and palace women, and with devas in the sky performing various kinds of music, he entered the city.

At that time, King Suddhodana and the members of the Sakya clan did not yet know the Three Jewels, so they took the prince to the temple of the gods. When the prince entered, all the images of Brahma rose, bowed at the prince’s feet, and said to the king: “Great King, you should know that this prince is the most honored among devas and humans. All the heavenly spirits throughout the sky bow reverently to him.

Does the Great King not see this? Why, then, have you brought him here to bow to us?”

When King Suddhodana, the members of the Sakya clan, and all the ministers within and outside the court heard this, they praised it as an unprecedented event. They then carried the prince out of the temple and returned to the inner palace. On that same day, five hundred sons were born to members of the Sakya clan.

In the king’s stables and enclosures, elephants gave birth to white elephants, horses gave birth to white horses, and cattle and goats likewise gave birth to offspring of five colors, five hundred of each kind. The king’s palace women also gave birth to five hundred sons. At that time, five hundred treasuries hidden beneath the palace grounds naturally emerged, each treasury surrounded by the seven precious substances.

Moreover, merchants from great countries who had gone to sea in search of jewels returned to the kingdom of Kapilavastu and brought rare and precious objects as offerings to the king.

King Suddhodana then asked:

[0626b] “Did all of you who went to sea in search of jewels enjoy favorable conditions without hindrance? Were any of your companions lost?”

The merchants replied:

“Great King! All the routes by which we traveled were entirely peaceful and secure.”

When the king heard this, his heart was filled with joy, and he immediately sent messengers to invite the brahmins. When the brahmins had all assembled, the king made offerings to them of elephants, horses, the seven precious substances, fields, houses, and servants. After making these offerings, the king had the prince carried forth and asked the brahmins:

“What name should be given to the prince?”

The brahmins deliberated together and then said to the king:

“When the prince was born, all the hidden treasures appeared. Because such auspicious signs occurred, the prince should be named Sarvarthasiddha.”

As soon as they finished speaking, the heavenly spirits in the sky beat celestial drums, burned incense, scattered flowers, and proclaimed:

“Excellent!”

The devas and the people throughout the kingdom likewise called out together:

“Sarvarthasiddha!”

On that same day, princes were also born to eight kings of other countries, just as one was born to King Suddhodana. Those kings were all filled with joy and thought: “Today a prince has been born to me, accompanied by many extraordinary signs.” Yet they did not know that these were actually auspicious signs attending Prince Sarvarthasiddha. Those kings then assembled brahmins and gave each prince an excellent name.

– The prince of Rajagriha was named Bimbisara.

– The prince of Sravasti was named Prasenajit.

– The prince of Sura-kuttha was named Kulapa.

– The prince of Vatsa was named Udayana.

– The prince of Bhadra was named Uttarayana.

– The prince of Rura was named Swift Light.

– The prince of Taksasila was named Puskarasarin.

– The prince of Kaurava was named Kaurava.

At that time, King Suddhodana issued a decree commanding his ministers to seek out intelligent and wise persons who were widely learned, skilled in physiognomy, and recognized as learned authorities in the world. The ministers respectfully obeyed and searched everywhere. The king then had a palace built in the royal pleasure garden, its windows and balustrades all adorned with the seven treasures.

At that time, the ministers encountered five hundred intelligent brahmins skilled in physiognomy. These men had seen extraordinary auspicious signs and wished to visit the king. As the king had happened to send people to seek them, they quickly came. A great minister reported to the king:

– The brahmin physiognomists have arrived!

Hearing this, the king was greatly delighted and immediately ordered that they be invited into the hall and seated, and that offerings be presented to them.

Those brahmins asked the king:

– We have heard that a crown prince has recently been born to the great king, possessing excellent marks and accompanied by exceedingly extraordinary auspicious signs. We respectfully ask to be permitted to behold the crown prince.

The king immediately had the crown prince carried out. [0626c] As soon as the brahmins saw the crown prince’s excellent and majestic marks, they all praised them as unprecedented.

The king asked the brahmins:

– Having examined the crown prince’s marks, what do you perceive?

The brahmins replied:

– All sentient beings wish their children to be excellent. Now the crown prince born to the great king is exceedingly precious; you should have no fear.

They further said:

– Great King! Although the crown prince is your son, in truth he is the very eye of the devas and human beings of the world.

The king asked again:

– How do you know this?

The brahmins replied:

– We see that the crown prince’s entire body shines brilliantly like pure gold, and that he possesses noble marks and exceedingly pure and radiant features. If he renounces the household life, he will attain omniscient wisdom; if he remains at home, he will become a wheel-turning sage king and rule over the four continents beneath heaven. Just as the ocean is greatest among all rivers and streams; Mount Sumeru is supreme among all mountains; the sun is brightest among all lights; and the radiance of the moon is foremost among all things that bring coolness, so among all devas and human beings in the world, the crown prince is the most honored and noble!

Hearing these words, the king was greatly delighted and no longer worried.

The brahmins then said to the king:

– There is a seer named Asita who possesses the five superknowledges and presently dwells on Mount Gandhamadana. He can dispel all the great king’s doubts!

After saying this, the brahmins took their leave and departed.

King Suddhodana then thought: “The seer Asita dwells upon Mount Gandhamadana. The path there is narrow and perilous, and ordinary people cannot reach it. By what means can I invite the seer to come here?” While the king was thinking in this way, the seer Asita knew his thoughts from afar. Moreover, having previously seen the extraordinary auspicious signs, the seer knew with certainty that the bodhisattva had manifested birth in order to destroy the path of birth and death. Exercising his spiritual powers, the seer flew through the sky and arrived before the palace gate. The gatekeeper then entered and reported to the king:

– Great King! The seer Asita has flown here through the sky and is now outside the gate.

Upon hearing this, the king was greatly delighted and immediately ordered that he be invited inside. He then personally went out to the palace gate to welcome him.

As soon as he saw the seer, the king respectfully bowed at his feet and asked:

– Venerable One, now that you have arrived, why do you remain outside the gate? Did the guards refuse to let you enter?

The seer replied:

– No. Since I have come to meet you, it was proper that my arrival first be announced!

The king and the seer entered the inner palace, where the king respectfully invited him to sit. The king asked:

– Venerable One! Are the four great elements of your body always peaceful and harmonious?

The seer replied:

– Through the gracious virtue of the great king, I am at peace.

King Suddhodana asked the seer:

[0627a] - Venerable One, since you have come here today, from this day onward our clan will surely become ever more peaceful and prosperous. Were you perhaps passing nearby and stopped here on your way?

The seer replied:

– While dwelling on Mount Gandhamadana, I saw brilliant light and extraordinary auspicious signs. I also knew the great king’s thoughts, and therefore came here. Furthermore, as I exercised my spiritual powers and flew through the sky, I heard the devas say: “The crown prince will attain omniscient wisdom and liberate all devas and human beings.” The crown prince was also born from his mother’s right side, stood upon a lotus of the seven treasures, took seven steps, raised his right arm, and proclaimed with a lion’s roar: “Among all devas and human beings, I am the most honored. My immeasurable rounds of birth and death have today come to an end. In this life, I shall benefit devas and human beings.” Devas also surrounded him reverently.

When I heard of such extraordinary events, I said:

– Excellent! Great King, you should rejoice. May I now be permitted to behold the crown prince?

The king immediately led the seer to where the crown prince was. The king and queen carried the crown prince out and wished to bow before the seer, but the seer immediately stopped the king, saying:

– The crown prince is the most honored among devas and human beings throughout the three realms. Why should he bow to me!

The seer then rose, joined his palms, and bowed at the crown prince’s feet.

The king and queen said:

– We respectfully ask the Venerable One to examine the crown prince’s marks and make a prediction.

The seer replied:

– Very well!

After examining the crown prince’s marks, he suddenly became sorrowful and wept uncontrollably. Seeing the seer in this state, the king and queen trembled all over and became deeply distressed, like a small boat struck by great waves. They immediately asked:

– When the crown prince was newly born, such signs suddenly appeared. Is there something inauspicious that causes the Venerable One to weep?

The seer replied between sobs:

– Great King! The crown prince is endowed with excellent marks; there is nothing inauspicious whatsoever!

The king asked again:

– We respectfully ask the Venerable One to predict whether the crown prince will enjoy a long life. Will he become a wheel-turning king and rule over the four continents beneath heaven? I am now advanced in years and later wish to entrust the kingdom to the crown prince, withdraw into the mountains and forests, renounce the household life, and cultivate the Way. This is my true aspiration. Does the Venerable One perceive that it will be so?

The seer replied:

– Great King! The crown prince possesses all thirty-two marks of a great man:

1. The soles of his feet are level like the bottom of a box.

2. The marks of precious wheels with a thousand spokes appear upon the soles of his feet.

3. His fingers and toes are more slender and elongated than those of others.

4. His hands and feet are softer than all the other parts of his body.

5. His heels are full and well-rounded.

6. His fingers and toes are joined by fine webbing.

[0627b] 7. The tops of his feet are high and full, proportionate to his heels.

8. His calves are round and slender like those of a royal deer.

9. When he stands upright, his arms extend down beyond his knees.

10. His male organ is concealed within a sheath, like that of a king of horses or a king of elephants.

11. His body is tall, full, and well-proportioned like a nyagrodha tree.

12. From each pore grows a single lapis-blue hair, soft and curling to the right.

13. All the hair upon his body is soft and curls to the right.

14. His entire body is the color of pure gold, more exquisite than Jambunada gold.

15. Light from his entire body shines to a distance of one fathom.

16. His skin is fine, smooth, and lustrous; dust does not cling to it, and mosquitoes do not bite it.

17. The palms of his hands, the soles of his feet, his two shoulders, and his neck are all full and well-rounded.

18. His two armpits are full like mani jewels.

19. His bodily form is majestic like that of a lion king.

20. His body is tall, great, upright, and straight.

21. His two shoulders are full, even, and well-proportioned.

22. He has forty teeth.

23. His teeth are white, even, and without gaps.

24. His four canine teeth are white and large.

25. His two cheeks are like those of a lion.

26. His mouth produces saliva whose supremely fragrant flavor surpasses all other flavors.

27. His tongue is large, broad, soft, and thin; when extended, it reaches his hairline.

28. His voice is refined and carries far, like the call of the kalavinka bird.

29. His eyes are deep blue like blue lotuses.

30. His eyelashes are like those of the king of bulls.

31. Between his eyebrows is a white hair, soft as tūla cotton.

32. On the crown of his head is a raised protuberance shaped like a topknot.

The prince possessed all these excellent marks. If he remained at home, at the age of twenty-nine he would become a wheel-turning sage king; if he renounced the household life, he would attain the wisdom of all modes and universally deliver devas and humans. Yet the prince would certainly renounce the household life to study the Way, attain unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment, and soon thereafter turn the pure Dharma wheel, benefiting all devas and humans and opening the wisdom-eye of the world. This year I am already one hundred and twenty years old. Before long, my life will end, and I will be reborn in the Heaven of Non-Perception. I shall not encounter the Buddha’s appearance in the world or hear the sutras and Dharma. Therefore, I weep in sorrow.

The king again asked:

– Just now, after examining him, Venerable One, you spoke of two possibilities:

1. He will become a wheel-turning sage king.

2. He will attain perfect enlightenment.

Why, then, do you now say that he will certainly attain the wisdom of all modes?

The seer replied:

– According to my method of examining marks, if a sentient being possesses the thirty-two marks, but they are not in their proper places and do not appear distinctly, that person will certainly become a wheel-turning sage king. If one possesses all thirty-two marks in their proper places and they also appear distinctly, that person will assuredly attain the wisdom of all modes. [0627c] I see that Your Majesty’s prince possesses all these marks and that they are exceedingly distinct. Therefore, I know with certainty that the prince will attain perfect enlightenment.

After speaking thus to the king, the seer took his leave and departed.

At that time, when King Śuddhodana heard the seer speak with such certainty, his heart became distressed, for he feared that the prince would renounce the household life. He therefore selected five hundred virtuous and intelligent palace women to serve as nurses and care for the prince: some suckled him, some carried him, some bathed him, and some washed his garments. In such ways, they attended upon the prince and provided everything he needed.

The king also had three seasonal palaces constructed, one each for temperate, hot, and cold weather. All the palaces were adorned with the seven treasures, and the prince’s clothing and ornaments were likewise suited to each season. Fearing that the prince might leave the royal palace to renounce the household life and study the Way, the king ordered the city gates to be designed so that whenever they were opened or closed, the sound could be heard forty li away.

He also selected five hundred female entertainers of upright and beautiful appearance, neither fat nor thin, neither tall nor short, neither pale nor dark. Each was talented and proficient in several arts. Adorning themselves with the seven treasures and jeweled necklaces, they served in shifts of one hundred, taking turns through the night to keep watch over the prince.

Before each palace, many trees bearing fragrant, sweet fruit were planted, with dense branches and foliage and abundant flowers and fruit. The bathing ponds were clean, clear, and cool. Fragrant grasses grew along both banks, and lotuses of many brilliant colors abounded everywhere beyond reckoning.

There were also several hundred thousand kinds of rare birds, splendid in color and pleasing to the prince’s eyes and heart.

Seven days after giving birth to the prince, Lady Māyā’s life ended. Because she had borne the prince, she possessed great merit and was therefore reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, where she naturally enjoyed celestial pleasures. The prince himself knew that his merit was so great that no woman could withstand the reverence due to him. Therefore, he entered only the womb of one whose life was about to end and was born from her.

The prince was then raised by his maternal aunt, Mahāprajāpatī, as though by his own mother. King Śuddhodana ordered a celestial crown of the seven treasures and jeweled necklaces to be made for the prince. As the prince gradually grew, the king bestowed upon him various carriages drawn by elephants, horses, oxen, and goats.

Whatever objects children delighted in, the king gave to the prince. At that time, all the people throughout the kingdom practiced benevolence and virtue. The grain harvests were plentiful, rain and wind came in due season, there were no calamities of theft, banditry, or warfare, and everyone lived peacefully and joyfully.

All this was due to the prince’s merit. The king also appointed five hundred sons of palace women, including Chandaka and others, to attend upon the prince.

When the prince reached the age of seven, King Śuddhodana thought, “The prince has grown; he should now be taught letters.” [0628a] He therefore sought intelligent brahmins well versed in books and skilled in the arts and invited them to teach the prince. At that time, a brahmin named Bhadrāṇi and his retinue of five hundred brahmins were invited into the palace. The king said:

– I wish to invite you, Venerable One, to become the prince’s teacher.

The brahmin replied:

– Whatever I know, I shall transmit and teach to the prince.

King Śuddhodana built a school adorned with the seven treasures and furnished the prince with extraordinarily exquisite and splendid tables, seats, and implements for study. Having selected an auspicious day, the king entrusted the prince to the brahmin for instruction.

The brahmin took up a book of forty-nine letters and taught the prince to read them. In but a moment, the prince had learned them all by heart. He then asked his teacher:

– What script is this? How many kinds of script are there altogether in Jambudvīpa?

The teacher remained silent, unable to answer.

The prince asked again:

– What is the meaning of this letter “A”?

The teacher again remained silent and could not answer. Ashamed at heart, he rose from his seat, bowed at the prince’s feet, and praised him, saying:

– When the prince was newly born, he walked seven steps by himself and declared, “Among all devas and humans, I am the most honored.” Those words were indeed not false. May the prince tell me how many kinds of script there are in Jambudvīpa.

The prince replied:

– In Jambudvīpa there are altogether sixty-four kinds, including the Brahmī script, Kharoṣṭhī script, Lotus script, and others. This letter “A” is a Brahmā sound. It means “indestructible,” and it also means “the unsurpassed true Way.” Meanings such as these are immeasurable and boundless.

The brahmin was deeply ashamed and immediately went before the king and said:

– Great King! The prince is the foremost teacher among devas and humans. How could I possibly teach him?

When King Śuddhodana heard this, his heart was filled with joy. Praising it as an unprecedented event, he made lavish offerings to the brahmin in accordance with his wishes. The prince naturally mastered all the arts and skills, ancient writings, dialectics, astronomy, geography, mathematics, archery, horsemanship, and so forth.

Notes:

^[1] Bhikṣu 比丘 (S: bhikṣu): a man who has been admitted into the monastic life and received full ordination; one of the seven assemblies of the Buddhist community. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Śāstra, fascicle III, states that bhikṣu has five meanings: 1. Mendicant (one who personally obtains alms to sustain himself in purity); 2. One who destroys evil afflictions (destroyer of evil); 3. One who has renounced the household life; 4. One who purely observes the precepts; 5. One who causes Māra to fear (terror of Māra).

^[2] Jeta Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park 祇樹給孤獨園 (S: Jetavana-anāthapiṇḍasyārāma): a monastery in a garden south of the city of Śrāvastī in the kingdom of Kosala, Central India (now in the southern region of Nepal). It is the most renowned of the places where the Buddha taught the Dharma. “Jeta Grove” refers to the woodland of Prince Jeta (S: Jeta). “Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park” refers to the garden offered by the elder Anāthapiṇḍada (S: Anāthapiṇḍada) for the construction of the monastery.

^[3] Brahmacarya 梵行 (also: pure conduct; S: Brahma-caryā): the pure conduct cultivated by monastics and laypeople.

^[4] The five paths (Five Destinies: 五趣): the five realms into which sentient beings are born after death: hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, and devas.

^[5] The four requisites 四事: four needs—food, clothing, lodging, and medicine. Alternatively, it refers to the four necessities of daily life for the Sangha corresponding to those needs: food and drink, garments, medicine, and articles for sitting and lying down.

^[6] The four continents (Four Continents 四洲): Pūrvavideha in the east, Jambudvīpa in the south, Aparagodānīya in the west, and Uttarakuru in the north.

^[7] Yakṣa 夜叉 (S: yakṣa): a class of demons dwelling upon the earth or in the sky, who use their power either to afflict people or to safeguard the true Dharma.

^[8] Gandharva 乾闥婆 (S: candhabha; Ch. trans.: fragrance-eater): a deity who specializes in performing music. This deity and the kiṃnara deities commonly attend Śakra. According to legend, this deity neither eats meat nor drinks alcohol, but subsists solely on fragrances.

^[9] Asura 阿修羅 (S: asura): a class of warlike spirits in India, regarded as malevolent deities who frequently wage battle against Śakra.

^[10] Garuḍa 迦樓羅 (S: suparni; also called: golden-winged bird): a type of hawk-like bird in Indian mythology. It is a mythologized bird, enormous in body and ferocious, which serves as the mount of Viṣṇu. According to tradition, when it was first born, its body radiated dazzling light; the devas mistook it for the Nirmāṇarati Heaven and gathered to pay homage.

^[11] Kiṃnara 緊那羅 (S: kimnara; also called: deity of music): originally referring to deities in Indian mythology, it was later incorporated into Buddhism and classified as the seventh of the eight classes of beings.

^[12] Mahoraga 摩睺羅伽 (S: mahoraga; also called: earth-dragon): a deity with a human head and the body of a serpent, one of the eight classes of devas, nāgas, and other beings.

^[13] Nonhuman being 非人 (S: amanuṣya): a general term for devas, nāgas, yakṣas, malevolent spirits, asuras, hell-beings, and others that do not belong to humankind and cannot be seen by human eyes.

^[14] Māra and Brahmā 魔梵: a collective term referring to the celestial Māra in the Paranirmita-vaśavartin Heaven of the Desire Realm and the Brahmā King in the Form Realm.

^[15] Three Vehicles 三乘 (S: Trīṇi yānāni): three conveyances, symbolizing the three Dharma gates that carry sentient beings beyond birth and death to the shore of nirvana. They are the Śrāvaka Vehicle, the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and the Bodhisattva Vehicle.

^[16] Patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas 無生法忍 (S: Anutpattika-dharma-kṣānt): one of the three kinds of patience and the fourth of the five kinds of patience taught in the Humane King Sutra; namely, contemplating the principle that all dharmas neither arise nor cease, thoroughly realizing that principle, and abiding with an unmoving mind.

^[17] Yojana 由旬 (S: yojana): an ancient Indian unit of length. There are various accounts of its measure. According to fascicle 3 of Yijing’s Sarvāstivāda One Hundred and One Karmans, Indians reckoned one yojana as sixteen kilometers, whereas Buddhists reckoned it as six kilometers.

^[18] Uḍumbara flower 優曇跋羅 (S: uḍumbara; also called: uḍumbara flower): a cryptogamous plant belonging to the mulberry family, growing in the foothills of the Himalayas, on the Deccan Plateau, and in Sri Lanka. Its trunk grows more than three meters high. Its leaves are of two types—smooth and flat, or coarse and rough—both measuring from ten to eighteen centimeters in length, with somewhat elongated pointed tips. The large, elongated fruit is the size of a fist, while the small fruit is the size of a thumb. They grow in clusters of ten upon the trunk and are edible, though not pleasant in taste.

^[19] Knowledge of all aspects 一切種智 (S: Sarvathā-jñāna): the wisdom that knows the causal kinds of all dharmas and sentient beings, and at the same time fully comprehends the characteristics of quiescent cessation and the distinct modes of practice of all dharmas; it is realized only by a Buddha. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom (Taishō 25, 259a) states: Because the Buddha thoroughly comprehends both the general and particular characteristics of all dharmas, meditative concentrations, and wisdom, this is called knowledge of all aspects.

^[20] Asaṃkhyeya 阿僧祇: an Indian numerical unit denoting an exceedingly vast, incalculable number.

^[21] The mark of the thousand-spoked wheel 千輻輪相: an auspicious mark in the form of a wheel with one thousand spokes, formed by lines upon the soles of the Buddha’s feet. This mark also symbolizes the Buddha’s turning of the Dharma wheel. Its appearance upon the soles signifies that he travels everywhere teaching and turning the Dharma wheel.

^[22] Five turbidities (五濁): five forms of defilement that arise during a declining kalpa: the turbidity of the kalpa; the turbidity of views; the turbidity of afflictions; the turbidity of sentient beings; and the turbidity of lifespan.

^[23] Tāla tree 多羅樹: a tropical tree of the palm family, approximately twenty meters tall, with long, broad, flat, firm, and glossy leaves. In ancient times, its leaves were used for transcribing sutras and were called pattra leaves (palm leaves). Its ripe fruit is red like a pomegranate and is edible. It grows abundantly in sandy coastal regions of India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and other countries. If this tree is cut through across its trunk, it cannot grow again; therefore, the sutras often use it as a metaphor for bhikṣus who commit grave pārājika offenses.

^[24] Honored One Among Two-Footed Beings 兩足尊: an epithet of the Buddha. Because the Buddha possesses the thirty-two excellent marks and eighty minor characteristics, has accomplished the undefiled dharmas beyond training—such as the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising—and possesses the unique qualities of a Buddha, such as the ten powers and four fearlessnesses, this epithet has two meanings: 1/ The Buddha is the most honored among two-footed sentient beings, represented by devas and humans. 2/ The Buddha perfectly possesses the provisional and the true, morality and concentration, merit and wisdom, understanding and practice; therefore, he is called the Honored One Possessing Both.

^[25] Four Heavenly Kings 四天王 (S: Caturmahārājika-deva; also called: Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings): the first of the six heavens of the Desire Realm and the first of all celestial abodes. The Four Heavenly Kings are: Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east, Virūḍhaka in the south, Virūpākṣa in the west, and Vaiśravaṇa in the north.

^[26] Wheel-Turning Sage King 轉輪聖王 (S: Cakra-varti-rājan): a king who causes the true Dharma to prevail in the world and rules the four continents surrounding Mount Sumeru. The realm governed by this king is prosperous and beautiful, and its people live in peace and happiness. The king travels in a precious chariot and fully possesses the seven treasures: the wheel, elephant, horse, luminous jewel, precious woman, householder, and army. He also fully possesses four virtues: longevity, freedom from illness, a handsome appearance, and abundant treasuries.

^[27] Ten wholesome actions 十善 (S: daśa kuśala-karmāni): 1- Not killing living beings; 2- Not stealing; 3- Not engaging in sexual misconduct; 4- Not speaking falsely; 5- Not speaking divisively; 6- Not speaking harshly; 7- Not speaking frivolously; 8- Not being covetous; 9- Not harboring anger; 10- Not holding wrong views.

^[28] Six non-Buddhist teachers 六師外道: 1- Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta: followers of the school of skepticism; 2- Ajita Kesakambala: followers of the school of materialism; 3- Makkhali Gosāla: followers of the school of naturalism belonging to the doctrine of predestination; 4- Pūraṇa Kassapa: proponents of the doctrine of amorality; 5- Pakudha Kaccāyana: followers of the school of sensationalism belonging to the doctrine of causelessness; 6- Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta: founder of Jainism.

^[29] Ten Grounds 十地: the ten bodhisattva stages taught in the Avataṃsaka Sutra. 1- Ground of Joy; 2- Ground of Freedom from Defilement; 3- Ground of Radiance; 4- Ground of Blazing Wisdom; 5- Ground Difficult to Conquer; 6- Ground of Manifest Presence; 7- Far-Traveling Ground; 8- Immovable Ground; 9- Ground of Excellent Wisdom; 10- Ground of the Dharma Cloud.

^[30] One lifetime from succession 一生補處 (S: eka-jāti-pratiboddha): one who has only one final birth remaining, meaning that after this present life, that person will attain Buddhahood in the human world. “Succession” refers to the highest bodhisattva position, that of an Equal-Enlightenment Bodhisattva, as in the case of Bodhisattva Maitreya.

^[31] Tuṣita Heaven 兜率天 (S: Tuṣita; also called: Tuṣita-deva Heaven): the sixth of the six heavens of the Desire Realm, measuring eighty thousand yojanas in extent. It is situated between the Yāma Heaven and the Nirmāṇarati Heaven, sixteen myriad yojanas from the Yāma Heaven. According to fascicle 6 of the Lokasthāna Abhidharma Treatise, the devas in this heaven constantly dwell in joy and happiness, possess abundant material provisions, and diligently cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path.

^[32] Three-thousandfold great-thousand world 三千大千世界 (S: tri-sāhasra-mahā-sāhasrāḥloka-dhātavaḥ): In the cosmology of ancient India, Mount Sumeru is regarded as the center. Surrounding it are four great continents, nine ranges of mountains, and eight seas; together these constitute one small world, extending from the realm of the First Dhyana in the Form Realm down to the wind-wheel beneath the earth. It includes the sun, the moon, Mount Sumeru, the Four Heavenly Kings, the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the Yāma Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Transformation, the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations, the Brahmā World, and so forth.

One thousand such small worlds form a small-thousand world; one thousand small-thousand worlds form a medium-thousand world; and one thousand medium-thousand worlds form a great-thousand world. It is therefore called the three-thousandfold great-thousand world.

^[33] Kapilavastu (迦毗羅斾兜; also called Ca-tì-la-vệ): the capital city where the Buddha was born and also the kingdom of the Śākya clan, now Tilaurakot in the Terai region of Nepal. According to legend, the sage Kapila, the founding patriarch of the Sāṃkhya school, also lived in this region, and the kingdom was therefore named after him. The city of Kapilavastu fell into ruin after being destroyed by King Viḍūḍabha of Kosala. In 1895, archaeologists discovered the ruins of Kapilavastu near the village of Ruminide.

^[34] The eighteen characteristics of trembling (Eighteen kinds of trembling characteristics 十八種震動相): eighteen characteristics of trembling produced by the six kinds of earth tremors. (The six kinds of trembling, 六種震動: shaking, rising, surging, quaking, roaring, and striking; 1. Shaking: moving restlessly; 2. Rising: gradually rising from low to high; 3. Surging: suddenly springing upward. These three refer to the forms of seismic movement; 4. Quaking: producing a continuous rumbling sound; 5. Roaring: the powerful roar of beasts; 6. Striking: producing reverberating, thunderous sounds. These three refer to the sounds of seismic activity. “Form” and “sound” each constitute one category, together called trembling).

Each of these six has three characteristics: minor (individual), intermediate (pervasive), and great (universally pervasive, equally pervasive). Thus, altogether there are eighteen characteristics: shaking, pervasive shaking, equally pervasive shaking; rising, pervasive rising, equally pervasive rising; surging, pervasive surging, equally pervasive surging; quaking, pervasive quaking, equally pervasive quaking; roaring, pervasive roaring, equally pervasive roaring; striking, pervasive striking, equally pervasive striking. “Pervasive” means that all four directions tremble, while “universally pervasive” means that all eight directions tremble.

^[35] Palāśa flower 波羅奢: a kind of tree with red flowers, regarded as sacred in Indian Brahmanism. Its wood can be fashioned into various implements used in sacrificial rites. Its deep-red sap may be used to make medicine or dye. Its leaves are large and green.

^[36] Akaniṣṭha 阿迦尼吒 (S: Akaniṣṭha): the highest heaven among the heavens of the Fourth Dhyana, the highest of the eighteen heavens of the Form Realm, and the ultimate heaven among those whose beings possess form. It is one of the eighteen heavens of the Form Realm and one of the five Pure Abodes. Above this heaven are the heavens of the Formless Realm.

^[37] Avīci hell 阿鼻地獄 (S: Avīci; also called the Uninterrupted Hell): one of the eight hot hells. The Chapter on Contemplating the Mind of the Buddha states: “This hell lies beneath the lowest level of all the hells. It has seven iron walls and seven layers of iron netting.

Within the seven walls is a forest of swords, and beneath them are eighteen prison chambers. The seven surrounding layers are all forests of blades. There are ten wardens.

Upon the thresholds at the four gates of Avīci hell stand eighty cauldrons, from which boiling molten copper surges and overflows. Sentient beings who kill their fathers, harm their mothers, or revile their six kinds of kin fall into this hell after death.” Why is it called Avīci hell? “A” means without, and “vīci” means interval; “A” means without, and “vīci” means rescue; “A” means extremely hot, and “vīci” means exceedingly sorrowful; “A” means without respite, and “vīci” means without cessation.

^[38] Māra and Brahmā 魔梵: the celestial Māra dwelling in the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations in the Desire Realm, and the Brahmā Heavenly King dwelling in the Form Realm.

^[39] Noble Eightfold Path 八正道 (S: aryaṣṭāṅgika-mārga): the eight right paths for seeking nirvana. This is the most representative practical Dharma teaching among the thirty-seven aids to awakening in Buddhism: eight correct methods or direct paths leading straight to liberation through nirvana. When turning the Dharma wheel, the Blessed One taught that one should abandon the two extremes of sensual indulgence and ascetic self-mortification and follow the Middle Way, which refers precisely to this Noble Eightfold Path: 1.

Right View: clearly seeing suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path, as well as the karmic results of good and evil; 2. Right Thought: correct reflection, free from thoughts of sensual desire, ill will, and harming; 3. Right Speech: abstaining from false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, and frivolous speech; 4.

Right Action: abstaining from killing and stealing; 5. Right Livelihood: abandoning wrong means of livelihood, such as spells, divination, and so forth; 6. Right Effort: forming aspirations and striving to bring what one has resolved to perfect fulfillment; 7.

Right Mindfulness: contemplating the four foundations of mindfulness according to either their distinct characteristics or their general characteristics; 8. Right Concentration: abandoning the unwholesome dharmas of the Desire Realm and attaining the First Dhyana through the Fourth Dhyana.

^[40] Mastery over Others’ Creations 他化自在 (S: Para-nirmita-vaśa-vartin): the sixth of the six heavens of the Desire Realm. The beings of this heaven fulfill their own pleasure through pleasures created by others; it is therefore called the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Treatise, fascicle 9 (Taishō 25, 122a), records: “The beings of this heaven delight themselves through the creations of others; hence it is called Mastery over Others’ Creations,” meaning that they freely exercise mastery over what others create.

This heaven stands at the summit of the Desire Realm. Together with the Maheśvara Heaven, which stands at the summit of the Form Realm, it belongs to the class of māra kings who obstruct and harm the true Dharma. It is the celestial Māra among the four māras and is called the Māra King of the Sixth Heaven.

^[41] Original text: Water of eight virtues, 八功徳水, also called the water of eight concentrations: water possessing eight excellent qualities. In a Buddha’s Pure Land are ponds whose water possesses eight qualities: clarity, coolness, sweetness, softness and lightness, moistening, peacefulness, quenching thirst, and nourishing the faculties.

^[42] Viśākhā 毘舍佉 (S: Viśākhā): the name of a star in Chinese astronomy, translated as “separate branch” or “nurturing growth.”

^[43] Evil discipline 惡律儀: an unwholesome unmanifest form that arises when, out of greed for profit or as a means of livelihood, one engages in such karma as killing living beings and so forth.

The Great Skillful-Means Sutra on the Buddha’s Repayment of Kindness, fascicle 6, lists twelve kinds of evil discipline: 1. Butchers; 2. Leaders of killers; 3. Pig breeders; 4. Chicken breeders; 5. Fishers; 6. Hunters; 7. Those who spread nets to catch birds; 8. Snake catchers; 9. Those who use spells upon nāgas; 10. Prison wardens; 11. Robbers; 12. Royal agents ordered to apprehend bandits.