解深密經

Chapter Four: The Intrinsic Natures ⁽⁶⁰⁾

At that time, the great bodhisattva Gunakara addressed the Buddha: “Blessed One, as you have said that a bodhisattva thoroughly understands the natures of all dharmas, to what extent may a bodhisattva be called one who thoroughly understands the natures of all dharmas? And to what extent does the Blessed One designate that bodhisattva as one who thoroughly understands the natures of all dharmas?” After the great bodhisattva Gunakara had asked this question, the Blessed One said to him: “Excellent, Gunakara!

You are able to ask the Tathagata about such a profound meaning. You wish to bring benefit and well-being to immeasurable sentient beings. Out of compassionate concern for the entire human world and the other beings of the eight classes, wishing them to obtain true benefit and well-being, you have asked this question.

Listen carefully. The Tathagata will explain to you the natures of all dharmas.

Brief Explanation.—

This chapter discusses the three natures, showing what is meant when the Buddha speaks of existence.

Canonical Text.—

Gunakara, the natures of all dharmas may be summarized under three aspects: first, the imagined nature; second, the other-dependent nature; and third, the perfectly accomplished nature. What is the imagined nature? It is the intrinsic nature and distinctions (60B) of all dharmas provisionally established through names, thereby giving rise, in accordance with them, to language.

What is the other-dependent nature? It is the characteristic of the dependent arising of all dharmas: when this exists, that exists; when this arises, that arises. Conditioned by ignorance, formations arise, and so forth, up to the arising of the entire great mass of sheer suffering.

What is the perfectly accomplished nature? It is the consistent suchness of all dharmas, a suchness that bodhisattvas must penetrate through the contributing conditions of energetic courage, correct attention, and non-inverted contemplation. Through this penetration, they cultivate progressively until they attain perfect realization at unsurpassed complete and perfect enlightenment.

Brief Explanation.—

This passage briefly explains the three intrinsic natures.

Canonical Text.—

Gunakara, consider a person afflicted with cataracts: the cataracts are like the imagined nature. The illusory appearances of hairs, strands, bees, flies, lettuce leaves, cassava vines, or the colors blue, yellow, red, and white seen by a person afflicted with cataracts are like the other-dependent nature. When that person’s eyes have become clear and are entirely free of cataracts, the clear nature of the eyes sees objects without distortion; those undistorted objects are like the perfectly accomplished nature.

Again, it is like a transparent crystal: if it is dyed blue ⁽⁶¹⁾, it appears to be an indranila jewel, and mistaking it for an indranila jewel causes people to become confused and deluded; if it is dyed red, it appears to be amber, and mistaking it for amber causes people to become confused and deluded; if it is dyed green, it appears to be a marakata jewel, and mistaking it for a marakata jewel causes people to become confused and deluded; if it is dyed yellow, it appears to be gold, and mistaking it for gold causes people to become confused and deluded.

Just as colors appear within a transparent crystal, so do the verbal habitual tendencies of the imagined nature occur within the other-dependent nature. Just as a transparent crystal is mistaken for indranila, amber, marakata, or gold, so does the imagined nature occur within the other-dependent nature. Just as there is the transparent crystal itself, so there is the other-dependent nature.

Just as indranila, amber, marakata, and gold are always and forever unreal and without defining characteristics within the transparent crystal, so, within the other-dependent nature, the perfectly accomplished nature is the imagined nature’s being always and forever unreal and without defining characteristics (61B).

Brief Explanation.—

This passage explains the three natures through two analogies. Considering the meaning of this sutra as a whole, as well as that of other sutras and treatises, the three natures may be described as follows. In its latent aspect, the alaya-consciousness consists of the seeds of all dharmas; in its manifest aspect, it consists of the active manifestations of all dharmas.

These dharmas are the other-dependent nature. Mistaking such dharmas for self and dharmas, that supposed self and those supposed dharmas are the imagined nature. Awakening to the fact that the alaya-consciousness as such remains suchness, that suchness is the perfectly accomplished nature.

It is like a clear jewel displaying every color: the display is the other-dependent nature; mistaking those colors for realities is the imagined nature; and knowing that the jewel remains clear is the perfectly accomplished nature. In other words, according to the canonical text, knowing that those colors are unreal is the perfectly accomplished nature.

Canonical Text.—

Gunakara, by taking as a contributing condition the correspondence between characteristics and names, one understands the imagined nature. Within the other-dependent nature, by taking the apprehension belonging to the imagined nature as a contributing condition, one understands the other-dependent nature. Within the other-dependent nature, by taking the absence of the apprehension belonging to the imagined nature as a contributing condition, one understands the perfectly accomplished nature.

Furthermore, if a bodhisattva can know the imagined nature within the other-dependent nature of all dharmas exactly as it truly is, then that bodhisattva knows the signlessness of all dharmas exactly as it truly is. If a bodhisattva knows the other-dependent nature exactly as it truly is, then that bodhisattva knows the defilement of all dharmas exactly as it truly is. If a bodhisattva knows the perfectly accomplished nature exactly as it truly is, then that bodhisattva knows the purity of all dharmas exactly as it truly is. If, within the other-dependent nature, a bodhisattva recognizes signlessness exactly as it truly is, that bodhisattva can destroy defilement; if that bodhisattva can destroy defilement, that bodhisattva can realize purity.

Brief Explanation.—

This passage discusses the contemplative cultivation of the three intrinsic natures.

Canonical Text.—

Gunakara, because a bodhisattva knows the imagined nature, the other-dependent nature, and the perfectly accomplished nature exactly as they truly are, that bodhisattva also recognizes signlessness, defilement, and purity exactly as they truly are. Because that bodhisattva recognizes signlessness exactly as it truly is, defilement is destroyed; because defilement is destroyed, purity is realized. To this extent, a bodhisattva is called one who thoroughly understands the natures of all dharmas, and to this extent the Tathagata designates that bodhisattva as one who thoroughly understands the natures of all dharmas.

Brief Explanation.—

This passage concludes by answering the two questions.

Canonical Text.—

At that time, wishing to restate the meaning he had explained, the Blessed One spoke the following verses:

If one does not clearly know

signlessness,

then defilement

cannot be destroyed.

If defilement

cannot be destroyed,

then purity

cannot be realized ⁽⁶²⁾.

Never contemplating

the faults of conditioned formations,

such heedlessness

harms sentient beings.

Thus, regarding the two aspects,

abiding dharmas and moving dharmas (62B),

indolence causes

what has been attained to cease to be ⁽⁶³⁾:

such ruin and loss

are truly lamentable.

Brief Explanation.—

This concludes Section One, which explains the nature of the existence of all dharmas.

Introduction to the Threefold Absence of Intrinsic Nature

Canonical Text.—

Chapter Five: Naturelessness ⁽⁶⁴⁾

At that time, the great bodhisattva Paramarthasamudgata addressed the Buddha: “World-Honored One, once, while dwelling alone in a secluded place, I reflected in this way: In many respects, the World-Honored One has taught the characteristics, arising, cessation, complete abandonment, and full comprehension of the five skandhas. Just as he taught the five skandhas, so too did he teach the twelve ayatanas, the twelve links of dependent origination, and the four nutriments.

In many respects, he taught the characteristics, full comprehension, complete abandonment, realization, and cultivation of the Four Truths. In many respects, he taught the characteristics, categories, varieties, complete abandonment, and full comprehension of the eighteen dhatus. In many respects, he taught the characteristics, the counteracting and the counteracted, the arousing through cultivation of what has not yet arisen, and the strengthening, further cultivation, elevation, and expansion of what has already arisen, with regard to the four foundations of mindfulness.

Just as he taught the four foundations of mindfulness, so too did he teach the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the Noble Eightfold Path. Yet the World-Honored One has also said that all dharmas are entirely without nature, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and nirvana by their own nature. World-Honored One, I do not yet clearly understand the hidden intent according to which you spoke in this way.

I now ask you about its meaning. Out of compassion, please explain to us your hidden intent in saying that all dharmas are entirely without nature, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and nirvana by their own nature.” Then the World-Honored One said to the great bodhisattva Paramarthasamudgata: “Excellent, Paramarthasamudgata! Your reflection is most reasonable.

Excellent, Paramarthasamudgata! You are able to ask the Tathagata about such a profound meaning. You wish thereby to bring benefit and peace to immeasurable sentient beings.

Out of compassion for the entire human world and the other eight classes of beings, and wishing to bring them true benefit and peace, you have posed this question. Listen carefully. The Tathagata will explain to you the hidden intent according to which the Tathagata said that all dharmas are entirely without nature, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and nirvana by their own nature.

Brief Explanation.—

Stated in different terms, the three intrinsic natures themselves are taught as the three kinds of naturelessness, showing what the Buddha means by emptiness when he teaches that things are empty.

Explanation of the Three Kinds of Naturelessness

Canonical Text.—

“Paramarthasamudgata, you should understand that it is on the basis of the following three kinds of naturelessness that the Tathagata, with a hidden intent, teaches that all dharmas are entirely without nature: naturelessness with respect to characteristics, naturelessness with respect to arising, and naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning. What is naturelessness with respect to characteristics? It is precisely the imagined nature of dharmas.

Why? Because that nature is established by provisional names and not established through an intrinsic characteristic; therefore, it is called naturelessness with respect to characteristics. What is naturelessness with respect to arising?

It is precisely the other-dependent nature of dharmas. Why? Because it comes into being through other things serving as conditions and does not arise by itself; therefore, it is called naturelessness with respect to arising.

What is naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning? In one respect, dharmas that are said to be without nature because of naturelessness with respect to arising—that is, dependently arisen dharmas themselves—are also called naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning. Why?

Because, among dharmas, the Tathagata calls a pure object of cognition the ultimate meaning; but the other-dependent nature is not a pure object of cognition, and therefore it too is called naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning. Furthermore, in another respect, the perfectly accomplished nature of dharmas is also called naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning. Why?

The selflessness of all dharmas is called the ultimate meaning. This ultimate meaning is also called naturelessness, because it alone is the ultimate meaning of dharmas and is revealed through naturelessness; therefore, the perfectly accomplished nature is called naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning ⁽⁶⁵⁾. Just as with a flower in the sky, so it is with naturelessness with respect to characteristics.

Just as with a magical illusion, so it is with naturelessness with respect to arising and with the first aspect of naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning. Just as empty space is revealed through the naturelessness of material forms and pervades all things ⁽⁶⁶⁾, so it is with the second aspect of naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning, for it is revealed through the selflessness of dharmas and pervades all things.

It is on the basis of these three kinds of naturelessness that the Tathagata, with a hidden intent, says that all dharmas are entirely without nature.

Brief Explanation.—

The entirety of section E2 explains the three kinds of naturelessness in seven smaller passages. The preceding is the first passage, explaining the three kinds of naturelessness.

Canonical Text.—

“Paramarthasamudgata, you should know that it is on the basis of naturelessness with respect to characteristics that the Tathagata, with a hidden intent, says that dharmas neither arise nor cease, are originally quiescent, and are nirvana by their own nature. Why? If the intrinsic characteristics of dharmas are entirely nonexistent, then they do not arise.

If they do not arise, they do not cease. If they neither arise nor cease, they are originally quiescent. If they are originally quiescent, they are nirvana by their own nature.

Within them there is not the slightest thing that may be called existent and must still be made to enter nirvana. Therefore, it is on the basis of naturelessness with respect to characteristics that the Tathagata, with a hidden intent, says that dharmas neither arise nor cease, are originally quiescent, and are nirvana by their own nature. Yet the Tathagata also bases himself upon naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning, as revealed through the selflessness of dharmas, when he says with a hidden intent that dharmas neither arise nor cease, are originally quiescent, and are nirvana by their own nature.

Why? The naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning revealed through the selflessness of dharmas is such that, always and eternally, the Dharma-nature of dharmas abides, is unconditioned, and is incompatible with every kind of defilement. Because the Dharma-nature of dharmas always and eternally abides, it is unconditioned.

Because it is unconditioned, it neither arises nor ceases. Because it is incompatible with every kind of defilement, it is originally quiescent and is nirvana by its own nature. Therefore, it is on the basis of naturelessness with respect to ultimate meaning, as revealed through the selflessness of dharmas, that the Tathagata, with a hidden intent, says that dharmas neither arise nor cease, are originally quiescent, and are nirvana by their own nature.

Brief Explanation.—

This is the second passage, which, on the basis of the three kinds of naturelessness, explains the statement that all dharmas are entirely without nature, neither arising nor ceasing, and originally nirvana.

Canonical Text.—

“Paramarthasamudgata, it is not because there are beings within the realm of sentient beings who separately regard the imagined nature as intrinsic nature, nor because they separately regard the other-dependent or perfectly accomplished nature as intrinsic nature, that the Tathagata established the three kinds of naturelessness. The Tathagata established the three kinds of naturelessness for those who superimpose the imagined nature upon the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature.

Because of the imagined nature formed in the past, those people now give rise to language with regard to the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature. In just the manner in which language arises, so too ⁽⁶⁷⁾ does language perfume the mind, language give rise to cognition, and language continue within the mind (67B); thus they superimpose the imagined nature upon the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature ⁽⁶⁸⁾.

Because, in whatever manner the imagined nature is conceived, in just that manner (68B) they superimpose the imagined nature upon the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature, they bring forth the other-dependent nature in the future—that is, they become defiled by afflictions, defiled by karma, and defiled by birth. Thus, within samsara, they forever race onward and revolve without ever ceasing, enduring every kind of suffering among the beings of the narakas ⁽⁶⁹⁾, among animals, hungry ghosts, devas, asuras, and human beings.

Brief Explanation.—

This is the third passage, explaining why the three kinds of naturelessness were established—or, in other words, for whose sake they were established.

Canonical Text.—

O Paramārthasamudgata, for those who, from time immemorial until now, have not planted roots of virtue, have not purified their hindrances ⁽⁷⁰⁾, have not brought their continua to maturity ⁽⁷¹⁾, have not extensively cultivated resolute understanding, and have not yet been able to accumulate the two provisions of merit and wisdom, the Tathagata, with reference to the non-nature of arising, proclaims the essential Dharma for their sake.

Having heard this essential Dharma, they are able, according to their capacities, to understand that conditioned phenomena arising through causes and conditions are impermanent, insecure, changing, and subject to decay. Having understood this, they become fearful of and deeply disenchanted with conditioned phenomena. Because of such fear and disenchantment, they restrain evil: they are able to put an end to evil and to cultivate what is wholesome.

By cultivating what is wholesome, they are able to plant roots of virtue not yet planted, purify hindrances not yet purified, and bring to maturity continua not yet matured; thereby they extensively cultivate resolute understanding and amass the two provisions of merit and wisdom.

Although they have planted roots of virtue and have even amassed the two provisions of merit and wisdom, they still have not, with respect to the non-nature of arising, truly and thoroughly comprehended the non-nature of characteristics and the twofold non-nature of ultimate meaning. That is, they still have not become rightly disenchanted with conditioned phenomena, have not rightly become free from desire, have not rightly attained liberation, and have not been liberated from the entirety of the defilement of afflictions, the entirety of the defilement of karma, or the entirety of the defilement of birth.

Therefore, the Tathagata further teaches them the essential Dharma concerning the non-nature of characteristics and the non-nature of ultimate meaning, wishing to enable them to become rightly disenchanted with conditioned phenomena, rightly become free from desire, rightly attain liberation, transcend the entirety of the defilement of afflictions, transcend the entirety of the defilement of karma, and transcend the entirety of the defilement of birth.

Having heard this further essential Dharma taught by the Tathagata, they are able, with respect to the non-nature of arising, rightly to believe in and understand the non-nature of characteristics and the non-nature of ultimate meaning, to discern and examine them, and rightly to penetrate them. That is, within the other-dependent nature, they no longer apprehend the imagined nature; their wisdom is no longer perfumed by language, no longer cognizes according to language, and no longer continues according to language.

They are therefore able to bring the other-dependent nature to cessation. In this very life they are sustained by the power of the wisdom described above and thus permanently extinguish the cause of future existence. That is, with respect to conditioned phenomena, they become rightly disenchanted, rightly become free from desire, rightly attain liberation, and are liberated from the entirety of the three kinds of defilement: afflictions, karma, and birth.

Brief Explanation.—

This is the fourth subsection, explaining the cultivation and realization of the three non-natures. Within it, two stages of cultivation and realization are discussed: the Stage of Accumulation and the Stage of Preparatory Practice.

Main Text.—

O Paramārthasamudgata, those whose dispositions incline toward the Śrāvaka Vehicle also attain supreme, secure nirvana by this path and this course; those whose dispositions incline toward the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and those whose dispositions incline toward the Tathagata Vehicle, likewise attain supreme, secure nirvana by this path and this course. All śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas travel together upon this single, subtle, and pure path and together attain this single, perfect purity; there is no second path or second purity.

Therefore, with reference to this fact, the Tathagata, with a hidden intention, declared that there is only the One Vehicle. This does not mean, however, that within the realm of sentient beings there are no differing dispositions, whether of dull, middling, or sharp faculties.

Therefore, even if a person whose disposition is that of a śrāvaka destined exclusively for nirvana receives the Buddha’s grace in establishing all manner of means to transform and guide that person toward vigorous cultivation, it will still never be possible to cause that person eventually to sit at the bodhimaṇḍa and attain unsurpassed awakening. Why is this? Because such a person possesses only an inferior disposition, is exclusively weak in compassion, and is exclusively afraid of suffering.

Being exclusively weak in compassion, such a person entirely turns away from practices that benefit sentient beings; being exclusively afraid of suffering, such a person entirely turns away from the vows that give rise to such practices. The Tathagata has never declared that those who entirely turn away from practices benefiting sentient beings and entirely turn away from the vows that give rise to such practices will sit at the bodhimaṇḍa and accomplish unsurpassed awakening.

Therefore, the Tathagata calls such people śrāvakas destined exclusively for nirvana.

If a person whose disposition is that of a śrāvaka turns back and directs themselves toward bodhi, the Tathagata, using another manner of expression, calls that person a bodhisattva. Why is this? Because, after attaining liberation from the afflictive hindrances, when awakened by the Buddha’s grace, that person will also attain liberation from the cognitive hindrances. It is only because, from the beginning, such people cultivated the means of liberation from the afflictive hindrances for their own benefit that the Tathagata describes them as having the disposition of a śrāvaka.

Brief Explanation.—

This is the fifth subsection, explaining the differing inclinations of those who cultivate and realize the three non-natures. These very inclinations give rise to śrāvakas and bodhisattvas, the Lesser Vehicle and the Great Vehicle, arhats and Buddhas, although the three non-natures are themselves the One Vehicle.

Main Text.—

O Paramarthasamudgata, thus it is that within the true Dharma which the Tathagata has skillfully proclaimed and clearly established, and which is spoken with the purest intention, many classes of people nevertheless form different understandings. The Tathagata originally taught on the basis of the three kinds of absence of intrinsic nature described above; yet, because of his profound hidden intent, in those sutras whose meaning was not yet complete, the Tathagata expressed the essential Dharma in veiled language, saying that all dharmas are entirely empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and by intrinsic nature nirvana.

(One) Regarding such scriptural Dharma ⁽⁷²⁾, those who have planted superior roots of virtue, purified their obstructions, continuously brought themselves to maturity, cultivated much resolute understanding, and accumulated the two superior provisions of merit and wisdom—upon hearing such scriptural Dharma, they comprehend, in accordance with reality, the words of the Tathagata’s profound hidden intent. They gain profound faith and understanding in such scriptural Dharma, and, regarding its meaning, penetrate it in accordance with reality by means of irreversible wisdom.

Then, relying upon this penetration, they cultivate skillfully and therefore swiftly attain the ultimate consummation. Toward the Tathagata, they develop profound, lucid faith and recognize the Tathagata as the Worthy One, the Perfectly Awakened One, who has perfectly awakened to all dharmas.

(Two) Those who have planted superior roots of virtue, purified their obstructions, continuously brought themselves to maturity, and cultivated much resolute understanding, but have not yet accumulated the two superior provisions of merit and wisdom, are upright by nature and belong to the upright kind. Although incapable of reasoning and discerning what should be rejected and what should be established, they nevertheless do not remain fixed in stubborn adherence to their own views.

Therefore, after hearing such scriptural Dharma, although they are incapable of comprehending in accordance with reality the words of the Tathagata’s profound hidden intent, they nevertheless possess resolute understanding of such scriptural Dharma and give rise to lucid faith. They believe that such scriptural Dharma was spoken by the Tathagata; that it is exceedingly profound and reveals profundity; that it accords with the principle of emptiness; that it is difficult to see and difficult to understand; that it cannot be investigated through discursive thought and is not a domain penetrable by such thought; and that it is subtle and authentic, penetrable by those of clear and discerning wisdom.

Regarding the meaning taught in such scriptural Dharma, they humbly say of themselves: “The Blessed One’s wisdom is exceedingly profound, and the Dharma-nature of all dharmas is also exceedingly profound. Only the Blessed One can skillfully penetrate it; it is not something that I am capable of understanding. The Blessed One teaches the Dharma to those of differing resolute understandings.

The Blessed One’s seeing and knowing are boundless, while my own seeing and knowing are no greater than the hollow of an ox’s hoof.” Thus they venerate such scriptural Dharma, explain it to others, copy it, preserve it, open and read it, disseminate it, cherish it, make offerings to it, study it, memorize and recite it, and review it, although they are not yet able to put it into practice through their own cultivation.

Consequently, although they are not yet able to penetrate the words uttered through the Tathagata’s profound hidden intent, they nevertheless thereby increase the two provisions of merit and wisdom, and in future lives they bring to maturity what has not yet matured.

(Three) Those who have not planted superior roots of virtue, and so forth, up to not having accumulated the two superior provisions of merit and wisdom, are not upright by nature and do not belong to the upright kind. Although capable of reasoning and discerning what should be rejected and what should be established, they nevertheless remain fixed in stubborn adherence to their own views. When they hear such scriptural Dharma, they cannot comprehend in accordance with reality the words of the Tathagata’s profound hidden intent.

Although they have faith in and understanding of such scriptural Dharma, they cling to its verbal expressions concerning its meaning, holding that all dharmas are definitively and entirely empty, definitively neither arising nor ceasing, definitively originally quiescent, and definitively by intrinsic nature nirvana. Consequently, with respect to all dharmas, they hold a view of emptiness and a view of the absence of intrinsic nature (72B).

Because they hold a view of emptiness and a view of the absence of intrinsic nature, they deny that all natures have any nature; that is, they repudiate the imagined nature, the other-dependent nature, and the perfectly accomplished nature of all dharmas. How is it known that they repudiate all of them? It is only on the basis of the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature that the imagined nature is established.

If they regard both the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature as entirely devoid of nature, they thereby repudiate the imagined nature as well. Therefore, the Tathagata says that they repudiate all three natures.

Thus, although they regard the Tathagata’s scriptural Dharma as scriptural Dharma, they regard what is contrary to the meaning as the meaning. Because they regard the scriptural Dharma as scriptural Dharma but regard what is contrary to the meaning as the meaning, they grasp the scriptural Dharma as scriptural Dharma and grasp what is contrary to the meaning as the meaning. Because they have faith in and understanding of the scriptural Dharma, their merit increases; but because they cling to what is contrary to the meaning, their wisdom declines. As their wisdom declines, they lose innumerable vast wholesome dharmas.

If someone hears them speak in a manner that treats the scriptural Dharma as scriptural Dharma but what is contrary to the meaning as the meaning, and then accepts their view, that person likewise regards the scriptural Dharma as scriptural Dharma but what is contrary to the meaning as the meaning. Because that person regards the scriptural Dharma as scriptural Dharma but what is contrary to the meaning as the meaning, that person, like them, loses wholesome dharmas.

Another person may not accept their view, yet upon suddenly hearing them say that all dharmas are entirely empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and by intrinsic nature nirvana, that person becomes frightened. Because of such fear, the person says that such scriptural Dharma was not spoken by the Buddha but was spoken by Mara. On account of this judgment, that person slanders and reviles such scriptural Dharma; and by slandering and reviling it, that person suffers great ruin and incurs a great karmic obstruction.

Therefore, the Tathagata says that those who maintain that all natures are wholly without nature—that is, who take what is contrary to the meaning to be the meaning—possess an expedient means for readily arousing great karmic obstruction, for they cause innumerable sentient beings to fall into lower states and to create great karmic obstruction.

(Four) Those who have not planted roots of virtue, have not purified their karmic obstructions, have not continuously brought themselves to maturity, have not cultivated much resolute understanding, and have not accumulated the two provisions of merit and wisdom, are not upright by nature and do not belong to the upright kind. Although capable of reasoning and discerning what should be rejected and what should be established, they habitually remain fixed in stubborn adherence to their own views.

When they hear such scriptural Dharma, they cannot comprehend in accordance with reality the words of the Tathagata’s profound hidden intent, nor do they have faith in or understanding of such scriptural Dharma. They therefore regard scriptural Dharma as not being scriptural Dharma and its meaning as not being the meaning. Because they regard scriptural Dharma as not being scriptural Dharma and its meaning as not being the meaning, they say that such scriptural Dharma was not spoken by the Buddha but was spoken by Mara.

This judgment causes them to slander and revile such scriptural Dharma as false and fraudulent. In many ways, they seek to destroy and overthrow such scriptural Dharma, and they regard those who have faith in and understanding of it as enemies. Formerly, they were obstructed by karmic obstructions; now, for the foregoing reasons, karmic obstructions continue to hinder them.

This karmic obstruction begins in a manner that appears simple, but afterward they undergo suffering for hundreds of thousands of kotis of nayutas (72C), and rarely find an occasion to escape.

Paramarthasamudgata, thus, within the true Dharma that the Tathagata has skillfully proclaimed, skillfully established, and spoken with an utterly pure intention, there are nevertheless such differing understandings among the various classes of people.

Brief Explanation.-

This is the sixth subsection, explaining correct and mistaken understandings of the three kinds of absence of self-nature.

Canonical Text.-

At that time, wishing to restate the meaning he had taught, the Blessed One spoke the following verses.

“All dharmas

are entirely empty,

neither born nor extinguished,

originally quiescent;

the self-nature of all dharmas

is always nirvana”:

how could these words of wisdom

not contain a hidden intention ⁽⁷³⁾?

The absence of self-nature in characteristics,

the absence of self-nature in arising,

the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning—

these three kinds

were the basis upon which

the Tathagata spoke the words above (73B);

if one does not understand

the Tathagata’s hidden intention,

one loses the right path

and arrives nowhere.

Those who attain purity

do so entirely through that path;

that path alone is unique,

and there is no second path.

On account of this principle,

the One Vehicle is established,

not because sentient beings

all possess an identical spiritual disposition.

Thus, among sentient beings

there are innumerable people

who bring only themselves

to nirvana;

and truly rare are

those of great compassion

who, vigorously and courageously striving,

realize great nirvana

without ever abandoning

any sentient being.

Within the uncontaminated realm,

wondrous and inconceivable,

liberation

is truly equal;

it is the consummation of truth

and freedom from suffering,

and thus it is also known

by two other names:

it is called either permanence

or bliss.

Brief Explanation.-

This is the seventh subsection, concluding the explanation of the three kinds of absence of self-nature.

Reception and Understanding

Canonical Text.-

At that time, the great bodhisattva Paramarthasamudgata addressed the Buddha: Blessed One, the words expressing the Blessed One’s hidden intention are truly most marvelous and exceedingly rare; they are subtle and extremely subtle, profound and extremely profound, difficult to penetrate and exceedingly difficult to penetrate. Now, according to my reception and understanding of the meaning taught by the Blessed One, within the conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends ⁽⁷⁴⁾, the nominal establishment of the self-nature and distinctions of the form skandha, the nominal establishment of the self-nature and distinctions of the arising of the form skandha, the cessation of the form skandha,

the permanent severance of the form skandha, and the complete knowledge of the form skandha—this nominal establishment is called the imagined nature.

Based upon this imagined nature, the Blessed One establishes the absence of self-nature in characteristics. Those very conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends are called the dependent nature. Based upon this dependent nature, the Blessed One establishes the absence of self-nature in arising and one aspect of the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning.

And thus, according to my reception and understanding of the meaning taught by the Blessed One, within those very conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends, one sees that the imagined nature does not truly exist. This nonexistence of the imagined nature—the suchness revealed through the selflessness of dharmas and serving as the pure object of cognition—is called the perfectly accomplished nature.

Based upon this perfectly accomplished nature, the Blessed One establishes the other aspect of the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning. Just as this has been explained concerning the form skandha, it should likewise be explained concerning the other skandhas. Just as this has been explained concerning the five skandhas, it should likewise be explained concerning each of the twelve ayatanas, each of the twelve links of dependent origination, each of the four nutriments, and each of the eighteen dhatus, namely, the three groups of six dhatus.

Now, according to my reception and understanding of the meaning taught by the Blessed One, within the conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends, the nominal establishment of the self-nature and distinctions of the truth of suffering and of the complete knowledge of the truth of suffering—this nominal establishment is called the imagined nature. Based upon this imagined nature, the Blessed One establishes the absence of self-nature in characteristics.

Those very conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends are called the dependent nature. Based upon this dependent nature, the Blessed One establishes the absence of self-nature in arising and one aspect of the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning. And thus, according to my reception and understanding of the meaning taught by the Blessed One, within those very conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends, one sees that the imagined nature does not truly exist.

This nonexistence of the imagined nature—the suchness revealed through the selflessness of dharmas and serving as the pure object of cognition—is called the perfectly accomplished nature. Based upon this perfectly accomplished nature, the Blessed One establishes the other aspect of the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning. Just as this has been explained concerning the truth of suffering, it should likewise be explained concerning the other truths.

Just as this has been explained concerning the Four Truths, it should likewise be explained concerning each of the four establishments of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the eight factors of the Path.

Now, according to my reception and understanding of the meaning taught by the Blessed One, within the conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends, the nominal establishment of the self-nature and distinctions of right concentration, and of the matters pertaining to right concentration—namely, that which counteracts, that which is counteracted, the arising of right cultivation that has not yet arisen, the stabilization of that which has arisen, and, through repeated cultivation, its elevation and expansion—this nominal establishment is called the imagined nature.

Based upon this imagined nature, the Blessed One establishes the absence of self-nature in characteristics. Those very conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends are called the dependent nature. Based upon this dependent nature, the Blessed One establishes the absence of self-nature in arising and one aspect of the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning.

And thus, according to my reception and understanding of the meaning taught by the Blessed One, within those very conditioned formations that are cognized by discrimination and upon which conceptual construction depends, one sees that the imagined nature does not truly exist. This nonexistence of the imagined nature—the suchness revealed through the selflessness of dharmas and serving as the pure object of cognition—is called the perfectly accomplished nature.

Based upon this perfectly accomplished nature, the Blessed One establishes the other aspect of the absence of self-nature in ultimate meaning.

Brief Explanation.-

The great bodhisattva Paramarthasamudgata’s reception and understanding comprise three subsections. The foregoing is the first subsection, explaining his reception and understanding of the three natures and the three kinds of absence of self-nature.

Canonical Text.-

“Blessed One, just as the medicine viśva ⁽⁷⁵⁾ should be included throughout all medicinal powders and elixirs, so too should this Dharma teaching of complete meaning—‘Because of the three kinds of naturelessness, all dharmas are entirely empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and by nature nirvana’—be included throughout all sutras of incomplete meaning. Just as colored pigment ⁽⁷⁶⁾ pervades every line of a painting, causing all those lines to have a single color—blue, yellow, red, or white—and also making those lines stand out clearly, so too does this Dharma teaching of complete meaning—‘Because of the three kinds of naturelessness, all dharmas are entirely empty, up to and including being by nature nirvana’—pervade all sutras of incomplete meaning,

causing those sutras to share a single savor and also making clear the incomplete meaning within them ⁽⁷⁷⁾.

Just as fine, well-cooked cakes and other foods acquire an especially excellent flavor when matured milk is added to them, so too, when this Dharma teaching of complete meaning—‘Because of the three kinds of naturelessness, all dharmas are entirely empty, up to and including being by nature nirvana’—is introduced into sutras of incomplete meaning, it gives rise to supreme delight all the more. Just as space everywhere has the same characteristic, namely, that it does not obstruct anything, so too does this Dharma teaching of complete meaning—‘Because of the three kinds of naturelessness, all dharmas are entirely empty, up to and including being by nature nirvana’—have throughout all sutras of incomplete meaning the same characteristic, namely,

that it does not obstruct the cultivation of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, or followers of the Mahayana.”

Brief Explanation.—

This is the second subsection, continuing the discussion of accepting and understanding the value of the three kinds of naturelessness.

Canonical Text.—

After the great bodhisattva Paramārthasamudgata had spoken thus, the Blessed One said to him: “Excellent, Paramārthasamudgata! You have skillfully understood the meaning of the extremely profound words of hidden intent spoken by the Tathagata. You have also skillfully illustrated that meaning with such analogies as the medicine viśva, colored pigment, matured milk, and space. Paramārthasamudgata, it is exactly so; it is exactly as you have said and not otherwise. You should accept and understand it in precisely this way.”

Brief Explanation.—

This is the third subsection, in which the Blessed One gives his affirmation.

Comparison and Exaltation

Canonical Text.—

At that time, the great bodhisattva Paramārthasamudgata again addressed the Buddha: “Blessed One, formerly, during the first period, while dwelling in the Deer Park at the place where the sages descended in Vārāṇasī ⁽⁷⁸⁾, the Blessed One, solely for those inclined toward the Śrāvaka Vehicle, turned the Dharma wheel on the basis of the principle of the Four Noble Truths. Although this was exceedingly wondrous and exceedingly rare, and although no human or deva in the worlds could turn it correctly, the Dharma wheel turned during that period was still surpassed by something higher, was still vulnerable to refutation, was of incomplete meaning, and provided a basis for controversy.

“Next, during the second period, the Blessed One, solely for those inclined toward the Mahayana, turned the Dharma wheel in an implicit manner on the basis of the principle that ‘all dharmas are entirely empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and by nature nirvana.’ Although this was even more wondrous and even rarer, the Dharma wheel turned during that period was still surpassed by something higher, was still vulnerable to refutation, was still of incomplete meaning, and still provided a basis for controversy.

“But now, during the third period, the Blessed One, universally for those inclined toward the One Vehicle ⁽⁷⁹⁾, has turned the Dharma wheel explicitly on the basis of the principle that ‘because of the three kinds of naturelessness, all dharmas are entirely empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and by nature nirvana.’ This is the most wondrous and the rarest of all. The Dharma wheel now turned is unsurpassed by anything higher, is no longer vulnerable to any refutation, is of truly complete meaning, and no longer provides any basis for controversy.

“Blessed One, concerning this extremely profound Dharma teaching of complete meaning that the Blessed One has expounded on the basis of the principle that ‘because of the three kinds of naturelessness, all dharmas are entirely empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and by nature nirvana’: if good men or good women, after hearing it, faithfully understand it, copy it, preserve it, make offerings to it, disseminate it, study it, recite it from memory, cultivate it, contemplate it in accordance with reason, and diligently apply themselves to its cultivation, how much merit will they generate?”

Brief Explanation.—

The comparison and exaltation section has two subsections. The preceding is the first subsection, in which the great bodhisattva Paramārthasamudgata exalts the three kinds of naturelessness by systematizing the entirety of the Buddha’s teachings into three periods—commonly called existence, emptiness, and the middle—and then asks about the merit of faithfully understanding, studying, and cultivating the three kinds of naturelessness.

Canonical Text.—

After the great bodhisattva Paramārthasamudgata had spoken thus, the Blessed One taught him: “Paramārthasamudgata, such good men or good women obtain immeasurable and incalculable merit, which is difficult to compare or comprehend. The Tathagata will now explain to you only a small portion of it. The amount of earth held upon a fingernail, when compared with the earth of the entire great earth, does not equal one hundredth, one thousandth, or one hundred-thousandth part of it, nor any fraction expressible through enumeration, calculation, reckoning, analogy, or upaniṣadam ⁽⁸⁰⁾. The water contained in the hollow of an ox’s hoof, when compared with the water of the four great oceans, does not equal one hundredth part of it, up to and including one upaniṣadam part of it.

“In the same way, the merit gained from hearing and faithfully understanding sutras of incomplete meaning, up to and including diligently applying oneself to their cultivation, when compared with the merit gained from hearing and faithfully understanding this Dharma teaching of complete meaning, up to and including diligently applying oneself to its cultivation, does not equal one hundredth part of it, up to and including one upaniṣadam part of it.”

Brief Explanation.—

This is the second subsection, in which the Blessed One exalts the merit of believing in, studying, and cultivating the three kinds of naturelessness.

The Name and Benefits of the Dharma Teaching

Canonical Text.—

After the Blessed One had given this teaching, the great bodhisattva Paramārthasamudgata again addressed him: “Blessed One, within the complete Dharma teaching of the Saṃdhinirmocana, by what name should this Dharma teaching be called? How should we reverently remember it?”

The Blessed One taught: “Paramārthasamudgata, this Dharma teaching is called the Complete Meaning of Ultimate Truth. You should reverently remember it by this name.”

When the Blessed One expounded this Dharma teaching, the Complete Meaning of Ultimate Truth, six hundred thousand beings in the great assembly generated the aspiration for unsurpassed bodhi; three hundred thousand śrāvakas, having left dust and defilement far behind, attained the pure Dharma eye with respect to all dharmas; one hundred and fifty thousand śrāvakas brought all outflows ⁽⁸¹⁾ completely to an end and attained liberation of mind; and seventy-five thousand bodhisattvas attained the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas.

Teaching That This Mind Is the Practice Capable of Contemplation

D1. Teaching Calming and Insight (Chapter 6)

Đ1. Teaching the Basis of Abiding for Calming and Insight

Đ2. Teaching the Objects of Calming and Insight

Đ3. Teaching Investigation and Skillfulness in Calming and Insight

Đ4. Teaching the Conforming Mental Application of Calming and Insight

Đ5. Teaching the Similarities and Differences of Calming and Insight

Đ6. Teaching Mind-Only in Calming and Insight

Đ7. Teaching the Separate and Combined Cultivation of Calming and Insight

Đ8. Teaching the Categories and Number of Calming and Insight

Đ9. Teaching Reliance and Non-Reliance on Dharma in Calming and Insight

Đ10. Teaching Calming and Insight With and Without Discursive Investigation

Đ11. Teaching Calming, Uplifting, and Equanimity in Calming and Insight

Đ12. Teaching Knowledge of Dharma and Knowledge of Meaning in Calming and Insight

Đ13. Teaching How Calming and Insight Encompass All Samadhis

Đ14. Teaching the Causes, Results, and Functions of Calming and Insight

Đ15. Teaching the Obstacles to Calming and Insight

Đ16. On the Attainment of Bodhi through Calm Abiding and Insight

Đ17. On the Manifestation of the Vast Majesty of Calm Abiding and Insight

Đ18. On the Cessation of All Feelings upon Entering Nirvana without Remainder through Calm Abiding and Insight

Đ19. Conclusion of the Discourse on Calm Abiding and Insight

D2. On the Bhūmis and Pāramitās (Chapter 7)

Đ1. On the Bhūmis

Đ2. On the Pāramitās

Đ3. On the Obstructions

Đ4. On the One Vehicle

Đ5. Conclusion of the Discourse

On the Basis of Calm Abiding and Insight

Notes:

Note ⁽⁶⁰⁾

Intrinsic nature: The main text reads “the characteristics of all dharmas,” that is, it discusses the three intrinsic natures. The three intrinsic natures describe every aspect of each conditioned dharma; they do not exist separately outside each such dharma. According to the Great Dictionary of Buddhist Studies (page 307), the three intrinsic natures may be stated and illustrated briefly as follows.

First, the imagined nature is an illusory appearance mistakenly perceived by ordinary beings, as when a rope is mistaken for a snake; this imagined nature is precisely the self and dharmas that arise through the deluded attachments of ordinary beings. Second, the dependent nature arises from contributing factors, as a rope is made from hemp fibers and all the supporting conditions; this dependent nature is precisely conditioned dharmas, which become manifest when seeds in the ālaya-consciousness encounter assisting conditions.

Third, the perfectly accomplished nature is the true reality of conditioned dharmas, as the actual substance of a rope is hemp fiber; this perfectly accomplished nature is precisely the true suchness of the Dharma-nature, realized through wisdom. It should also be noted that to say the Dharma-nature accords with conditions and becomes dependently arisen dharmas is regarded as the definitive meaning, whereas to say that the Dharma-nature serves as the underlying essence from which dependently arisen dharmas exist is called a provisional meaning.

Regarding these three intrinsic natures, “nature” means existence, but each nature exists in a different manner: the imagined is delusive existence (existing erroneously), the dependent is provisional existence (existing relatively), and the perfectly accomplished is true existence (existing authentically).

Note (60B)

Intrinsic characteristic and distinction: Here these mean characteristic (or the thing itself) and detail. Detail in particular is precisely what is abstracted from phenomena because they resemble one another (and is therefore also called a shared characteristic).

Note ⁽⁶¹⁾

Dyed blue: This may also be translated as “conjoined with blue” or “placed within blue.” “Placed within blue” is the wording of the Wei translation. The instances of “dyed” below are likewise.

Note (61B)

For clarity, this may be translated as follows: the perfectly accomplished nature is likewise—the perfectly accomplished nature in which the imagined nature is always and forever unreal and without intrinsic characteristic.

Note ⁽⁶²⁾

A literal translation is: “then the attainment of purity would be destroyed.”

Note (62B)

The abiding dharma and the changing dharma: nirvana abides permanently; samsara changes and fluctuates.

Note ⁽⁶³⁾

Once there is no further existence: once there is no nirvana, there is again samsara.

Note ⁽⁶⁴⁾

Lack of intrinsic nature: The main text reads “the characteristics of the lack of intrinsic nature of dharmas,” that is, it discusses the three kinds of lack of intrinsic nature, also called the three natures of non-intrinsic nature.

Note ⁽⁶⁵⁾

What is the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense ... is called the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense: There are three points to note concerning this sentence. First, there are two aspects to the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense: first, because the dependent nature is not the ultimate meaning, it is also called the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense; second, because the perfectly accomplished nature is revealed through the selflessness of dharmas, it is called the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense.

To express this more plainly, the ultimate meaning is not like the dependent nature (because the dependent nature is not the ultimate meaning), and still less is the ultimate meaning the imagined nature (because the imagined nature is the self and dharmas, and only when the self and dharmas have departed is the ultimate meaning revealed). Second, the expression “selflessness of dharmas” in this sentence reads in the main text, “the nature of the selflessness of dharmas in all dharmas” (hereafter the main text speaks only of “the nature of the selflessness of dharmas”).

Because this is the wording of the main text, it must be translated as “the selflessness of dharmas,” not “the absence of self in dharmas.” Yet the selflessness of dharmas (= emptiness of dharmas) already includes the selflessness of persons (more properly, it should be called the selflessness of the self = emptiness of the self), because when one realizes the selflessness of dharmas, one has already realized the selflessness of persons.

The lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense is the ultimate meaning revealed through the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of dharmas. Therefore, stanza 24 of the Treatise on Consciousness-Only says: “The latter is realized by becoming far removed from the previously apprehended nature of self and dharmas.” Third, that which is revealed by the two kinds of selflessness is the ultimate meaning (true suchness), called the purified object of cognition.

Purified object of cognition: see Note 47 again.

Note ⁽⁶⁶⁾

This analogy refers to the aspect of lacking intrinsic nature, the aspect of emptiness. As for the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate sense (that is, the perfectly accomplished nature), it should be understood as in the analogy given in Chapter Four: an undistorted scene seen by sound eyes.

Note ⁽⁶⁷⁾

Just as language arises, so it is: More explicitly, just as language arises in this way or that way, so it is in this way or that way.

Note (67B)

Continuously present in the mind: The term in the main text is anuśaya; here it means only what has been translated.

Note ⁽⁶⁸⁾

Superimposing the imagined nature: Here, as below, a translation strictly following the main text would be “attachment to the imagined nature.” Such a translation, however, does not accord with the word “superimposing” (augmentation) used above. “Superimposing” is therefore more accurate.

Note (68B)

Just as the imagined nature is, so it is: More explicitly, just as the imagined nature is this way or that way, so it is this way or that way.

Note ⁽⁶⁹⁾

Nairayika: It is translated as “hell” only by borrowing the Chinese conception of hell. A correct translation is “without happiness” (a world without joy) or “impossible to rescue” (a world from which rescue is difficult).

Note ⁽⁷⁰⁾

Obstructions: Here these are obstructions to wholesome roots, including karmic obstructions and retributive obstructions.

Note ⁽⁷¹⁾

Not yet continuously matured: wholesome roots have not yet matured continuously after being planted.

Note ⁽⁷²⁾

Such sutras and Dharma: Here, and throughout this entire short passage, this expression refers to sutras whose meaning is not yet complete (sutras of provisional meaning). “Sutras” means those sutras, while “Dharma” means the teaching within them that “all dharmas are entirely empty.” Interpreting this as referring to the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra would not accord with the meaning of the passage.

Note (72B)

Seeing emptiness, seeing the nature of emptiness: “Nature of emptiness” in the main text is properly “characteristic of emptiness.” Here, however, “characteristic” is another designation for “nature” in the three intrinsic natures and the three kinds of lack of intrinsic nature. In the main text, the three intrinsic natures and the three kinds of lack of intrinsic nature themselves are also sometimes, as in this short passage, all called “characteristics.” To regard all three intrinsic natures and all three kinds of lack of intrinsic nature as entirely empty is pernicious adherence to emptiness (a mistaken and harmful understanding of emptiness).

Note (72C)

Ten times one is ten; ten times ten thousand is one hundred thousand (lakṣa); ten times one hundred thousand is one million (dvilakṣa); ten times one million is ten million (koṭi); ten times ten million is one hundred million (madhya); ten times one hundred million is one billion (ayuta); ten times one billion is ten billion (mahāyuta); ten times ten billion is one hundred billion (nayuta). One hundred thousand koṭi nayuta is the number 1 followed by 23 zeros.

Note ⁽⁷³⁾

How could an intelligent person say these words contain no hidden intent?: A version closely following the main text would read, “What intelligent person would say that there is no hidden intent?” That translation is not as good as the one given here.

Note (73B)

On the basis of these three, the Tathagata spoke the words above: A version closely following the main text would read, “The Tathagata clearly taught these three.” That translation is likewise not as good as the one given here.

Note ⁽⁷⁴⁾

The conditioned formations cognized by conceptual knowledge and serving as the basis of imagination: This is a single term, meaning the conditioned formations that cognition cognizes and upon which attachment relies. Thus, it would suffice simply to say “conditioned formations.” Conditioned formations: see Note 38 again.

Note ⁽⁷⁵⁾

Viśvaka: a kind of divine medicine that causes other medicines to acquire miraculous efficacy.

Note ⁽⁷⁶⁾

Colored pigment: A version closely following the main text is “colored earth used for painting” (the ground of painting).

Note ⁽⁷⁷⁾

Further elucidating ... those sutras: clarifying the hidden intent within sutras of provisional meaning.

Note ⁽⁷⁸⁾

The Deer Park: This refers to what is commonly called the Deer Park.

Note ⁽⁷⁹⁾

The Vehicle of All: the vehicle that encompasses everything. Since the One Vehicle includes all three vehicles, it is so named.

Note ⁽⁸⁰⁾

Enumeration, calculation, reckoning, analogy, and upaniṣadam: For enumeration, calculation, reckoning, and analogy, see Manji 34/416. As for upaniṣadam, India has sixty numerical orders (China has fifteen), the final order being upaniṣadam.

Note ⁽⁸¹⁾

The outflows: these are the āsravas, another name for the afflictions. The most literal translation is “leakage.”