大般涅槃經

I. THE CONDITIONS LEADING TO NIRVANA

Thus have I (Ananda) heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying in the Hall of the Gabled House in the Great Wood at Vaisali, together with one thousand two hundred and fifty bhikkhus.

At that time, one morning, the Blessed One and Ananda dressed, took their bowls, and entered the city to seek alms. Having received alms, they returned to their former dwelling.

After finishing his meal, rinsing his mouth, washing his utensils, and putting away his robe and bowl, the Buddha said to Ananda: “Please carry my sitting mat for me. I now wish to go to the Capala Shrine and enter meditative concentration.” Having spoken these words, the Buddha went there together with Ananda.

Upon arriving, Ananda spread out the sitting mat, and the Buddha sat down. The Blessed One then sat in the full lotus posture^[2] and silently contemplated. Ananda also withdrew to a separate place not far from where the Buddha was seated, sat upright, and entered meditative concentration.

After a short while, the Blessed One emerged from meditation. He called Ananda and said: “Here in Vaisali are many greatly beloved shrines, such as the Udayana Shrine, the Gautama Shrine, the Amra Shrine, the Many Sons Shrine, the Sala Shrine, and the Capala Shrine.

“Ananda! One who has attained the four bases of spiritual power^[3] can remain for a full lifespan of one kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa. How much more, then, could the Tathagata, who now possesses great spiritual power, remain for one kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa?”

The Blessed One had thus opened the way for Ananda to request, “May the Blessed One remain in the world,” thereby instructing him; yet Ananda remained silent at that time and understood nothing.

The Blessed One earnestly repeated this three times, but Ananda remained bewildered and failed to awaken to its meaning. He did not request the Tathagata to remain for one kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa, bringing benefit to devas and human beings throughout the world. Why was this? Ananda had been deluded by Mara.

After the Blessed One had spoken these words three times and saw that Ananda’s mind still had not awakened, he fell silent.

Then Mara^[4] came before the Buddha and said: “O Blessed One! The Blessed One should now enter nirvana! The Well-Gone One^[5] should now enter nirvana! Why is this? Previously, when the Blessed One was on the bank of the Nairanjana River, I urged the Blessed One to enter nirvana. But when the Blessed One heard my entreaty, he replied: ‘My fourfold assembly of bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas, and upasikas is not yet complete and has not yet subdued the adherents of other paths; therefore, I shall not enter nirvana.’ O Blessed One! The Blessed One’s fourfold assembly is now complete, the adherents of other paths have been subdued, and all that needed to be done has been accomplished. Therefore, the Blessed One should enter nirvana!”

After Mara had made this request three times, the Tathagata replied: “Excellent! Long ago, on the bank of the Nairanjana River, I told you that my fourfold assembly was not yet complete. Now it is complete. Three months from now, I shall enter nirvana!”

Having heard these words from the Buddha, Mara rejoiced greatly and returned to his celestial palace.

At that very moment, the Blessed One relinquished his remaining worldly lifespan and, by the power of his spiritual abilities, sustained his bodily life for three more months.

Then the earth displayed eighteen kinds of trembling, celestial drums sounded spontaneously, and through the Buddha’s spiritual power a voice naturally proclaimed from the sky: “Before long, the Tathagata will enter nirvana.” When devas and human beings suddenly heard this proclamation, their hearts were filled with sorrow, and blood suffused their bodies.

Thereupon, the Blessed One spoke this verse:

All living beings without exception,

Following “existence,” undergo birth and death.

I, too, shall now pass through birth and death,

Yet not in dependence upon “existence.”

All conditioned and fabricated formations,

I now intend to cast away.^[6]

After speaking this verse, the Blessed One again sat in silence.

II. ANANDA’S ENTREATY

When Ananda saw the earth trembling, his heart was greatly afraid, and he thought to himself: “Why has such a sign suddenly appeared today? Such an event cannot arise from an insignificant cause. I should now go and ask the Blessed One!”

Having thought thus, Ananda rose from his seat, approached the Buddha, bowed his head and face at the Buddha’s feet, and said: “O Blessed One! A moment ago, while I was sitting alone over there in meditative contemplation, I suddenly saw the earth display eighteen kinds of trembling. I also heard the sound of celestial drums in the sky. My heart is deeply afraid, and I do not know the causes and conditions behind these signs. I respectfully beseech the Blessed One to instruct me!”

The Buddha said: “Ananda! The earth trembles because of eight causes and conditions. First, the earth rests upon water; the water is sustained by a wheel of wind; and the wind abides in space.

At times a powerful wind arises in space and blows upon that wheel of wind, causing it to move. When the wheel of wind moves, the water also moves; and when the water moves, the earth trembles. Second, when bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas, or upasikas who cultivate spiritual powers have newly attained accomplishment and wish to test themselves, the earth trembles.

Third, when a bodhisattva is dwelling in the Tusita Heaven and is about to descend spiritually into his mother’s womb, the earth trembles. Fourth, when a bodhisattva is newly born from his mother’s right side, the earth trembles. Fifth, when a bodhisattva leaves the royal palace, renounces the household life, cultivates the Path, and attains the wisdom of all modes^[8], the earth trembles.

Sixth, when the Tathagata attains the Path and first turns the Dharma wheel^[9] for human beings and devas, the earth trembles. Seventh, when the Tathagata relinquishes his worldly lifespan and, through spiritual power, continues to sustain his bodily life, the earth trembles. Eighth, when the Tathagata enters nirvana, the earth trembles.

Ananda! You should know that these are the eight causes and conditions through which the earth trembles!”

“Ananda! There are eight assemblies: first, the ksatriyas^[10]; second, the brahmins^[11]; third, elders^[12] and householders^[13]; fourth, sramanas^[14]; fifth, the Four Heavenly Kings; sixth, the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three; seventh, Mara; and eighth, Brahma. I observe the capacities of these eight assemblies. Wherever there are beings who wish to attain liberation, I manifest in a form suited to them and teach them the Dharma, yet they do not know that it is I who am teaching.”

“Ananda! There are eight spheres of mastery: first, while inwardly perceiving forms, one contemplates only a few external forms; second, while inwardly perceiving forms, one contemplates many external forms; third, while inwardly not perceiving forms, one contemplates only a few external forms; fourth, while inwardly not perceiving forms, one contemplates many external forms; fifth, one contemplates all forms as blue; sixth, one contemplates all forms as yellow; seventh, one contemplates all forms as red; and eighth, one contemplates all forms as white. These are the supreme methods for practitioners cultivating meditative concentration!^[15]

Furthermore, Ananda! There are eight liberations: First, inwardly possessing perceptions of form, one contemplates forms externally. Second, inwardly having no perception of form, one contemplates forms externally by considering them impure.

Third, the liberation through purity. Fourth, the liberation of the sphere of infinite space. Fifth, the liberation of the sphere of infinite consciousness.

Sixth, the liberation of the sphere of nothingness. Seventh, the liberation of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. Eighth, the liberation of the attainment of cessation.

These eight liberations are also supreme practices for those who cultivate meditative concentration. Whoever reaches the ultimate culmination of these practices attains sovereign mastery, free from obstruction, with respect to all dharmas.^[16]

Ananda! Do you know this? Formerly, when I attained enlightenment and delivered Uruvilva Kasyapa beside the Nairanjana River, Mara came to me and entreated me, saying: “O World-Honored One!

The World-Honored One should now enter nirvana! O Well-Gone One! The Well-Gone One should now enter nirvana!

Why is this? All those who ought to be delivered have already attained liberation! Now is precisely the time for the World-Honored One to enter nirvana!” Mara entreated me three times in this way, and I replied: “Now is not yet the time for me to enter nirvana!

Why is this? My fourfold assembly is not yet complete; those who ought to be delivered have not all reached the ultimate culmination; and the followers of other paths have not yet been subdued!” I replied in this way three times. Having heard this, Mara returned sorrowfully to his celestial palace.

Because of that former occasion, Mara has now come again and again to entreat me: “O World-Honored One! The World-Honored One should now enter nirvana! O Well-Gone One!

The Well-Gone One should now enter nirvana! Why is this? Formerly, when we were beside the Nairanjana River, I entreated the World-Honored One to enter nirvana.

But when the World-Honored One saw me entreating him in this way, he replied: ‘My fourfold assembly of bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas is not yet complete, nor have the followers of other paths yet been subdued; therefore, I shall not yet enter nirvana.’ O World-Honored One! The World-Honored One’s fourfold assembly is now complete, the followers of other paths have been subdued, and all that ought to be done has been accomplished.

Therefore, the World-Honored One should now enter nirvana!” Mara entreated me three times in this way, and I replied: “Formerly, beside the Nairanjana River, I promised you that until my fourfold assembly was complete, I would not enter nirvana. Now it is complete, and three months hence I shall enter nirvana.” Having heard me speak these words, Mara rejoiced greatly and returned to his celestial palace. Here, after accepting Mara’s entreaty, I relinquished my worldly lifespan and shall sustain this bodily life for only three more months.

Because of this cause and condition, the earth shook!

At that time, when Ananda heard the Buddha speak these words, his heart became exceedingly sorrowful, his entire body flushed, and he wept bitterly. He addressed the Buddha, saying: “O World-Honored One! I earnestly beseech the World-Honored One to have compassion on us and remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa, bringing benefit to devas and human beings throughout the world!”

Ananda entreated the World-Honored One three times in this way. The World-Honored One then said to Ananda: “Now is no longer the time for you to entreat the Tathagata to remain in the world! Why is this?

I have already promised Mara that three months hence I shall enter nirvana. How, then, can you now entreat me to remain in the world? Ananda!

You have attended upon me until now; have you ever heard me speak two different words?” Ananda addressed the Buddha, saying: “O World-Honored One! Never have I heard the Teacher of Devas and Humans speak two different words! Formerly, I heard only the World-Honored One teach the Dharma to the fourfold assembly, saying: ‘One who has attained the four bases of spiritual power can remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa.’ How much more so could the Tathagata, who possesses immeasurable sovereign spiritual powers, remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa!

Yet now he relinquishes his worldly lifespan and will sustain his bodily life for only three more months. I therefore earnestly beseech the World-Honored One to have compassion on us and remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa!”

The World-Honored One replied to Ananda: “It is because of you that I have now relinquished my lifespan! Why is this? Just a short while ago, here in this very place, I said to you: ‘One who has attained the four bases of spiritual power can remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa.

How much more so could the Tathagata, who now possesses great spiritual power, remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa!’ I earnestly said this three times to open the door for you to entreat the World-Honored One to remain in the world, yet you remained silent and never once spoke a word entreating me to remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa. Therefore, I shall now sustain this bodily life for only three more months.

Why do you entreat me to remain in the world only now?

When Ananda heard the Buddha speak these words, he knew with certainty that the Buddha had resolved to enter nirvana and could not be persuaded otherwise. His heart was filled with pain, sorrow, and anguish, and he wept bitterly, unable to restrain himself.

Seeing Ananda overcome by such great suffering and anguish, the World-Honored One consoled him in his Brahma voice: “Ananda! You should not give rise to such grief and sorrow! You should know that all conditioned dharmas are like this: every coming together must end in separation!”

The World-Honored One then spoke this verse:

All conditioned dharmas

Return to impermanence.

Loving unions formed through affection

Must ultimately end in separation.

Such is the nature of all phenomena;

One should not give rise to sorrow!

At that time, Ananda addressed the Buddha through falling tears: “The Teacher of Devas and Humans, the unsurpassed and greatly honored one, will soon enter nirvana. How could I not grieve?” Having spoken, he tore at his hair and cried aloud: “Alas, what suffering! The eye of the world is lost! Before long, sentient beings will lose their compassionate father!”

The World-Honored One again said to Ananda: “You should not now give rise to grief. Even if I were to remain for a full kalpa or for the remainder of a kalpa, after coming together we would still have to part and perish. Such is the nature and character of conditioned dharmas. You should not suffer especially because I am entering nirvana! I now wish to return to the Pavilion Lecture Hall; carry my sitting and sleeping mat back for me!” The World-Honored One then returned with Ananda to the Pavilion Lecture Hall.

III. ASSEMBLING THE GREAT COMMUNITY

The World-Honored One said to Ananda: “Go now and tell all the bhiksus dwelling around the Pavilion Lecture Hall in this great forest to gather in the Great Assembly Hall!”

Obeying the Buddha’s instruction, Ananda immediately went throughout the area and told the bhiksus: “The World-Honored One commands you all to gather in the Great Assembly Hall!”

When all the bhiksus had assembled, Ananda addressed the Buddha: “O World-Honored One! All the bhiksus have gathered. May the Tathagata know that the appointed time for the assembly has arrived!”

At that time, the Tathagata went from the Pinnacled Hall to the Great Assembly Hall. He spread out his seat, sat down, and addressed the bhikkhus: “In the past, I taught you all the Dharma teachings. You should constantly contemplate and cultivate those teachings, and never forget them!

You should cultivate the holy life in purity, uphold the precepts, and bring benefit and happiness to devas and the people of the world. Bhikkhus! You should contemplate the teachings I formerly taught you and not become indolent.

I taught the thirty-seven factors of the path, namely: the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the eight factors of the Noble Path.^[17] You should diligently cultivate and contemplate these teachings, for they can lead you to liberation!

“Furthermore, bhikkhus! All phenomena are impermanent, and bodily life is precarious, like a flash of lightning. You should not become heedless! You should know that before long, in only three months, the Tathagata will enter nirvana!”

The Blessed One then spoke this verse:

I wish to relinquish this body,

This body aged and frail.

Having now renounced the remainder of my lifespan,

I sustain my life for only three more months!

All those who should be delivered

Have now been fully delivered;

Therefore, before long,

I shall enter nirvana.

The Dharma I formerly taught

Is your teacher;

Revere and preserve it,

Cultivate it, and never forget!

You must be diligent;

How would that differ from my remaining alive?

Birth and death are exceedingly perilous;

Both body and life are impermanent!

Always aspire to the path of liberation,

And do not act heedlessly!

With right mindfulness and pure contemplation,

Fully uphold the prohibitory precepts.

Concentrate the mind and contemplate rightly;

Before external objects, restrain the passions.

Whoever can act in this way

Upholds the true Dharma,

Personally reaches liberation,

And benefits both humans and devas.

After the bhikkhus heard these words of the Buddha, their hearts were filled with anguish. They wept bitterly until blood suffused their bodies, and, overwhelmed by grief and distress, they addressed the Buddha: “O Blessed One! We respectfully beseech the Blessed One to remain for the full measure of his lifespan and not enter nirvana, thereby benefiting sentient beings and causing humans and devas to flourish. We respectfully beseech the Blessed One to remain for the full measure of his lifespan and not enter nirvana, but to open the eye of wisdom for sentient beings. All sentient beings have fallen into darkness; may the Tathagata illuminate it for them. All sentient beings are submerged in the great ocean of birth and death; may the Tathagata become a boat and raft to rescue them!”

Having spoken, the bhikkhus again flung out their arms, tore at their hair, beat their breasts, and cried aloud: “Alas, what suffering! Before long, the Tathagata will enter nirvana. In whom shall all sentient beings take refuge?”

The Blessed One told the bhikkhus: “All phenomena are impermanent. Affectionate unions must all end in separation. You should no longer entreat me to remain in the world! Why is this? Now is not the time for you to urge me to remain! You should fully receive and uphold the essential Dharma teachings I formerly taught you; then it will be no different from my remaining in the world!”

When evening had fallen, the Blessed One returned with Ananda to the Pinnacled Hall.

IV. THE BUDDHA MEETS THE LICCHAVIS

The next morning, the Blessed One put on his robe, took up his bowl, and entered the city with Ananda to seek alms. After collecting alms, he returned to the Pinnacled Hall. When he had finished his meal, rinsed his mouth, and washed his eating utensils, he went with the bhikkhus toward the village of Gandha.

The road to this village passed through the city of Vesali. As he passed the city, he turned, looked back toward it, and smiled. Seeing this, Ananda bowed his head and prostrated himself at the Buddha’s feet, then asked: “O Blessed One! When the Supremely Honored One smiles, there must surely be a cause. May the Blessed One instruct me so that I may understand!”

The Buddha replied: “Ananda! I smiled while looking toward the city because this is the last time I shall behold it!”

As the Tathagata uttered these words, rain suddenly fell from the cloudless sky. Seeing this, Ananda again addressed the Buddha: “O Blessed One! This is most wondrous. The sky is clear, without even the slightest veil of moisture, yet suddenly such a heavy rain is falling!”

The Buddha told Ananda: “Ananda! Do you know what this means? The devas in the sky heard me say that this is the last time I shall behold the city of Vesali. Their hearts are filled with anguish, and they weep in grief. These are the tears of the devas, not rainwater!”

When Ananda and the bhikkhus heard these words of the Buddha, their hearts again filled with sorrow. Overcome by grief, they fainted and fell to the ground, then addressed the Buddha: “O Blessed One! Today devas and humans suffer immeasurably. How can the Blessed One wish to forsake them all and enter nirvana?”

The Tathagata then comforted them in his Brahma voice: “All of you! You should no longer give rise to anxiety, sorrow, or suffering!”

The bhikkhus addressed the Buddha: “O Blessed One! Today is the last time the Blessed One will behold this city of Vesali, and before long the Blessed One will enter nirvana. How could we not be anxious, sorrowful, and anguished?”

Gradually, as people told one another, word spread even among the Licchavis.^[18] When the Licchavis heard these words, their hearts were filled with grief. Blood suffused their bodies; they flung out their arms, tore at their hair, beat their breasts, and cried aloud: “Alas, what suffering! The eye of the world is about to disappear; sentient beings will henceforth have nowhere to take refuge!”

They then said to one another: “We should now go to the Buddha and entreat him to remain in Vesali, abiding for a kalpa or the remainder of a kalpa, to benefit the devas and the people of the world.” Having spoken, they prepared their carriages and immediately went to the Buddha.

Upon leaving the city gate, they saw the Tathagata in the distance. They also saw Ananda and the bhikkhus weeping bitterly, sorrowful and distressed. The Licchavis were moved to still deeper grief and compassion. They approached the Buddha, bowed their heads and faces at his feet, and addressed him: “O Blessed One! Now that the Blessed One is about to enter nirvana, all sentient beings will lose the eye of wisdom. As sentient beings dwell in darkness, how will they discern what ought to be done? May the Blessed One remain for the full measure of his lifespan, for a kalpa or the remainder of a kalpa, and only then enter nirvana!”

They entreated the Blessed One in this way three times. The Buddha replied: “All conditioned phenomena^[19] are impermanent. Even if I were to remain for a kalpa or the remainder of a kalpa, I too would ultimately return to impermanence!”

The Tathagata then spoke this verse:

Mount Sumeru, lofty and vast,

Must ultimately wear away.

Though the great ocean is broad and deep,

It too must one day run dry.

Though the sun and moon shine brilliantly,

How swiftly they sink in the west.

Though the earth is firm and solid,

Bearing the burden of all things,

When the kalpa ends and karmic fire blazes,

It too returns to impermanence.

All unions born of affection

Must inevitably end in separation.

The Tathagatas of ages past,

Though endowed with indestructible vajra bodies,

Were also transformed by impermanence;

How could I now be any different?

Such is the Dharma of all Buddhas;

You should not entreat me further.

Do not, on account of me alone,

Give rise to anxiety and sorrow!

After the Blessed One had spoken this verse, he told the Licchavis: “You should calm your weeping and listen carefully to the Tathagata’s final words!”

Those members of the Licchavi clan said: “How precious, O Blessed One! We respectfully beseech the Blessed One to teach us, for we desire to hear.”

The Tathagata then spread out his sitting cloth and sat down cross-legged. The bhikkhus and those members of the Licchavi clan restrained themselves with effort and sat to one side. The Blessed One told those members of the Licchavi clan: “You should know that there are seven practices through which you will prosper increasingly day by day.

First, assemble joyfully and harmoniously, without opposing one another. Second, awaken one another and discuss wholesome deeds together. Third, uphold the precepts and observe proper decorum together.

Fourth, honor your parents and other venerable elders. Fifth, maintain harmony among relatives and defer to one another. Sixth, repair and make offerings to the stupas and shrines throughout the country.

Seventh, reverently uphold the Buddha-Dharma; esteem bhikkhus and bhikkhunis; and cherish and assist upasakas and upasikas. If anyone practices these seven dharmas, that person’s dignity and virtue will increase day by day, the country will flourish, and the people will rejoice. From now until the end of your lives, you should faithfully uphold these seven dharmas and never grow indolent!”

Those members of the Licchavi clan said to the Buddha: “O Blessed One! If, among these seven dharmas, our practice of even one alone would cause our dignity and virtue to increase, how much more so if we fully practiced all seven! How precious, O Blessed One! Now that we have obtained this blessing and benefit, we vow to uphold them throughout our lives and dare not neglect or forget them!”

The Buddha told the bhikkhus: “From now onward, you too should cultivate the following seven dharmas. First, dwell joyfully in harmony, like water mingled with milk. Second, regularly assemble together to discuss the sutras and Dharma. Third, uphold the precepts without giving rise to thoughts of transgression. Fourth, honor your teachers and the senior elders. Fifth, attend to the arrangements for, and cherish, those bhikkhus who practice in seclusion in aranyas. Sixth, exhort and guide benefactors to repair and furnish the Three Jewels and the resting places within the monasteries. Seventh, diligently and vigorously preserve the Buddha-Dharma. You should know that if a bhikkhu practices these seven dharmas, his merit and wisdom will increase day by day!”

“Bhikkhus! There are another seven dharmas that you should cultivate. First, do not engage in occupations and livelihoods like householders. Second, do not indulge in idle chatter or jesting. Third, do not delight in sleep and rest while abandoning diligence. Fourth, do not discuss useless worldly affairs. Fifth, keep far from unwholesome friends and draw near to good friends. Sixth, constantly maintain right mindfulness and do not give rise to wrong thoughts. Seventh, whenever you attain any realization within the Buddha-Dharma, seek to advance still further. If you practice these seven dharmas, your merit and wisdom will increase day by day.”

“Bhikkhus! There are another seven dharmas that you should practice. First, give rise to steadfast faith in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. Second, possess moral shame. Third, possess moral dread. Fourth, always delight in extensive learning. Fifth, keep the mind from restlessness. Sixth, delight in hearing the meaning of the sutras. Seventh, delight in cultivating wisdom. If you cultivate these seven dharmas, your merit and wisdom will increase day by day.”

“Bhikkhus! There are also seven ‘factors of awakening’^[20] that you should cultivate. First, investigation of dharmas. Second, vigor. Third, joy. Fourth, tranquility. Fifth, mindfulness. Sixth, concentration. Seventh, equanimity. If you cultivate these seven dharmas, your merit and wisdom will increase day by day.”

“Bhikkhus! There are another seven dharmas. First, contemplate impermanence. Second, contemplate non-self. Third, contemplate impurity. Fourth, contemplate suffering. Fifth, do not delight in the world. Sixth, do not become infatuated with the five sensual pleasures^[21]. Seventh, diligently cultivate the path of cessation, nirvana. If you practice these seven dharmas, your merit and wisdom will increase day by day.”

“Bhikkhus! There are another seven dharmas that you should practice. First, always perform benevolent deeds with the body. Second, always speak benevolently. Third, always harbor benevolent thoughts. Fourth, when benefactors donate any articles, distribute them equally without partiality. Fifth, delight tirelessly in expounding the profound and wondrous Dharma. Sixth, do not teach others worldly writings. Seventh, when seeing those who do not follow the same course of study, do not give rise to jealousy or hatred. If you cultivate these seven dharmas, your merit and wisdom will increase day by day.”

“Bhikkhus! There are another seven dharmas that you should practice. First, clearly distinguish the nine divisions of the teachings^[22]. Second, thoroughly understand their meanings. Third, practice the path and recite the teachings, each at the proper time. Fourth, whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, accord with the prescribed deportment. Fifth, when teaching the Dharma to others, assess your own capacity. Sixth, if brahmins, kshatriyas, elders, or householders wish to come and hear the Dharma, you should discern carefully and teach according to their capacities. Seventh, distinguish clearly between the foolish and the wise. If you practice these seven dharmas, your merit and wisdom will increase day by day, and you will then be able to preserve my true Dharma!”

At that time, the wives of the Licchavis heard that the Buddha would soon enter nirvana and that this was the last time he would behold the city of Vaishali. Their hearts were filled with anguish, and they wept bitterly. Together with five hundred members of their retinues, they prepared five hundred carriages laden with offerings. Every carriage was magnificently adorned: carriages drawn by white oxen were hung with immaculate white banners and canopies; likewise, carriages drawn by purple, black, yellow, and other colored oxen were adorned to match the color of the oxen. Once the carriages had been adorned, they proceeded one after another beyond the city and went to the place where the Buddha was staying.

The Blessed One saw them approaching from afar and said to the bhikkhus: “Do you see the wives of the Licchavis coming here in a grand procession, one group following another, magnificently and beautifully adorned?”

The bhikkhus replied: “Yes, we see them.”

The Buddha told the bhikkhus: “These are members of the Licchavi clan, elders, and their wives from this city of Vaishali. Their splendid bearing as they come and go is no different from that of the devas in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three!”

When those wives of the Licchavis reached the Buddha, they bowed their heads and faces at his feet. Weeping bitterly and unable to restrain themselves, they presented their offerings to the Buddha and said: “O Blessed One! We respectfully beseech the Blessed One to remain for the full span of his life and teach and transform sentient beings. If the Blessed One now enters nirvana, we who are blind and benighted will never be able to awaken. Moreover, our merit is scant, and we have taken birth in female bodies. We are constantly hindered, lack independence, and have no opportunity to remain continually near the Blessed One. Now the Blessed One is also about to enter nirvana, and our roots of goodness will diminish day by day!”

The Tathagata immediately replied: “From now until the end of your lives, you should diligently uphold the precepts as a person guards their own eyes. Keep your thoughts upright, and do not give rise to deceit, flattery, jealousy, or hatred. To do so is to see me always!” After the wives of the Licchavis heard these words spoken by the Buddha, their grief and sorrow deepened, and they could not restrain themselves. They then withdrew and sat to one side.

At that time, Lady Ambapali (Āmrā), whose countenance was upright and beautiful, foremost in the world, heard that the Buddha would soon enter nirvana and that this was the last time he would behold the city of Vaisali. Filled with sorrow and anguish, she wept bitterly. Together with five hundred members of her retinue, she adorned five hundred carriages and proceeded out of the city in succession, traveling to where the Buddha was.

At that time, the Blessed One saw them approaching from afar and said to the bhiksus: “Bhiksus! Lady Ambapali is now coming to me. Her appearance is extraordinarily beautiful and unequaled by anyone in this world.

You should all compose your minds, maintain right mindfulness, and not give rise to thoughts of infatuation. A bhiksu should contemplate the many impurities of this body: the liver, gallbladder, stomach, intestines, heart, lungs, kidneys, spleen, feces, urine, blood, pus, and so forth. It is filled with impurities.

Moreover, as many as eighty thousand worms dwell within it, while hair, bodily hair, nails, teeth, and a thin layer of skin cover the flesh, and its nine orifices constantly discharge filth^[23].... There is nothing whatsoever in it that can bring delight. Furthermore, the original basis from which this body is born is impure, and wherever this body goes, it causes impurities to flow forth.

Though adorned with colorful silks and perfumed with fragrant scents, it is still like a precious vessel filled with foul refuse. When the body dies, it swells and decomposes, its joints separate, worms within the body gnaw and consume its flesh, and it is pecked and devoured by tigers, leopards, owls, falcons, and other creatures. Foolish people of the world do not know how to contemplate it correctly.

Deluded by sensual affection, they cling to it until death and falsely give rise to lust for it. What wise person would delight in or desire such a thing?”

The Blessed One then spoke this verse:

Though adorned with necklaces^[24],

And decked with perfumes and flowers,

Feces, urine, mucus, and saliva—

Impurities fill it within.

Sentient beings cherish and cling to it,

Deluded and without awakening;

Like fire covered over with ashes,

Upon which foolish people tread.

The wise should keep far away

And give rise to no defiled attachment.

Lady Ambapali then came before the Buddha, bowed her head and face at his feet, and presented various offerings to him. Choking back her tears, she addressed the Buddha: “O Blessed One! I reverently beseech the Blessed One to remain for the full span of his life, to abide in the world and not enter nirvana, thereby benefiting devas and the people of the world. If the Blessed One resolves to enter nirvana, all sentient beings will have no one left to guide them, like a child who has lost its loving mother!”

The Blessed One then said to Lady Ambapali: “Such are the nature and characteristics of all conditioned things. You should not now give rise to sorrow and anguish!”

The Blessed One then taught the Dharma to all those who had come to hear him: “All of you! From this time forward, you should carefully observe the precepts and neither neglect nor transgress them. Those who break the precepts are despised by devas, nagas, ghosts, and spirits.

Their ill repute spreads everywhere, and people do not wish to see them. When among the assembly, they possess no awe-inspiring virtue, and benevolent ghosts and spirits do not protect them. As their lives draw to an end, their minds and consciousness are filled with fear, and even if they have performed a little wholesome karma, they are unable to recollect it.

Upon death, they follow their karma and undergo suffering in hell. Only after passing through many kalpas do they emerge, whereupon they must assume the bodies of hungry ghosts and animals. Thus they revolve ceaselessly through transmigration, with no knowledge of when they will attain liberation.

Conversely, bhiksus who uphold the precepts are revered by devas, nagas, ghosts, and spirits. Their good reputation spreads everywhere and becomes known throughout the world. In the great assembly, their awe-inspiring virtue shines resplendently, and benevolent ghosts and spirits constantly follow and protect them.

As their lives draw to an end, their right mindfulness remains distinct and lucid, and after death they are immediately born in pure realms.”

While the Tathagata was teaching this Dharma, sixty-eight thousand kotis of devas, human beings, and beings of the eight classes became free from the dust and defilements^[25] and attained the purified Dharma eye^[26]. Sixty bhiksus exhausted the outflows, their minds opened and attained liberation^[27], and they became arhats^[28].

The Blessed One then said to the Licchavis, their wives, and Lady Ambapali: “I now wish to go to the village of Gandha. You should all return to your dwellings. You should understand that all conditioned things are impermanent. You need only practice in accordance with the Dharma I have taught. Do not behave like children, weeping in grief and anguish!”

Having spoken, the Blessed One rose from his seat. When the Licchavis, their wives, and Lady Ambapali heard the Buddha’s words, they beat their breasts, tore at their hair, wailed, and wept. They followed the Buddha along the road and refused to turn back.

Seeing the depth of their loving attachment, the Blessed One realized that they could not be consoled with words. He therefore used his supernormal power to conjure a river overflowing with water. Its banks were deep and precipitous, its waves surged wildly, and its waters rushed swiftly.

At that time, the Licchavis, their wives, and Lady Ambapali saw that the Tathagata and the bhiksus were already on the opposite bank. They all became even more deeply moved, sorrowful, and distressed. Falling to the ground and rolling about in anguish, they quietly said to one another: “How strange!

Why has this great river suddenly appeared here, with waves pounding so terribly? Surely the Tathagata saw that we continued to follow him and would not leave, so he conjured it in order to block our way!” Unable to cross the river, those Licchavis, their wives, and Lady Ambapali became still more distraught. Sobbing, choking with grief, and bereft of hope, they returned home.

The Tathagata then arrived at the village of Gandha and sat in the forest to its north. He said to the bhiksus: “You should understand that there are four dharmas: first, moral discipline; second, concentration; third, wisdom; and fourth, liberation. Whoever has not heard of or understood these four dharmas remains life after life in the ocean of birth and death. In the past, had I not heard of and understood these four dharmas, I could not have attained unsurpassed perfect enlightenment!”

The Blessed One then spoke this verse:

Moral discipline, concentration, wisdom, and liberation—

Had I long remained without hearing of them,

I could not swiftly have attained

The unsurpassed, perfectly true path.

You should diligently strive

To cultivate these four dharmas;

You will end the suffering of birth and death

And become the foremost field of merit for devas and humans.

After speaking this verse, the Blessed One further distinguished and extensively explained the meaning of those four dharmas for the bhiksus. While the Tathagata was teaching these dharmas, twelve hundred bhiksus immediately exhausted the outflows with regard to all dharmas, their minds opened and attained liberation, and they became arhats.

V. THE FOUR TRUTHS AND FOUR DETERMINATIONS

Afterward, the Blessed One and the bhiksus all rose from their seats and proceeded to Elephant Village, Ambapali Village, Jambu Village, and finally to the city of Bhadrika. Upon reaching that city, he and the bhiksus proceeded in orderly succession and then sat down together in one place. The Blessed One said to the bhiksus: “There are Four Noble Truths that you should diligently contemplate: first, the truth of suffering; second, the truth of the origin of suffering; third, the truth of cessation; and fourth, the truth of the path.

Bhiksus! THE TRUTH OF SUFFERING consists of the eight sufferings: first, the suffering of birth; second, the suffering of old age; third, the suffering of illness; fourth, the suffering of death; fifth, the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks; sixth, the suffering of encountering those one hates; seventh, the suffering of separation from those one loves; and eighth, the suffering of the flourishing of the five skandhas^[30]. You should understand that because these eight kinds of suffering, together with all conditioned dharmas subject to the outflows^[31], oppress and afflict beings, they truly constitute suffering.

THE TRUTH OF THE ORIGIN OF SUFFERING: Ignorance, craving, and attachment are the fundamental causes of those eight sufferings. You should understand that this truth of origin is truly the cause of suffering.

THE TRUTH OF CESSATION: When ignorance, craving, and attachment cease, the causes of suffering are severed. You should understand that this truth of cessation is truly cessation.

THE TRUTH OF THE PATH: This is the Noble Eightfold Path: first, right view (true understanding and thought); second, right intention (true reflection); third, right speech (true manner of speaking); fourth, right action (true conduct); fifth, right livelihood (a true means of living); sixth, right effort; seventh, right mindfulness (true recollection and awareness); and eighth, right concentration. These eight dharmas are indeed the path of the noble ones. Whoever diligently contemplates these Four Noble Truths will certainly and swiftly leave far behind the ocean of birth and death and reach liberation.

Bhikkhus! Of these Four Noble Truths, those who have attained their ultimate realization should also strive to explain them to others. After I enter nirvana, you too should diligently reflect upon and cultivate them.”

While the Tathagata was teaching this Dharma, the defilements and karmic obstructions of five hundred bhikkhus were exhausted, their minds opened and liberated, and they became arhats. Through this Dharma, forty thousand devas in the sky became free from dust and impurities and attained the pure Dharma-eye.

The Blessed One again addressed the bhikkhus: “There are four principles for determining what has been taught: First, if a bhikkhu who delights in teaching the Dharma says, ‘I personally followed the Buddha and heard the Buddha teach this Dharma. I thoroughly understand its meaning, and I have retained, recited, and mastered it with great fluency,’ you should invite that bhikkhu to expound it. Yet, regarding the Dharma you hear from him, you should reflect upon it yourselves and carefully determine whether that Dharma accords with the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises on the characteristics of dharmas.

If that Dharma is found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should retain it and praise it as most precious. If that Dharma is not found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should neither retain nor praise it. You should know that such a Dharma was not spoken by Me.”

Second, if a bhikkhu who delights in teaching the Dharma says, ‘At such-and-such a place…I heard the Sangha of bhikkhus receive this Dharma. I thoroughly understand its meaning, and I have retained, recited, and mastered it with great fluency,’ you should invite that bhikkhu to expound it. Yet, regarding the Dharma you hear from him, you should reflect upon it yourselves and carefully determine whether that Dharma accords with the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises. If that Dharma is found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should retain it and praise it as most precious. If that Dharma is not found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should neither retain nor praise it. You should know that such a Dharma was neither spoken by Me nor by those bhikkhus.”

Third, if a bhikkhu who delights in teaching the Dharma says, ‘At such-and-such a sangharama^[32] or such-and-such an aranya^[33], there were many elder bhikkhus, all of whom were learned, accomplished in study, intelligent, and wise. They expounded this Dharma; I heard it, thoroughly understood its meaning, and retained, recited, and mastered it with great fluency,’ you should invite that bhikkhu to expound it. Yet, regarding the Dharma you hear from him, you should reflect upon it yourselves and carefully determine whether that Dharma accords with the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises.

If that Dharma is found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should retain it and praise it as most precious. If that Dharma is not found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should neither retain nor praise it. You should know that such a Dharma was not spoken by Me.”

Fourth, if a bhikkhu who delights in teaching the Dharma says, ‘At such-and-such a sangharama or such-and-such an aranya, there was an elder bhikkhu who was wise and learned. He expounded this Dharma; I heard it, thoroughly understood its meaning, and retained, recited, and mastered it with great fluency,’ you should invite that bhikkhu to expound it. Yet, regarding the Dharma you hear from him, you should reflect upon it yourselves and carefully determine whether that Dharma accords with the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises.

If that Dharma is found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should retain it and praise it as most precious. If that Dharma is not found in the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, you should neither retain nor praise it! You should know that such a Dharma was not spoken by Me.”

You should clearly distinguish these four principles for determining what has been taught, and you should likewise use them to discern teachings of the Dharma before transmitting them to others.

Whether I remain in the world or enter nirvana, and whether a teaching is false or true, you should use these principles to know clearly!”

The bhikkhus then addressed the Buddha: “How excellent, O Blessed One! From this time onward, we shall distinguish the words of the Buddha from the words of Mara!”

VI. PHẤT-BA-DỤC-ĐẾ OFFERS A MEAL

The Blessed One and the bhikkhus then rose from their seats and proceeded to the village of Cưu-bà. Upon reaching that village, He and the bhikkhus walked about in orderly procession and then sat beneath a tree.

At that time, the brahmins, elders, and householders of the village heard that the Buddha had arrived in their village, and they all hastened together to where He was. Upon arriving, they bowed their heads and faces at the Buddha’s feet, withdrew, sat to one side, and addressed the Buddha: “O Blessed One! Now that the Blessed One and the bhikkhus have come to our village, we believe there must be some special purpose!”

The Tathagata replied: “In three months, I shall enter nirvana. Therefore, after departing from the city of Vaisali and journeying successively through the villages and settlements, I have now arrived at this village!”

When the people heard the Buddha speak these words, they wept in grief and anguish. Overcome by sorrow, they threw themselves upon the ground, waved their arms, tore at their hair, beat their breasts, and cried aloud: “Alas, what suffering! The eye of the world will be lost! Before long, we shall lose our refuge and guide!”

Having cried out, they sobbed and addressed Him: “O Blessed One! We earnestly beseech the Blessed One to remain in this world for a kalpa or somewhat less than a kalpa.”

The Blessed One replied: “You should not give rise to such sorrow! Why is this? Such is the nature and character of conditioned dharmas. You should cast aside your grief and, with tranquil minds, listen as I teach the Dharma for the last time!”

The people then compelled themselves to restrain their tears, bowed their heads, and listened in silence. Among those seated there was a brahmin named Phất-ba-dục-đế, who was intelligent, wise, learned, and possessed an excellent memory. The Tathagata then said to him: “You should know that householders ought to cultivate four dharmas: First, they should honor their parents and support them with wholehearted filial devotion.

Second, they should constantly instruct their wives and children in wholesome dharmas. Third, they should care for and remain mindful of their servants, knowing whether they have the necessities they require. Fourth, they should associate with spiritual friends and keep far away from evil people.

If you constantly practice these four dharmas, you will be respected and cherished by others in this life, and in future lives you will always be born in favorable realms.

Furthermore, Phất-ba-dục-đế! Householders have four kinds of happiness: First, one who owes no money or property to others bears no countenance of shame. Second, a very wealthy person may be so miserly that he dares not use anything, providing nothing even for his parents, wife and children, relatives, or family members, and making no offerings to ascetics or brahmins. Third, a very wealthy person wears fine clothing and enjoys delicious food, knows how to make offerings to his parents, provides for his relatives and family members, and attends upon ascetics and brahmins. Fourth, a person commits no evil through the three karmas of body, speech, and mind, is intelligent and wise, and delights in extensive learning.

You should know that although householders possess these kinds of happiness, the happiness of one who merely owes nothing to others and of one whose mind is only miserly and covetous is called the lowest kind of happiness. The happiness of one who practices generosity is the intermediate kind. As for one whose bodily, verbal, and mental karma creates no evil, who is intelligent and wise, and who delights in extensive learning, that is the highest and most excellent kind of happiness.”

The Tathagata then spoke these verses:

Neither indebted nor miserly,

This is called the lowest happiness.

Possessing wealth and giving it away,

That is happiness of the middle degree.

The three kinds of karma are always pure,

With wisdom and delight in extensive learning;

That is the highest happiness of all,

Which the wise diligently cultivate.

From this day onward,

Until the end of your lives,

Let old and young instruct one another,

And practice those middle and higher Dharma teachings.^[34]

Notes:

^[1] The Mahaparinirvana Sutra is sutra number 7 in the Buddhist Canon.

Mahaparinirvana: Translated into Chinese as “Great Entry into Extinction and Rest,” “Great Extinction and Deliverance,” “Great Perfect Quiescence and Entry,” and so forth. “Great” is a term praising the profound and vast nature of “quiescent extinction”; “extinction” means the extinction of afflictions in body and mind; “rest” means peaceful repose; “deliverance” means crossing beyond the ocean of birth and death; “perfect quiescence” means that merit and virtue are complete and afflictions have been extinguished; and “entry” means proceeding toward the state of quiescent extinction. In brief, virtue and wisdom are complete, afflictions are utterly ended, and one realizes and enters the lofty, profound, vast state of luminous tranquility.

This sutra consists of three fascicles: upper, middle, and lower. Because we found the meaning and wording of the sutra to be continuous, in translating it we have not followed the former division into separate fascicles. Nevertheless, at the end of each former fascicle, we have made a note in order to preserve the old divisions. Furthermore, to facilitate understanding and recollection, we have added headings and a summary of each passage in the sutra. (Translator’s note)

^[2] Full lotus posture: Sitting cross-legged, with both feet crossed and placed upon the opposite thighs.

^[3] The four bases of spiritual power: Also called the four bases of accomplishment: aspiration, mindfulness, diligence, and wisdom.

^[4] Mara King: The ruler among the heavenly maras, namely the celestial sovereign of the Heaven of Freely Enjoying Others’ Emanations, the sixth heaven of the Desire Realm. That Mara king frequently urges his retinue to descend into the human world and obstruct the Buddha’s path; he is therefore also called Papiyan. In the Mahayana, however, he is regarded as a bodhisattva who, through great skillful means, manifests as the Mara king in order to teach and transform sentient beings.

^[5] Sugata: One of the Buddha’s ten epithets, meaning “Well-Gone.” That is, using omniscient wisdom as his vehicle, he travels the Noble Eightfold Path and swiftly reaches nirvana; therefore, he is called the “Sugata.”

^[6] Existence: This refers to karma associated with outflows. It means that sentient beings undergo birth, death, and cyclic existence because they have been permeated and drawn onward by unwholesome actions. The Blessed One also possesses a body within birth and death, but he assumed it in order to deliver sentient beings, and he has already attained the state free from outflows. He now wishes to return this temporary body, formed by the conjunction of the four great elements, to its original constituents.

^[7] This section selects the essential meanings from the main text so that Buddhist readers may easily understand and remember them after reading each passage. Since these are merely summaries, Buddhist readers who wish to recite the text should recite the main text and omit this section. (Translator’s note)

^[8] Wisdom of all modes: That is, the Buddha’s wisdom, meaning the wisdom that thoroughly knows all dharmas.

^[9] Turning the Dharma wheel: The Buddha’s teaching is called the “Dharma wheel”; to transmit and proclaim that teaching is called “turning” it. This means that the Buddha’s teaching revolves throughout the realm of sentient beings and shatters their afflictions. Here, “turning” also means turning the Dharma within one’s own mind and transmitting it into the minds of others.

^[10] Kshatriya: The royal and warrior caste, the second of India’s four castes.

^[11] Brahmin: The priestly caste of Hinduism, translated into Chinese as “one of pure conduct,” “one of pure aspiration,” or “one of tranquil aspiration.” It is the first of India’s four castes.

^[12] Elder: In Sanskrit, Drha-pati. This is a common designation for a person who possesses abundant wealth and ample virtue. Fascicle 10 of the Profound Eulogy of the Lotus Sutra says: “An elder is one whose mind is impartial, whose nature is upright, whose speech is truthful, whose actions are diligent, whose years are many, and whose wealth is abundant.”

^[13] Lay practitioner: In Sanskrit, Kulapati. This is a wealthy person who remains at home and does not engage in worldly affairs; a recluse who stays in his own home and does not enter government service; or a householder who aspires to the Buddha’s path. Fascicle 10 of the Profound Eulogy of the Lotus Sutra says: “One who observes the path, is naturally serene, accumulates virtue, and has few desires is called a lay practitioner.”

^[14] Shramana: Formerly translated as “one whose mind has come to rest,” “one of tranquil aspiration,” “a mendicant of the path,” and so forth. It is now translated as “toil” or “diligent cessation.” All these terms refer to a practitioner who diligently cultivates, restrains and extinguishes the afflictions of the mind, renders the spirit tranquil and pure, and laboriously and assiduously advances in cultivating the path of liberation—the Buddha’s path.

^[15] This discusses how, on the basis of eight meditative concentrations, superior knowledge and superior vision arise so that attachment and craving may be relinquished. The general meaning is as follows: 1/ When one’s path has not yet developed, one should first emphasize contemplation of one’s own body and mind, without yet contemplating forms external to one’s body and mind, or doing so only to a limited degree. For example, if one’s contemplation of one’s own body as impure is not yet penetrating and firmly established, one should not yet go—or should go only to a limited extent—to view the corpses of others, lest fear arise and cause one to regress. 2/ As the path gradually advances,

extensive contemplation of oneself and others causes no harm. 3/ As the path gradually attains a sublime state, even though one contemplates external forms, not the slightest trace of form remains in the mind. 4/ Advancing still further, even though one extensively contemplates external forms, not the slightest trace of form remains in the mind.

The four contemplations above include both purity and impurity. In the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth contemplations, however, the path has truly attained the sublime state: there is no longer attachment to the characteristics of dharmas, and transformation occurs freely and without obstruction.

^[16] These are eight contemplative practices that help practitioners of meditative concentration attain liberation. Their general meaning is as follows: 1/ When thoughts of craving for form are present in one’s mind, and one wishes to eliminate them and attain liberation, one goes to view a dead person’s putrid, swollen corpse, and so forth. 2/ Wishing to become still more firmly established in liberation, even though thoughts of craving for form do not arise in one’s mind, one nevertheless continues to view such corpses, and so forth. 3/ One contemplates pure forms and eliminates perceptions of impurity.

Of the three preceding contemplations, the first arises on the basis of the first dhyana concentration and takes forms of the Desire Realm as its objects; the second arises on the basis of the second dhyana concentration and takes forms of the first dhyana as its objects; the third arises on the basis of the fourth dhyana and takes forms of the Desire Realm as its objects, but regards them as impure. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh contemplations of liberation arise on the basis of the four concentrations of the Formless Realm.

Within the attainment of those concentrations, one contemplates suffering, emptiness, impermanence, and non-self, gives rise to disenchantment, and relinquishes them; therefore, these are called liberations. The eighth contemplation of liberation, the cessation of feeling and perception, relies upon the fourth dhyana and relinquishes all objects of cognition within the concentration of neither perception nor non-perception; therefore, it is called liberation.

^[17] The thirty-seven factors of the path: a/ The four foundations of mindfulness: contemplating the body as impure, feeling as suffering, the mind as impermanent, and dharmas as non-self. b/ The four right efforts: causing evil that has arisen to cease swiftly; preventing evil that has not arisen from arising; causing good that has not arisen to arise swiftly;

and causing good that has arisen to increase and develop. c/ The four bases of spiritual power: aspiration, mindfulness, diligence, and wisdom. d/ The five faculties: faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. e/ The five powers: These are also the five faculties, but are so named when discussed from the standpoint of their function as antidotes. f/ The seven factors of awakening: investigation of dharmas, diligence, joy, tranquility, mindfulness, concentration, and equanimity. g/ The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

^[18] Licchavi: The name of the royal and official clan of the city of Vaishali.

^[19] Conditioned dharmas: Things produced through causes and conditions.

^[20] Factors of awakening: Thoughts of awakening; namely, the seven factors of awakening.

^[21] Five desires: The five kinds of craving: wealth, beauty, fame, food and drink, and sleep and rest. Alternatively, they are form, sound, fragrance, taste, and touch—the five sense objects.

^[22] Ninefold Dharma (that is, the nine divisions of scripture): The nine divisions of scripture. The scriptures are classified into twelve divisions of the teaching: 1/ Sutra (契經: discourses in prose). 2/ Geya (reiterative verse: verses restating the meaning of the prose). Gatha (independent verse: a four-line verse standing on its own, unconnected with prose). 3/ Nidana (causes and conditions).

Itivrttaka (accounts of past events: recounting events from previous lives). 6/ Jataka (birth stories: the Buddha himself recounts the causes and conditions of his former lives). 7/ Adbhuta-dharma (marvelous events: accounts of rare and extraordinary deeds). 8/ Avadana (parables). 9/ Upadesa (expositions of doctrine). 10/ Udana (spontaneous utterances: teachings spoken by the Buddha himself without waiting for anyone to ask). 11/ Vaipulya (extensive teaching: texts that expound the proper, vast truth; that is, the Mahayana teaching). 12/ Vyakarana (prophecies of future attainment).

Nevertheless, in some classifications the Hinayana omits Vaipulya, Vyakarana, and Udana, leaving nine divisions, called the ninefold Dharma (or the nine divisions of scripture). In some Mahayana classifications, Nidana, Avadana, and Upadesa are omitted, likewise leaving nine divisions.

^[23] Nine orifices constantly discharging: The human body has nine openings that constantly discharge impure substances: the two eyes, two nostrils, the mouth, and the places of defecation and urination.

^[24] Jeweled necklace: In Sanskrit it is called Keyura, a necklace made of jewels and worn around the neck or body.

^[25] Defilements: This refers to the afflictions, but here it commonly refers specifically to the eighty-eight fetters belonging to the delusions of views.

^[26] Purity of the Dharma-eye: This means seeing the truth clearly.

^[27] The karma of the outflows was exhausted, and their minds opened to understanding: Practitioners of the Three Vehicles use noble wisdom to completely eliminate the afflictions produced through the faculty of mind, whereupon the mind becomes open, illuminated, and liberated.

^[28] Arhat (Arahat): The fourth of the four fruits attained by shravakas. Arhat is translated into Chinese as “Non-arising” (elsewhere also called “Birthless”). It means that the karmic retribution of a single lifetime has been completely extinguished, one enters nirvana forever, and is no longer reborn within the three realms.

^[29] See the main text.

^[30] Five skandhas: Form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.

^[31] Conditioned dharmas with outflows: “Outflow” is a specific term for the afflictions. Things that contain afflictions are called “with outflows.” All phenomena in the world are dharmas with outflows.

^[32] Sangharama: Translated into Chinese as “garden of the assembly,” a garden or forest where the Sangha resides. Today it is commonly understood to mean a monastery.

^[33] Aranya: A general designation for monasteries, the dwelling places of bhikshus. Strictly speaking, however, an aranya is a secluded and tranquil place; it is therefore translated into Chinese as “place of peaceful solitude.”

^[34] Here ends the first fascicle.