大般涅槃經

CHAPTER ON BODHISATTVA KING OF LOFTY VIRTUE, RADIANT LIGHT UNIVERSALLY ILLUMINATING

Chapter Ten — Part Three

“Moreover, good man! Although all ordinary beings skillfully guard and protect body and mind, they still give rise to three kinds of evil thoughts. Because of these causes and conditions, even though they may eliminate their afflictions and be born in the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, afterward they still fall back into the three evil realms.

“Good man! It is as though a person crossing the great ocean has nearly reached the farther shore, but sinks into the water and dies. Ordinary beings are also like this: just as they are about to escape the Three Realms, they fall back into the three evil realms. Why is this? Because they lack wholesome thoughts. What are wholesome thoughts? They are the six recollections. The wholesome minds of ordinary beings are weak, while their unwholesome minds are powerful. Because their wholesome minds are weak, their minds of wisdom are feeble. Because their minds of wisdom are feeble, the outflows increase.

“Great Bodhisattvas possess the pure eye of wisdom. They clearly see the faults of the three kinds of evil thoughts and know that these three kinds of evil thoughts cause great harm, constantly making sentient beings hostile to the Three Vehicles. Because of the causes and conditions of these three kinds of evil thoughts, immeasurable ordinary beings are unable to perceive Buddha-nature. Throughout immeasurable kalpas, they give rise to inverted views, believing that the Buddha, the World-Honored One, does not possess permanence, bliss, or self, but possesses only purity; and that the Tathagata relinquishes everything and enters nirvana.

“All sentient beings lack permanence, bliss, self, and purity, yet because of their inverted views they say that permanence, bliss, self, and purity exist. In truth, the Three Vehicles do not exist, yet because of their inverted views they say that the Three Vehicles exist. In truth, there is one true and unfailing path, yet because of their inverted views they say that it does not exist.

“All Buddhas and bodhisattvas constantly rebuke these three kinds of evil thoughts. They continually harm oneself as well as others. If these three kinds of evil thoughts are present, all evil deeds continually arise from them. These three kinds of evil thoughts are three cords that bind sentient beings within the boundless cycle of birth and death. Great Bodhisattvas constantly contemplate the three kinds of evil thoughts in this way.

“If, at some time, causes and conditions arise that would give rise to thoughts of sensual desire, the bodhisattva simply remains silent and does not accept them. Just as a clean and pure person would never take hold of filthy excrement; as no one would grasp a red-hot iron ball; as a person of the brahmin caste would not eat beef; as one who has eaten his fill would not eat unpalatable food; and as a wheel-turning king would not sit together with chandalas, so too does the bodhisattva despise the three kinds of evil thoughts, neither accepting them nor taking delight in them.

“Why is this? Because the bodhisattva reflects: ‘Sentient beings all know me to be an excellent field in which they may plant blessings. How could I accept these evil phenomena? If I accepted evil thoughts, I could not be an excellent field of merit for sentient beings. Although I do not proclaim myself to be an excellent field of merit, when sentient beings see my appearance, they immediately say that I am an excellent field of merit. If I now give rise to such evil thoughts, I would be deceiving all sentient beings.

“‘In the past, because I practiced deception, I passed through immeasurable kalpas wandering in birth and death and falling into the three evil realms. If I were to accept the faithful offerings of others with an evil mind, all devas and sages who have attained the five supernormal powers would certainly know this and rebuke me. If I were to give rise to evil thoughts while accepting the faithful offerings of others, I would cause the merit and blessings of the donors to diminish, or they might receive no merit or blessings whatsoever. If I were to accept a donor’s offerings with an evil mind, I would certainly become an enemy of that donor. All those who make offerings to me continually cherish and revere me as their own child. How could I deceive them and become hostile toward them?

“‘Why is this called becoming hostile toward them? Because I would cause them to receive no meritorious reward, or only a small meritorious reward.

“‘I continually call myself one who has gone forth. One who has gone forth should not give rise to an evil mind; if one gives rise to an evil mind, one is not truly one who has gone forth. The words of one who has gone forth must accord with one’s actions; if one’s words and actions do not accord, one is not truly one who has gone forth. I have left behind my parents, brothers, wife, children, relatives, friends, and others, and have gone forth to cultivate and study the path. This is precisely the time to cultivate wholesome thoughts, not the time to cultivate unwholesome thoughts.

“‘It is as though someone goes out to sea in search of precious jewels but does not take genuine jewels and instead takes only glass; or as though someone leaves a place filled with sublime music and goes to amuse himself in a place filled with excrement; as though someone rejects a noble maiden and has illicit relations with a servant girl; as though someone discards a golden vessel and uses an earthenware vessel; as though someone casts away ambrosia and takes poison; or as though someone abandons a skilled physician who has long been a close friend and instead seeks medicine from an evil physician who bears him enmity.

I am also like this: if I give rise to an evil mind, I am abandoning the ambrosial flavor of the Dharma taught by the Great Teacher, the Tathagata, the World-Honored One, and taking up every kind of evil thought belonging to the enemy, Mara!

“‘A human body is as difficult to obtain as an udumbara flower, yet I have now obtained one. The Tathagata is even more difficult to encounter than an udumbara flower, yet I have now encountered him. The pure treasure of the Dharma is difficult to hear, yet I have now heard it. This is truly as rare as a blind turtle encountering the hole in a floating log.

“‘Human life passes swiftly, more swiftly even than a waterfall plunging from a lofty mountain, never pausing for an instant. Though I am alive today, tomorrow is uncertain. Why, then, should I let my mind run free and fall into evil phenomena? Youthful strength does not remain but passes swiftly like a galloping horse. How could I rely upon it and give rise to arrogance?

“‘Just as evil spirits continually watch for and seek out people’s faults, so too does the evil mara of the four great elements continually watch for and seek out my faults. How could I allow evil thoughts to arise? Just as a decaying house is about to collapse, so too is my life. Why, then, should I give rise to an evil mind?

“‘I bear the name shramana, meaning one who clearly knows wholesome perceptions. If I now give rise to unwholesome thoughts, how could I deserve to be called a shramana? I bear the name of one who has gone forth, meaning one who cultivates the wholesome path.

If I now commit evil, how could I deserve to be called one who has gone forth? I bear the name of a true brahmin, meaning one who cultivates pure conduct. If I now give rise to evil thoughts, that is impurity; how could I deserve to be called a brahmin?

I also bear the name of one belonging to the great kshatriya caste, meaning one capable of subduing enemies. If I am now unable to subdue the enemies that are evil phenomena, how could I deserve to be called one of the kshatriya caste? I bear the name bhikshu, meaning one who destroys the afflictions.

If I do not now destroy the affliction of evil thoughts, how could I deserve to be called a bhikshu?’”

“In this world there are six things that are difficult to encounter and difficult to obtain. Now that I have obtained them, why should I allow evil thoughts to remain in my mind? What are these six things that are difficult to encounter and difficult to obtain? First, it is difficult to encounter a time when a Buddha appears in the world. Second, it is difficult to hear the True Dharma. Third, it is difficult to give rise to a wholesome mind. Fourth, it is difficult to be born in a civilized land. Fifth, it is difficult to obtain a human body. Sixth, it is difficult to possess all the faculties intact. These six things are difficult to obtain, yet I have now obtained them all; therefore, I should not give rise to evil thoughts.’

“At that time, while cultivating this Great Nirvana Sutra, the bodhisattva constantly and diligently examines evil thoughts in this way. Because ordinary beings do not perceive the harmfulness of such evil thoughts, they allow themselves to follow the three kinds of evil thought; this is called accepting the outflows. The bodhisattva clearly perceives their harmfulness and therefore neither accepts nor becomes attached to them, but releases them without grasping, relying upon the Noble Eightfold Path to eliminate and eradicate evil thoughts. Thus, even a bodhisattva does not accept the outflows; how then could it be said that the Tathagata possesses outflows? For this reason, the Tathagata, the Blessed One, is not subject to outflows.

“Furthermore, good man! When ordinary beings encounter suffering and affliction in body or mind, they give rise to all manner of evil. Because of illness in the body or illness in the mind, beings commit all manner of evil deeds through body, speech, and mind. Because they commit evil, they must revolve through the three evil realms and undergo every kind of suffering. Why is this? Because ordinary beings lack mindfulness and wisdom. Consequently, they produce all manner of outflows. This is called the outflow of thought.

“The great bodhisattva constantly reflects: ‘Since time without beginning, throughout innumerable kalpas, I have committed all manner of evil karma for the sake of this body and mind. Because of these causes and conditions, I have wandered through birth and death, dwelling in the three evil realms and undergoing every kind of suffering, far removed from the true paths of the Three Vehicles.’

“Having reflected in this way, the bodhisattva becomes deeply fearful concerning his own body and mind, immediately abandons every evil deed, and follows the wholesome path.

“Good man! Suppose a king confined four venomous snakes in a cage and ordered a man to watch over and nourish them, bathing them and scrubbing their bodies whenever they awoke. The king commanded: ‘If you anger even one of these snakes, I shall have you executed in the marketplace.’

“At that time, when the man heard the king’s command, he became so frightened that he abandoned the cage of snakes and fled. The king immediately dispatched five candalas armed with knives to pursue him. Looking back, the man saw five men pursuing him and exerted himself to run faster. The five candalas then resorted to a wicked stratagem: they concealed their weapons and secretly sent one man to feign friendliness, approach the fugitive, and say: ‘You should turn back.’

“The man did not trust his words and ran into a village to hide. After entering the village, he peered into every house but saw no one. He examined all the containers but found nothing in any of them. Finding neither people nor any articles at all, he sat down flat upon the ground.

“Suddenly, he heard a voice from the sky saying: ‘Alas, young man! This village is empty and has no inhabitants. Tonight, six bandits will come here. If you encounter those bandits, you will certainly not survive. How will you manage to escape?’

“At that time, the man became even more frightened and immediately abandoned that place. Along the road, he encountered a swiftly flowing river, yet there was no boat or raft. In his fear, he gathered various grasses and pieces of wood, bound them together into a raft, and thought: ‘If I remain here, I shall certainly be harmed by the venomous snakes, the five candalas, the man feigning friendship, and the six bandits. If I cross this river and the raft cannot bear my weight, I shall certainly drown. Yet I would rather drown than be harmed by those venomous snakes and bandits.’

“The man immediately pushed the grass raft into the water, rested his body upon it, clasped it with his hands, kicked with his feet, and made his way across the river. Upon reaching the further shore, he was safe and free from calamity; his mind became joyful and at ease, and all his fears vanished!

“Having heard and upheld the Great Nirvana Sutra, the great bodhisattva contemplates this body as a cage confining four venomous snakes, namely, the four great elements: earth, water, fire, and wind. Venomous snakes have four ways of poisoning people: poisoning with their gaze, poisoning through bodily contact, poisoning by spraying venom, and poisoning by biting with their teeth. Because beings encounter these four forms of poisoning, they lose their lives. The four great elements of beings are likewise: their appearance may be harmful, their contact may be harmful, their breath may be harmful, or their biting and rending may be harmful. Because of these causes and conditions, they cause beings to become separated from every good thing.

“Furthermore, good man! The great bodhisattva contemplates how the four venomous snakes belong to four castes: kshatriya, brahmin, vaishya, and shudra. The snakes of the four great elements are likewise, possessing four natures: solidity, moisture, heat, and motion. Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the four great elements and the four venomous snakes as having the same nature.

“Furthermore, good man! The bodhisattva-mahasattva contemplates the four great elements as four venomous snakes. Why does he contemplate the four great elements as four venomous snakes? Venomous snakes constantly lie in wait, seeking an opportune moment to harm people. They know when they should poison with their gaze, when they should make contact, when they should spray venom, and when they should strike and bite. The venomous snakes of the four great elements are likewise: they constantly lie in wait for beings, seeking some deficiency or weakness through which to cause harm.

“A person killed by venomous snakes does not fall into the three evil realms; but if one is killed by the four great elements, one will certainly fall into the three evil realms, without any doubt.

“Although these four venomous snakes are tended and nourished by a person, they still seek to kill him. The four great elements are likewise: although sustained and nourished by a person, they constantly incite that person to commit every kind of evil.

“Among those four venomous snakes, if even one is angered, it can kill a person. The nature of the four great elements is likewise: if even one element erupts, it can harm a person.

“Although those four venomous snakes dwell together, they are not of one accord. The venomous snakes of the four great elements are likewise: although they dwell in the same place, they possess four different natures.

“Those four venomous snakes are difficult to approach even when treated with reverence. The venomous snakes of the four great elements are likewise: they are difficult to approach even when treated with reverence.

“When those four venomous snakes harm a person, a shramana or brahmin may be able to cure him by using spells or medicines. But when the four great elements harm a person, even the divine spells or excellent medicines of shramanas or brahmins cannot cure him.

“Just as a person who is enjoying himself immediately moves away upon smelling the loathsome stench of the four venomous snakes, so too do the Buddhas and bodhisattvas immediately move away upon smelling the stench of the four great elements.

“At that time, the bodhisattva further thinks: ‘The venomous snakes of the four great elements are truly terrifying!’ He immediately turns his back upon them and withdraws far away, single-mindedly cultivating the Noble Eightfold Path.

“Those five candalas are the five skandhas. Why does the bodhisattva contemplate the five skandhas as candalas? Candalas constantly cause those who love one another to be separated and those who hate one another to meet. The five skandhas are likewise: they cause people to desire and draw near to unwholesome dharmas and to distance themselves from all wholly wholesome dharmas.

“Moreover, good man! Chandālas equip themselves with all manner of weapons—knives, shields, bows and arrows, armor, spears, and the like—with which they can harm others. The five skandhas likewise fortify themselves with the afflictions and harm the foolish, causing them to sink into the Three Realms.

“Good man! When chandālas apprehend a guilty person, they immediately put that person to death. The five skandhas are likewise able to harm those who bear the faults of affliction. For this reason, the bodhisattva contemplates deeply and sees that the five skandhas resemble chandālas.

“Moreover, the bodhisattva contemplates the five skandhas as chandālas, because chandālas have no compassion and harm both enemies and loved ones. The five skandhas are likewise without compassion and harm both the virtuous and the wicked.

“Just as chandālas harass everyone, so too do the five skandhas constantly use the afflictions to harass all beings wandering through birth and death. Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the five skandhas as chandālas.

“Moreover, the bodhisattva contemplates the five skandhas as chandālas, because chandālas constantly harbor the intent to inflict harm. The five skandhas likewise constantly harbor the harmful fetters of affliction within themselves.

“Suppose a man has no feet with which to flee, no knives, swords, staves, or clubs, and no escort to protect him. Know that such a man will certainly be killed by the chandālas. Beings are likewise so: if they have no feet with which to flee, no knives or swords, and no escort to protect them, they will be harmed by the five skandhas. The feet are the precepts; the knives and swords are wisdom; and the protective escorts are spiritual benefactors and good friends. Because beings lack these three things, they are harmed by the five skandhas. Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates and sees that the five skandhas resemble chandālas.

“Moreover, good man! The great bodhisattva contemplates the five skandhas as being even more fearsome than chandālas. Why is this? Beings killed by five chandālas do not thereby fall into hell, but those killed by the five skandhas will certainly fall into hell. For this reason, the bodhisattva contemplates the five skandhas as being even more fearsome than chandālas. Having contemplated in this way, the bodhisattva then makes this vow: ‘I would rather spend my entire life near chandālas than draw near to the five skandhas for even a single moment.’

“Chandālas can harm only foolish people in the Realm of Desire, whereas the bandits of the five skandhas can harm ordinary beings throughout the Three Realms: the Realm of Desire, the Realm of Form, and the Formless Realm.

“Chandālas can harm only those who are guilty, whereas the bandits of the five skandhas make no distinction between beings who are guilty and those who are innocent, but harm them all.

“Chandālas do not harm the old and infirm, women, or children, whereas the bandits of the five skandhas make no distinction among the old and infirm, children, or women, but harm them all.

“Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates deeply and sees that the five skandhas are even more fearsome than chandālas. Thus, the bodhisattva makes this vow: ‘I would rather spend my entire life near chandālas than draw near to the five skandhas for even a single moment.’

“Moreover, good man! Chandālas harm only others and never harm themselves. The bandits of the five skandhas harm both themselves and others, and are therefore more fearsome than chandālas.

“With chandālas, one may still employ skillful words, money, and precious objects to bribe them and seek escape. The five skandhas are not like this: one cannot forcefully employ skillful words to entice them, nor use money or precious objects to seek escape.

“Chandālas do not continually kill during all four periods of the day. The five skandhas are different: at every moment they constantly harm beings.

“Chandālas remain only in one place, so one can evade them by going elsewhere. The five skandhas are different: they are present everywhere, so one cannot escape them.

“Although chandālas harm people, once they have killed them, they do not pursue them further. The five skandhas are different: after killing beings, they continue to follow them forever without ever leaving.

“Therefore, the bodhisattva would rather spend an entire life [compelled to remain] near chandālas than consent to draw near to the five skandhas for even a single moment.

“A person of wisdom employs skillful means to escape the five skandhas. These skillful means are the Noble Eightfold Path, the Six Paramitas, and the Four Immeasurable Minds. Through these means, one attains liberation, and neither body nor mind is harmed by the five skandhas. Why is this? Because the body is like vajra and the mind is like empty space, they are difficult to destroy.

“For these reasons, the bodhisattva contemplates how the skandhas engender every kind of unwholesome dharma and give rise to great fear, and thus diligently cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path. This is like the fleeing man who, out of fear of the four venomous snakes and the five chandālas, runs along the road without daring to look back.

“The enemy who feigns friendship is craving. The great bodhisattva contemplates deeply and sees that the fetter of craving resembles an enemy who feigns friendship. If one clearly knows the truth, that enemy can do nothing; if one does not clearly know it, one will be harmed. Craving is likewise so. If beings know the true nature of craving, they will no longer revolve within the sea of suffering of birth and death; if they do not know the true nature of craving, they must transmigrate through the six destinies and endure every kind of suffering. Why is this? Craving is a sickness that is extremely difficult to relinquish and leave behind, just as an enemy who feigns friendship is extremely difficult to escape.

“An enemy who feigns friendship constantly watches for an opportunity to separate those who love one another and bring together those who hate one another. Craving is likewise so: it causes people to distance themselves from all wholesome dharmas and draw near to all unwholesome dharmas. For this reason, the bodhisattva contemplates deeply and sees craving as an enemy who feigns friendship, because [it causes people] to see [as though] they did not see and to hear [as though] they did not hear.

Although ordinary people possess the wisdom to see the faults of birth and death, because they are obscured by delusion, it is as though they do not see. Śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are likewise so: although they see, it is as though they do not see; although they hear, it is as though they do not hear. Why is this? Because they possess minds of craving.

“What does it mean to possess a mind of craving? It means that although one sees the faults of birth and death, one cannot swiftly attain the fruit of anuttara-samyak-saṃbodhi. For this reason, the great bodhisattva contemplates the fetter of craving as resembling an enemy who feigns friendship.

“What are the marks of an enemy who feigns friendship? Such an enemy is not genuine but pretends to be genuine; cannot be trusted as an intimate but pretends to be intimate; is truly unwholesome but pretends to be virtuous; and truly has no loving heart but pretends to be loving. Why is this? Because that enemy seeks an opportunity to inflict harm.

“Craving is likewise so. Toward beings it constantly pretends to be genuine, pretends to be intimate, pretends to be virtuous, and pretends to be loving. It constantly deceives all beings, causing them to transmigrate through birth and death. For this reason, the bodhisattva contemplates craving as an enemy who feigns friendship.

“With an enemy who feigns friendship, one sees only that person's actions and words but cannot see what is within the person's heart, and is therefore deceived. Craving is likewise so: it is merely false and illusory, with no true existence, and can therefore deceive all beings.”

“An enemy who pretends to be friendly has a beginning at one time and an end at another, and therefore is easily left behind. Craving is not so: it has neither beginning nor end, and therefore is exceedingly difficult to leave behind.

“An enemy who pretends to be friendly is difficult to recognize clearly when far away, but can easily be recognized when close at hand. Craving is not so: even when close at hand it is difficult to recognize clearly, how much more so when it is far away?

“For these reasons, the bodhisattva contemplates craving as even more fearsome than one who pretends to be friendly. Bound by craving, all sentient beings remain far from Great Nirvana and draw near to birth and death; they remain far from permanence, bliss, self, and purity, and draw near to impermanence, suffering, non-self, and impurity. Therefore, in many places throughout the sutras, the Buddha taught about the three defilements of craving, anger, and delusion. With regard to things in the present, sentient beings are obscured by ignorance and thus cannot see their harmful faults, nor can they relinquish and distance themselves from them.

“Craving is like an enemy who pretends to be friendly, yet it can never harm a wise person. Therefore, the bodhisattva deeply contemplates craving, gives rise to great fear, and diligently cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path. He is like the man who fled: fearing the four venomous snakes, the five chandala men, and the one who pretended to be friendly, he hastened down the road without daring to look back.

“That empty village is the six ayatanas. The great bodhisattva contemplates the six internal ayatanas as empty and truly devoid of anything, like an empty village. Just as that terrified man, upon entering the village, saw no inhabitants and, after searching through every container, found no useful object whatsoever, so too does the bodhisattva carefully contemplate the six ayatanas and find nothing at all: he sees no sentient being and no thing that is real! Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the six internal ayatanas as devoid of anything, like an empty village.

“Good man! When the bandits see that empty village from afar, they do not think that it is empty. Ordinary people are likewise: regarding the village of the six ayatanas, they never think that it is empty. Because they cannot perceive the six ayatanas as empty, they must revolve through birth and death and undergo countless sufferings.

“Good man! When the bandits arrive there, they immediately form the perception that it is empty. The bodhisattva is likewise: when contemplating the six ayatanas, he constantly gives rise to the perception that they are empty. Because he gives rise to the perception of emptiness, he does not revolve through birth and death and does not undergo suffering. With regard to these six ayatanas, the bodhisattva is never inverted. Because he is not inverted, he no longer returns to the cycle of birth and death.

“Furthermore, good man! If bandits enter and dwell in that empty village, they will be secure. The bandits of the afflictions are likewise: when they enter and dwell in the six ayatanas, they are secure. Just as bandits dwelling in an empty village feel no fear, so too do the bandits of the afflictions, dwelling in the six ayatanas, feel no fear.

“Just as that empty village is the dwelling place of lions, tigers, wolves, and all manner of savage beasts, so too are the six internal ayatanas the dwelling place of all the savage beasts of evil afflictions. Therefore, the bodhisattva deeply contemplates and sees that the six ayatanas are empty and devoid of anything, serving only as the dwelling place of all unwholesome things.

“Furthermore, good man! The great bodhisattva contemplates the six internal ayatanas as empty and devoid of anything, like that empty village. Why is this?

Because they are false and unreal. That empty village is truly empty and devoid of anything, yet [those who do not understand] form the perception that something truly exists there; in truth there is nothing pleasurable, yet they form the perception that it is pleasurable; in truth no one dwells there, yet they form the perception that someone does. The six internal ayatanas are likewise: they are originally empty and devoid of anything, yet [those who do not understand] form the perception that something truly exists; in truth there is nothing pleasurable, yet they form the perception that it is pleasurable; in truth no one dwells there, yet they form the perception that someone does.

Only the wise clearly know this and attain reality.

“Furthermore, good man! That empty village is sometimes inhabited and sometimes uninhabited. The six ayatanas are not so; they are always empty. Why is this? Because their nature is eternally empty. This is known by the wise and is not perceived by the eyes. Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the six internal ayatanas as containing many enemies and perils, and diligently cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path without ever ceasing, like the man who, fearing the four venomous snakes, the five chandala men, the one who pretended to be friendly, and the six bandits, fled in terror along the great road.

“Those six bandits are the six external sense objects. The great bodhisattva contemplates these six sense objects as six bandits. Why is this? Because they can plunder all wholesome dharmas. Just as six bandits can plunder the wealth and precious possessions of everyone, so too can these bandits of the six sense objects plunder the precious wholesome qualities of all sentient beings.

“If six bandits enter a person’s house, they can plunder all the property it contains, whether good or bad, causing one who was exceedingly wealthy to become poor in an instant. The bandits of the six sense objects are likewise: if they come into contact with the six faculties, they can plunder all wholesome dharmas. Once all wholesome dharmas have been lost, [sentient beings] become impoverished and destitute, becoming icchantikas. Therefore, the bodhisattva carefully contemplates and sees that the six sense objects are like six bandits.

“Furthermore, good man! When six bandits wish to rob someone, they must have an accomplice within. If there is no accomplice within, they must turn back.

The bandits of the six sense objects are likewise: if they wish to plunder wholesome dharmas, they must rely upon sentient beings’ internal views and cognitions, such as the marks of permanence, bliss, self, and purity, and attachment to existence. If these characteristics are absent within, the bandits of the six sense objects cannot plunder all wholesome dharmas. A wise person has no such characteristics within, but an ordinary person inevitably has them; therefore, the six sense objects constantly come and plunder the wealth of wholesome dharmas.

Because ordinary people do not guard it skillfully, it is stolen from them. This guarding is called wisdom. Those who possess wisdom skillfully remain vigilant and guard it, and therefore are not robbed.

Thus, the bodhisattva contemplates the six sense objects as being no different from six bandits.

“Furthermore, good man! Just as six bandits can cause the bodies and minds of the people to suffer anguish, so too do the bandits of the six sense objects constantly cause the bodies and minds of sentient beings to suffer anguish.

“The six bandits can plunder only the wealth that people presently possess, but the bandits of the six sense objects constantly plunder sentient beings’ wealth of wholesome qualities throughout the three times.

“Those six bandits delight in the darkness of night. The bandits of the six sense objects are likewise: they delight in the darkness of ignorance.

“Those six bandits can be restrained only by the king and his officials. The bandits of the six sense objects are likewise: they can be restrained only by Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

“When those six bandits wish to plunder, they make no distinction regarding family lineage, whether a person is upright or wise, learned and erudite, noble or lowly. The bandits of the six sense objects are likewise: when they wish to plunder wholesome dharmas, they make no distinction between the upright and the lowly.”

Those six bandits, even if the king’s officers cut off their hands and feet, cannot thereby be made to abandon their thieving intent. The bandits of the six sense objects are likewise: even if stream-enterers, once-returners, and non-returners cut off their hands and feet, they still cannot be made to cease plundering wholesome dharmas.

“Just as only a strong and valiant person can subdue the six bandits, so too only the Buddhas and bodhisattvas possess the power to subdue the bandits of the six sense objects.

“Suppose a person has many relatives and a powerful company of allies; he will certainly not be robbed by those six bandits. The same is true of sentient beings: if they have good companions and spiritual friends, they will not be plundered by the bandits of the six sense objects.

“Those six bandits can steal another person’s wealth only when they see it. The bandits of the six sense objects are not like this: whether through seeing, knowing, hearing, smelling, touching, or cognizing, they can plunder in every case.

“Those six bandits can plunder only the possessions of people in the Desire Realm; they cannot plunder anything in the Form Realm or Formless Realm. The bandits of the six sense objects are not like this: they can plunder all the treasures of wholesome dharmas throughout the Three Realms.

“Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the six sense objects as even more fearsome than those six bandits. Having contemplated them in this way, he cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path, advancing directly without retreat, just as that man, fearing the four venomous snakes, the five chandālas, the false friend, and the six bandits, hastily abandons the deserted village and flees along the road.

“On the road he encounters a river, which represents the afflictions. Why does the bodhisattva contemplate the afflictions as a great river? Just as a swiftly flowing river can sweep away even a vigorous young elephant, so too can the swift current of the river of afflictions sweep away even pratyekabuddhas. Therefore, through profound contemplation, the bodhisattva sees that the afflictions are like a swiftly flowing river.

“Because its waters are so deep that the bottom is difficult to fathom, it is called a river; because the far shore cannot be crossed to, it is called great. Within its waters are also all kinds of vicious fish. The great river of afflictions is likewise: only Buddhas and bodhisattvas can fathom its bottom, and so it is called exceedingly deep; only Buddhas and bodhisattvas can reach the other shore, and so it is called vast. Because it constantly harms all foolish sentient beings, it is said to contain vicious fish. Thus, the bodhisattva contemplates the afflictions as a great river [exceedingly deep and filled with many vicious fish].

“Just as the waters of a great river cause all grasses, trees, and forests to flourish, so too does the great river of afflictions cause sentient beings to proliferate throughout the twenty-five realms of existence. Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the afflictions as a great river.

“Suppose a person falls into the waters of a great river; there is nothing in this of which the river is ashamed. Sentient beings are likewise: submerged in the river of afflictions, they feel no shame whatsoever. Just as a person who falls into a river loses his life before sinking to the bottom, so too do sentient beings in the river of afflictions revolve through the twenty-five realms of existence before reaching the bottom.

“The river’s bottom refers to the characteristic of emptiness. Know that anyone who does not cultivate this characteristic of emptiness cannot escape the twenty-five realms of existence. Because sentient beings do not skillfully cultivate emptiness and signlessness, they are constantly swept away and submerged by the river of afflictions.

“That great river can harm only the physical body; it cannot submerge and destroy all wholesome dharmas. The great river of afflictions is not like this, for it can destroy all wholesome dharmas of body and mind.

“That raging river can sweep away and submerge only those in the Desire Realm. The great river of afflictions can sweep away and submerge both humans and devas throughout the Three Realms.

“In a great river of the world, one can cling to a floating raft and kick one’s feet to reach the other shore. But in the great river of afflictions, only a bodhisattva, relying upon the six paramitas, can cross over.

“Just as it is truly difficult to wade across the waters of a great river to the other shore, so too is it truly difficult to cross the great river of afflictions and reach the other shore.

“Why is it said to be difficult to cross? Even great bodhisattvas who have attained the stage of the Ten Abodes are still unable to cross over completely; only the Buddhas cross over completely. Therefore, it is said to be difficult to cross.

“Suppose a person is swept away by a river; he cannot cultivate even the slightest wholesome dharma. Sentient beings are likewise: when swept away and submerged by the river of afflictions, they are also unable to cultivate wholesome dharmas.

“If a person who falls into a river is swept away by the current, someone possessing sufficient strength may be able to rescue him. But if a person submerged in the river of afflictions is an icchantika, neither shravakas nor pratyekabuddhas nor even the Buddhas can rescue him.

“At the end of a kalpa, seven suns will appear together and shine upon the great rivers of the world, causing them to dry up. The great river of afflictions is not like this: although shravakas and pratyekabuddhas cultivate the Seven Factors of Awakening, they still cannot cause it to dry up. Therefore, the bodhisattva contemplates the afflictions as a raging river.

“Suppose that man, fearing the four venomous snakes, the five chandālas, the false friend, and the six bandits, abandons the deserted village and follows the road in flight. Upon reaching the riverbank, he binds grass together to make a raft on which to cross the river. The bodhisattva is likewise: fearing the venomous snakes of the four great elements, the chandālas of the five skandhas, the false friend of craving, the deserted village of the six ayatanas, and the bandits of the six sense objects, he runs to the bank of the river of afflictions and cultivates ethical discipline, concentration, wisdom, liberation, the knowledge and vision of liberation, the six paramitas, and the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening.

He makes these into a boat and raft upon which he relies to cross the great river of afflictions and reach the other shore—the blissful realm of nirvana.

“The bodhisattva who cultivates Great Nirvana thinks: ‘If I cannot patiently endure such sufferings of body and mind, I certainly cannot help all sentient beings cross the river of afflictions.’ Thinking thus, even when suffering and anguish arise in body and mind, [the bodhisattva] silently and patiently endures them. Because he can patiently endure them, he does not give rise to the outflows.

“Even such a bodhisattva is free from the outflows; how much less could the Buddha, the Tathagata, possess outflows? Therefore, the Buddhas cannot be called subject to outflows.

“Why is the Tathagata also not free from outflows? The Tathagata constantly practices the path within the realms subject to outflows, namely, the twenty-five realms of existence. Therefore, shravakas and ordinary beings say that the Buddha is subject to outflows; yet the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, are in truth free from outflows.

“Good man! For these causes and conditions, the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, have no fixed characteristic whatsoever.

“Good man! Therefore, those who violate the four grave precepts, those who slander the Vaipulya sutras, and icchantikas are all likewise not fixed.”

At that time, the Great Bodhisattva King of Lofty Virtue, Radiance Universally Illuminating, said to the Buddha: “So it is, so it is! It is exactly as the Buddha has taught: all dharmas are unfixed. Because they are unfixed, one should know that the Tathagata does not utterly abandon everything and enter nirvana.

“As the Buddha previously taught: ‘A great bodhisattva who cultivates the Great Nirvana hears what cannot be heard: there is nirvana, and there is Great Nirvana.’ [World-Honored One!] What is nirvana? What is Great Nirvana?”

At that time, the Buddha praised the great bodhisattva Radiant All-Illuminating Noble King of Virtue: “Excellent, excellent! Good man! Only a bodhisattva who has attained the mnemonic power of retention can ask such a question.

“Good man! Just as people in the world speak of a sea and a great sea; a river and a great river; a mountain and a great mountain; a land and a great land; a city and a great city; a sentient being and a great sentient being; a minor king and a great king; a deva and a great deva; a path and a great path—nirvana is likewise: there is nirvana, and there is Great Nirvana.

“What is nirvana? Good man! Suppose a person is hungry and obtains a little rice to eat; he considers this happiness. Such happiness is also called nirvana. When a sick person recovers, he considers this happiness. Such happiness is also called nirvana. When a frightened person finds a refuge, he thereby gains happiness. Such happiness is also called nirvana. When an impoverished person obtains objects made of the seven treasures, he thereby gains happiness. Such happiness is also called nirvana. When a person contemplates a skeleton and severs the mind of craving, he thereby attains peace and happiness. Such peace and happiness are also called nirvana.

“Such nirvana is not called Great Nirvana. Why is this? Because it is attained on account of hunger and thirst, sickness, fear, poverty, or craving and attachment, it is called nirvana, but not Great Nirvana.

“Good man! When ordinary beings and shravakas, either through worldly dharmas or by relying upon the noble path, eliminate the afflictive bonds of the Realm of Desire, they thereby attain peace and happiness. Such peace and happiness are also called nirvana, but they are not called Great Nirvana.

“If one can eliminate the afflictive bonds from the realm of the First Dhyana up to the realm of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, one thereby attains peace and happiness. Such peace and happiness are also called nirvana, but they are not called Great Nirvana. Why is this? Because the habitual tendencies that cause the afflictions to arise again still remain.

“What are the habitual tendencies of the afflictions? Shravakas and pratyekabuddhas both retain habits of affliction, such as the thoughts: my body, my robes; I go, I come, I speak, I hear; the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, enter nirvana; the nature of nirvana is without self and without bliss, possessing only permanence and purity. Such [mistaken thoughts] are called the habitual tendencies of the afflictions.

“[Or they may entertain such thoughts as:] The Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are distinct characteristics; the Tathagata ultimately relinquishes everything and enters nirvana; and the nirvana realized by shravakas and pratyekabuddhas is no different from that of the Buddhas, the Tathagatas. Because they entertain such [mistaken] thoughts, what is realized by the practitioners of the Two Vehicles is not Great Nirvana.

“Why is this? Because it does not possess permanence, bliss, self, and purity. Only that which possesses permanence, bliss, self, and purity is called Great Nirvana.

“Good man! It is like a place that can contain [all] streams of water and is therefore called the great sea. [Likewise,] that which shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, all reach is called Great Nirvana. That which can contain innumerable wholesome dharmas, such as the Four Dhyana Realms, the Three Samadhis, the Eight Liberations, the Eight Spheres of Mastery, and the Ten Totalities, is called Great Nirvana.

“Good man! Suppose there is a river whose bottom even the strongest young elephant cannot reach by diving; it must then be called a great river. Shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and even bodhisattvas who have reached the stage of the Ten Abodes but do not see Buddha-nature attain only what is called nirvana, not Great Nirvana. If anyone can clearly see Buddha-nature, it must be called Great Nirvana. Just as only the king of elephants can dive to the bottom of a great river, so the king of elephants represents the Buddhas, who alone can completely penetrate Great Nirvana.

“Good man! Suppose a valiant king of elephants, together with the bat-kien-da deities and mighty wrestlers, were all to climb a mountain, yet even after a very long time they still could not reach its summit; only then would it be called a great mountain. If valiant kings of elephants and mighty wrestlers—namely, shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas—are all unable to see a realm, that realm is called Great Nirvana.

“Furthermore, good man! The dwelling place of a minor king is called a small city. Only the dwelling place of a wheel-turning noble king is called a great city. The abiding place of eighty thousand, sixty thousand, forty thousand, twenty thousand, or ten thousand shravakas and pratyekabuddhas is called nirvana. Only the abiding place of the Noble King, the unsurpassed Dharma King, is called the Great Parinirvana. For these reasons, it is called the Great Parinirvana.

“Good man! If a person sees the four divisions of an army yet does not become afraid, you should know that such a person deserves to be called a great person. If someone does not become afraid amid evil realms, afflictions, and evil karma, but can remain among them to extensively deliver sentient beings, you should know that such a person has truly realized Great Nirvana.

“If someone knows to make offerings to his parents, reveres shramanas and brahmins, knows how to cultivate and preserve wholesome dharmas, speaks truthful words without deceit or contempt, can patiently endure every evil, and generously gives to the poor and hungry, that person deserves to be called a great man. A bodhisattva is likewise: possessing great loving-kindness and compassion, pitying all beings, loving sentient beings as parents love their children, able to carry sentient beings across the river of birth and death, and revealing to all sentient beings the one true path. This is called the Great Parinirvana.

“Good man! ‘Great’ means inconceivable. Because it is inconceivable, it is that which all sentient beings lack the power to believe. Thus it is called the Great Parinirvana.

“Because it is a realm that only Buddhas and bodhisattvas can see, it is called Great Nirvana. For what reason is it also called great? Because it can be attained only through immeasurable causes and conditions, it is called great.

“Good man! Among worldly people, anything that can be attained only through many causes and conditions is called great. [Great] Nirvana is likewise: because it can be attained only through many causes and conditions, it is called great.

“Why is it also called Great Nirvana? Because it possesses the great self, it is called Great Nirvana. Nirvana has no self; yet because it has attained complete mastery and freedom according to one’s will, it is called the great self. What is meant by complete mastery and freedom? Because it possesses the eight virtues of mastery, it is called the great self. What are these eight [virtues of mastery]?

“First, one can use a single body to manifest many bodies. The number of bodies, whether large or small, may be as numerous as minute particles of dust, filling immeasurable worlds throughout the ten directions.

“The Tathagata’s body is not actually as numerous as minute particles of dust; yet because he has attained complete mastery, he can manifest bodies as numerous as minute particles of dust. Such complete mastery and freedom according to one’s will are called the great self.

“Second, one can use a body as small as a particle of dust and manifest it [expanding] until it fills the trichiliocosm.

The body of the Tathagata does not in reality [grow] to fill the trichiliocosm. Why is this? Because it is unobstructed, and it is precisely through attaining complete mastery that it [can manifest as growing] to fill the entire trichiliocosm. Such complete mastery is called the great self.

“Third, he can use this vast body, which fills the entire trichiliocosm, to fly lightly through space, passing beyond Buddha-worlds as numerous as the sands of twenty Ganges Rivers, entirely without obstruction.

“The body of the Tathagata is in reality neither heavy nor light, but because he has attained complete mastery, he can manifest it as either light or heavy. Such complete mastery is called the great self.

“Fourth, through mastery he attains freedom of mastery. What is mastery? The Tathagata attains one-pointedness of mind and abides peacefully, unmoving. That mind can manifest innumerable forms and kinds, causing each form and kind to possess consciousness. At times, the Tathagata creates a single event that enables all sentient beings to attain complete fulfillment. The body of the Tathagata constantly abides in a single land, yet he causes all sentient beings in other lands to be able to see it. Such complete mastery is called the great self.

“Fifth, there is mastery over the faculties. What is called mastery over the faculties? Each faculty of the Tathagata can see forms, hear sounds, smell odors, taste flavors, feel tangible objects, and cognize dharmas. Yet all six faculties of the Tathagata may also not see forms, not hear sounds, not smell odors, not taste flavors, not feel tangible objects, and not cognize dharmas. Because he possesses complete mastery, he enables all the faculties to attain mastery. Such complete mastery is called the great self.

“Sixth, because of complete mastery, he realizes all dharmas. Yet in the mind of the Tathagata there is never any notion of realization. Why is this? Because there is nothing to be realized. Only if something existed could it be called realization. In truth, nothing exists; how then could it be called realization? If the Tathagata entertained the notion that there was something realized, then the Buddhas would not truly realize nirvana. It is precisely because there is nothing to be realized that it is called the realization of nirvana. Because of complete mastery, he realizes all dharmas. Because he realizes [all] dharmas, this is called the great self.

“Seventh, because of mastery in exposition, the Tathagata [can] extensively expound the meaning of a single verse for immeasurable kalpas without exhausting its meaning. He may speak of moral discipline, or concentration, or generosity, or wisdom. Yet throughout that time, the Tathagata never gives rise to the thought that there is a speaker or a listener, nor does he give rise to the notion that there is a verse.

“People of the world call a composition of four lines a verse. In conformity with worldly convention, the Tathagata expounds it and calls it a verse. Yet in the true nature of all dharmas, there is no exposition. Because he has attained complete mastery, the Tathagata expounds the Dharma. Because he expounds it, this is called the great self.

“Eighth, the Tathagata manifests everywhere, like space. The nature of space cannot be seen. The Tathagata is likewise invisible. Yet through his mastery, he causes all [sentient beings] to see him. Because of such complete mastery, this is called the great self.

“Such a great self is called Great Nirvana. Because of these meanings, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Furthermore, good man! It is like a treasury of jewels containing many rare and precious things, complete with hundreds of kinds, and therefore called a great treasury. The exceedingly profound and wondrous treasury of the Buddha Tathagatas is likewise so: it contains many marvelous things, complete and lacking nothing, and therefore is called Great Nirvana.

“Furthermore, good man! That which has no limit is called great. [Great] Nirvana has no limit and therefore is called great.

“Furthermore, good man! Because it possesses great bliss, it is called Great Nirvana. [Great] Nirvana in reality contains no pleasure. Because it possesses the four [great] blisses, it is called Great Nirvana.

“What are these four [great] blisses?

“First is the bliss of eliminating pleasure. If pleasure were not eliminated, it would be called suffering. If there were suffering, it could not be called great bliss. Because pleasure is eliminated, there is no suffering. Neither suffering nor pleasure is what is called great bliss.

“The nature of nirvana is neither suffering nor pleasure. Therefore, nirvana is called great bliss. Because of this meaning, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Furthermore, good man! There are two kinds of bliss: first, the pleasure of ordinary beings; second, the bliss of the Buddhas. The pleasure of ordinary beings is impermanent and subject to decay; therefore, it is not true bliss. The Buddhas eternally abide in bliss, without transformation or change; therefore, it is called great bliss.

“Furthermore, good man! There are three kinds of feeling: first, painful feeling; second, pleasant feeling; and third, neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

“The neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling of ordinary beings [is in reality] itself [a feeling of] suffering. Although nirvana is likewise neither suffering nor pleasure, it is called great bliss. Because it is great bliss, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Second, because it is utterly quiescent, it is called great bliss. The nature of nirvana is utter quiescence. Why is this? Because it is far removed from all tumultuous and clamorous dharmas. Because it is utterly quiescent, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Third, because it knows all things clearly, it is called great bliss. If it did not know all things clearly, it would not be called great bliss. Because the Buddha Tathagatas know all things clearly, it is called great bliss. Because it possesses great bliss, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Fourth, because the body is indestructible, it is called great bliss. If the body were subject to destruction, it could not be called bliss. The body of the Tathagata is [firm] like vajra and cannot be destroyed. It is not a body of afflictions, nor is it an impermanent body; therefore, it is called great bliss. Because it possesses great bliss, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Good man! Names in the world may either have a causal basis or have no causal basis.

“Those that have a causal basis include, for example, the name Sariputra. Because his mother was named Sari, he was named after his mother and therefore was called Sariputra. Or consider the ascetic Mathura, who was born in Mathura: because he was named after the place [of his birth], he was called the ascetic Mathura.

Or consider Maudgalyayana: because his original clan name was Maudgalyayana, he was named after his clan and therefore continued to be called Maudgalyayana. Or consider me: because I was born into the Gautama clan, I was named after my clan and therefore am called Gautama. Or consider the messenger woman Visakha: Visakha is the name of a constellation, and because she was named after that constellation, she was called Visakha.

Or consider a person with six fingers: because of those six fingers, he is named Six-Fingered. Or consider such designations as Buddha’s Servant, meaning a servant of the Buddha, and Deva’s Servant, meaning a servant of the devas; these names are respectively derived from the Buddha and the devas. Or consider creatures born from dampness: people accordingly call them moisture-born.

Or names may be assigned according to the cries of various creatures, such as ka-ka-la, kiu-kiu-la, dat-dat-la, and so forth. Names such as these all arise from causal conditions.”

“Instances in which there is no causal condition are such names as lotus, earth, water, fire, wind, space, and so forth. For example, the name māṇḍava has two meanings: first, it denotes a palace; second, it denotes the drinking of water. Yet a palace alone, without referring to the drinking of water, is also called māṇḍava. The name sarpa-chattra means a parasol covering a snake, though in fact it is not a parasol covering a snake. This is called arbitrarily assigning a name without a cause. The name tailapāyin means ‘one who drinks oil,’ though in fact there is no drinking of oil; nevertheless, the name ‘one who drinks oil’ is arbitrarily assigned. This is called arbitrarily assigning a name without causal conditions.

“Good man! This Great Nirvana is likewise: it has no causal condition, but is merely designated by an arbitrarily assigned name.

“Good man! Just as space is not called great space because of some small expanse of emptiness, so too nirvana is not called Great Nirvana because of any minor characteristic.

“Good man! Just as something is called great because it cannot be measured or conceived, so too nirvana is called Great Nirvana because it cannot be measured or conceived. Because it is pure and immaculate, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Good man! What does it mean to be pure and immaculate? Purity is of four kinds.

“What are the four?

“First, the twenty-five realms of existence are called impure. Because they can be forever eradicated, this is called purity. Purity is nirvana. Such nirvana is also said to exist. Yet that nirvana is in truth not an existent thing. The Buddhas, the Tathagatas, in conformity with worldly convention, say that nirvana exists. It is like people in the world calling one who is not their father ‘father,’ and one who is not their mother ‘mother’: though they are not truly father and mother, they are called father and mother. Nirvana is likewise. In conformity with worldly convention, it is said that the Buddhas possess Great Nirvana.

“Second is purity through karma. Because the karma of all ordinary beings is impure, they do not have nirvana. Because the karma of the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, is pure, it is called pure and immaculate. Because it is pure and immaculate, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Third is purity of body. If the body is impermanent, it is called impure. The body of the Tathagata abides eternally and is therefore called pure and immaculate. Because it is pure and immaculate, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Fourth is purity of mind. If the mind has defilements, it is called impure. The mind of the Buddha is free from defilements and is therefore called pure and immaculate. Because it is pure and immaculate, it is called Great Nirvana.

“Good man! This is called the complete accomplishment of the first portion of merit by good men and good women who cultivate and practice in accordance with this Great Parinirvana Sutra.”