金剛般若經贊述

Preface

The Prajnaparamita Sutra comprises six hundred fascicles, with the Diamond Sutra as its essential core, on account of its profound and subtle mysteries. That people have become separated from the sages through delusion is by no means an unfounded assertion.

Formerly, Asanga received a Dharma-transmission verse from Bodhisattva Maitreya, while Vasubandhu awakened to the Way through his virtuous elder brother; both were eminent masters of the treatises. They were like the radiant sun and moon illuminating dark places, and it was from them that the teaching gradually spread eastward. Translations and commentaries came to exist in many different forms.

Tradition records that the Tripitaka Dharma Master was a later incarnation of Bodhisattva Sadaprarudita. Firmly trusting what others held to be true, he devoted his mind and exhausted himself, forgetting his own person for the sake of the Dharma and comprehensively applying his understanding. He translated the sutras and entrusted himself wholly to this Dharma.

The date was recorded according to the Cheng Jia Rui era, and the correctness of its recitation may also be clearly seen through this most noteworthy sutra text. Following the intention of the treatise master, three principal points were separately set forth, called the Profound Record, the Eulogistic Exposition, and the Harmonized Interpretation; on this basis, the scripture itself was directly explained. Such is the Eulogistic Exposition in particular.

Yet scholars who know of this work seem almost indifferent and do not even glance at it; how, then, can they investigate its meaning and principles?

In Viet Tien, Master Nghe often lamented this matter and wished to have woodblocks carved so that the work might circulate in the world. Searching everywhere, he obtained five volumes, which he consulted and supplemented for purposes of collation. I recalled that Hung Phuoc Monastery possessed a valuable copy.

Thus, in the summer of the Quy Dau year, when my search had reached that place, I earnestly took out one fascicle to examine, wishing to learn the history of its transmission. Master Nghe was delighted, took it away, and at the end of autumn brought it back, saying that the work of critical examination had been completed, and asked me to compose a preface. I greatly feared that crude words passing before the eyes of sages would inevitably incur blame, yet it was difficult to withdraw; therefore, I resolutely declined and dared not write.

In the summer of the At Hoi year, when the carving of the blocks was completed, he again brought the book and asked me to write a few words attesting to the impartiality of the corrections. Moved by Master Nghe’s earnest desire to propagate the teaching, I forgot my own humble rusticity and briefly related the circumstances, hoping thereby to forestall reproach.

The twelfth year of Bunka, the fifth day of the summer month in the At Hoi year,

in the study of Hung Phuoc Monastery.

Respectfully recorded by Sangha Administrator Anh.

Preface to the Woodblock Edition of the Eulogistic Exposition

The Diamond Prajnaparamita Sutra

Since beginningless kalpas, we have encountered sentient beings drifting upon the ocean of birth and death, now sinking, now rising, with no time of escape in sight. Out of compassion, the Great Sage, the World-Honored One, taught the great Dharma, expounding it in order to destroy attachment to existence. The Buddha taught the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra at four places in sixteen assemblies, and this Diamond Prajnaparamita Sutra constitutes the ninth assembly.

It is truly the essential core of the shore of awakening and the secure gateway for entering the Way. For this reason, eminent masters in China and Japan all composed commentaries on this sutra, including Masters Sengzhao, Jingying, and others; altogether, there were more than ten commentators. The woodblock editions carved and transmitted during our dynasty may also provisionally be said to be quite numerous.

Yet only Dharma Master Kuiji of Ci’en Monastery in the Tang dynasty composed a commentary in two fascicles. Catalogues of the eastern region call it the Eulogistic Exposition. Since it was transmitted to China, more than a thousand years have passed, yet no woodblock edition has circulated in the world for scholars to study.

Is this not a grave deficiency? My fellow member of the scholarly society, Zhoushanzi, whose Dharma name is Shunye, possesses penetrating intelligence and broad learning, with lofty and far-reaching scholarly aspirations. One year he came to study at this academy.

Knowing well that this sutra was not yet circulating in the world, he consulted excellent texts and diligently collated them over many years. He applied ever greater effort to reading them and then entrusted the work to the curved carving knives, committing it to wood, and asked me to write a preface. Though my understanding is deficient, how could I not rejoice to see the sutra circulate widely throughout the country and overseas?

Furthermore, the Diamond Prajnaparamita Sutra was explained in one fascicle by Great Master Zhiyi, patriarch of the Tiantai school; in two fascicles by Great Master Zhixiang, patriarch of the Huayan school; and in four fascicles by Dharma Master Jizang, patriarch of the Three Treatises school. The sutra under discussion here was composed by Dharma Master Kuiji, patriarch of the Faxiang school. Thus, with commentaries by four masters of the Mahayana, the collection is indeed complete.

I reflect that if the members of our scholarly society rely upon this sutra to study its commentaries, they will naturally comprehend the doctrines of the One Vehicle and the Three Vehicles, as well as the Dharma approaches concerning nature and characteristics taught by the two schools. For this reason, I am profoundly moved to offer my assistance. Zhoushanzi also raised this undertaking according to his own intention.

Unashamed of my meager ability, I have taken up the brush to record the circumstances behind the carving of these blocks and to indicate the essential purport of the sutra.

The tenth year of Bunka, during the midwinter observance in the intercalary month of the Quy Dau year, at Huong Nguyet Cloister in Viet Chau.

Recorded by Bhiksu Tham Le in the scholars’ quarters at Kinh Trieu.

There are six general principles of collation:

1. In preparing this work, I consulted six copies. Three of them were ancient Nanto texts from Hung Phuoc Monastery, transmitted through many generations. Because they are also important texts suitable for use as authorities, I have now taken them as the principal basis for comparison with other scriptural editions. Whenever two copies agreed, their reading was retained. Elsewhere, even where a passage seemed doubtful, if all the other copies agreed, I invariably followed the original wording and dared not conjecture. Moreover, as a commentary, this is truly an excellent work.

2. The newly translated sutra had not yet attained polished and elegant diction, so this commentary relies upon Kumarajiva’s translation for its explanations, since that version was the first to circulate widely. Nevertheless, Kumarajiva’s text still contains a few deficiencies, and other copies were therefore used to supplement it. Generally speaking, the present text is correct, but its commentary follows the principles prescribed above.

1. This commentary repeats passages from the scripture, but in each section it cites only the beginning and end while omitting the middle. I have now followed the circulating edition of the Tripitaka and supplied the complete text for ease of reference.

2. The sutra has circulated in numerous woodblock editions prepared by many different scholars. The present version has now been extracted directly from the Tripitaka so as to correspond to the repeated citations in the commentary, chiefly to reveal points of agreement and difference with the Tripitaka. Editions from the Song and Ming dynasties, as well as the Goryeo edition, have also been consulted, and all such readings are clearly indicated in the footnotes. The commentary cites two treatises whose wording sometimes differs from that found in the three copies mentioned above. Because these are not part of the principal explanation, no additional footnotes are necessary; readers should investigate and understand these matters for themselves.

3. I have read all six copies. Each omits the royal exhortation, yet otherwise none is incomplete. I therefore requested monastic stewards learned in the Vinaya to review them again, consult the texts, make corrections and additions, and confer together. They were then entrusted to a reading committee for ease of consultation. Thus, it became evident that the excellent ancient text should serve as the authoritative basis and principal standard.

4. In preparing woodblocks for printing, one must necessarily rely upon the hand of a copyist, and occasional errors are therefore unavoidable. I have not been able to identify every such error. Trusting that the written copy was complete, it was entrusted to the curved carving knife. Though the result may lack artistic beauty, it will not go so far as to mislead others.

The tenth year of Bunka, the tenth month of the Quy Dau year.

Upper Fascicle

Here, three clear points are provisionally presented for consideration: clarity regarding the cause, clarity regarding the date, and clarity and concision in the explanatory text.

1. The causes, when clearly distinguished, are further divided into two: the causes for the teaching of the scriptures are precisely the two causes of EMPTINESS and EXISTENCE. Thus, nine hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvana, Asanga sought from above the virtue of the Compassionate Honored One, who opened the gate of the Middle Way (1), and expounded it.

The Yogacara scriptures, the Treatise on the Seventeen Stages, the Treatise on the Discrimination of the Middle and the Extremes, and so forth were all taught by Maitreya, as clearly stated in the various chapters. In clarifying the causes, the Mahayana-samgraha states that there are two kinds of treasury: the Sravaka Treasury and the Bodhisattva Treasury. Within them are three points that merit careful consideration.

Works such as the Abhidharma treatises, the Avatamsaka, and the Prajnaparamita are clearly designated as belonging to the Bodhisattva Treasury. The Samdhinirmocana Sutra and the Abhidharma scriptures are called the Abhidharma Treasury. The Vinaya scriptures, the Ghosa scriptures, and so forth constitute the third treasury.

Yet the scriptures mentioned above relied solely upon Sanskrit texts, each of which contained many verses. Because they were buried and concealed, scrolls and fascicles were lost and their number diminished; or, in China, translators abridged them. Consequently, over time only approximate versions remained, as in the case of the Abhidharma Sutra, which contains the Mahayana-samgraha Chapter.

Through the empowering blessing of the Buddha, it is said that nine hundred years after the Buddha’s passing, Bodhisattva Asanga summarized the scriptures, extracting their essential meaning into twenty-seven thousand verses, which became the Abhidharma Treatise. Later, in succession, there were masters such as Buddhasimha—translated into Chinese as “Enlightened Lion”—who composed sixty-three thousand verses; this work and the two-fascicle work composed by the earlier master circulated separately.

Later, Bodhisattva Sthiramati combined them into a single work, which was therefore called the Miscellaneous Compendium Treatise. It is one of the ten branch treatises of the Yogacara teachings; in this sense, the Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only is also one branch. Likewise, Katyayana composed the Jnanaprasthana Treatise three hundred years later, and subsequently there were also the Six-Foot Abhidharma Treatises and so forth.

2. Clarification of the dates: this comprises two parts: a/ clarification concerning the sutra; b/ clarification concerning the treatises. As for the sutra: the Prajnaparamita had, from ancient times, five translators, whose origins are fully recorded in the Hsüan Chi.

Yet Tripitaka Master Kumarajiva first arrived from the Western Regions in the nineteenth year of the Zhenguan era and initially translated the treatise on this sutra, being foremost with respect to the teaching. In the twenty-third year of Zhenguan, the Tripitaka Master accompanied the imperial procession to the Jade Flower Palace. At first, the Emperor did not consent to compose a eulogy of its merits.

The five translators of the sutra and treatises then inquired into the profound reason why it merited extensive praise, whereupon the Emperor composed a preface to the Prajnaparamita Sutra called the Preface to the Sacred Teachings of the Tripitaka. At that time, the Crown Prince also wrote a preface to the Treatise on the Exposition of the Teaching. The Emperor studied the newly translated sutra and treatises and praised their profound mysteries, but there was one unfavorable circumstance: they had not been produced in sufficient numbers for wide dissemination.

The Emperor then asked the Tripitaka Master, “What skillful method should be employed to remedy this situation?”

-The Tripitaka Master replied: The brush may be taken up to transcribe the Prajnaparamita Sutra.

The Emperor accordingly followed his advice. The Tripitaka Master then exerted himself in translation day and night, working until the fifth watch and applying the three kinds of wisdom, until the translation was completed. After the Emperor had read it, he ordered the appropriate office to copy it into ten thousand fascicles.

Its sentences and words were not repetitive, but flowed continuously and coherently. Later, when there was a desire to translate it again, there was no way to gather the copies that had previously been distributed. It is therefore evident that Sanskrit books from many generations were entrusted to the Tripitaka Master.

He read the Sanskrit books from the land of Kucha; thus, the text translated by Kumarajiva resembled the text translated by Paramartha in Kunlun. Although the wording of the sutras differed considerably according to their literary form, their authenticity or falsity could clearly be discerned, and their titles were not identical. Only the Tripitaka Master’s version was called The Diamond That Cuts, following the earliest translation.

The treatise by Asanga was also called The One Capable of Cutting. What meaning is clearly and readily understood here? The Tripitaka Master explained that “diamond” has three meanings:

1. The meaning of that which is broken: Asanga’s treatise states that the practice of right view, the practice of wrong view, and their interpretation—although right and wrong differ, the activity performed is ultimately the same. Thus, activity falls within these two modes of seeing. It is like a diamond: although it is one, the active agent and passive object differ. Although called a diamond, there is also something that can break it, just as the horn of a white ram can shatter a diamond substance.

2. The meaning of being able to break: Asanga said: first, subtlety is the cause of wisdom; second, firmness is such that nothing can break it. The commentary explains: the two gateways of wisdom—learning and knowledge—can subdue defilements and afflictions and thereby gradually give rise to the wisdom of cultivation.

Thus, it is called “able to break” and is also called the cause of knowledge. Firmness refers to the wisdom of cultivation: a concentrated mind can break through the obstructions and is therefore called firm. Alternatively, within the wisdom of cultivation there are separately the two kinds, contaminated and uncontaminated, by which subtlety and firmness are distinguished.

Or, with reference to the uncontaminated, there are both the path of subjugation and severance and the path of delusion, with its two aspects operating together. Yet the afflictive obstruction extends through both principle and phenomena; contemplation of these two Dharma aspects restrains and subdues it, suppressing what arises above and bringing what lies below into conformity. The obstruction to what is knowable is subdued solely through contemplation of principle, as I understand it.

Moreover, so long as liberation has not been attained, subtlety and firmness are not distinguished. Upon attaining the fruit of Buddhahood, the path of liberation is called severance, but it is neither the function of severance nor the essence of severance. Because there is nothing to be severed, it is not called the essence of severance; because it has already been severed and is not presently being severed, it is not called that which is capable of severing.

The meaning of breadth and narrowness: Asanga’s treatise states that the shape of a diamond, when drawn, is broad at both ends and narrow in the middle. The commentary explains: the fruit of Buddhahood and the stages preceding the bhumis are represented by the broad portions, while the ten bhumis are represented by the narrow portion, because in each bhumi one cultivated practice is taken as foremost. Alternatively, the first seven bhumis are called broad, each being delimited according to its meaning.

One should therefore understand that, in the present context, that which is broken is called “diamond.” The Diamond Prajnaparamita is able to break things and is therefore called “diamond”; the diamond itself is also Prajnaparamita. Yet the sutra holds that pan-jo, “prajna,” is the wisdom belonging to the causal stage, while sa-po-jo, translated into Chinese as “knowledge of all things,” is the knowledge belonging to the resultant stage.

Pan-jo and shen-jo refer to the wisdom that utterly severs delusion. This is what is signified here, and it is therefore called “capable of cutting.” The treatise states that, at present, three works circulate in the Tang realm: 1. The work translated by Vasubandhu, consisting of two or three fascicles; 2. the work composed by Asanga, consisting of one or two fascicles; 3. the work composed by Vajrasena, who is understood to have been a native of Wu in China and whose work is not an authentic sacred teaching, consisting of eleven or thirteen fascicles.

If one studies EXISTENCE while failing to understand EMPTINESS, the mind of deluded conceptualization becomes rather abundant; if one studies only EMPTINESS but not EXISTENCE, the true knowledge that takes EMPTINESS as its cause does not arise. Deluded conceptualization is extinguished through the gateway of emptiness, while the true mind arises within the domain of existence. Existence and emptiness are like the two faces of a mirror; therefore, the teaching is of two kinds: 1. teachings that accord with capacities, such as the Four Noble Truths, the twofold emptiness, and other Dharmas; 2. teachings that reveal the principle, such as the teachings of signlessness, true reality, and so forth. The Buddha teaches the Dharma with but a single voice.

The Avatamsaka Sutra states that the Tathagata, using only a single voice, proclaims innumerable scriptures as vast as the ocean. The Lotus Sutra clearly sets forth their inclusion within the One Vehicle, while the Srimala Sutra discusses in general their points of emergence and entry, as well as their inclusion. Yet the Lotus Sutra states that if a person practices the five paramitas, this does not equal receiving, retaining, hearing, and understanding the Lotus Sutra.

Because bodhi and nirvana are collectively called the One Vehicle, the ox-cart serves as an analogy for bodhi. The sutra states, “I have made this cart for you, my children; therefore, it should be given to each person in accordance with that person’s aspiration.” The Srimala Sutra states that practicing the six paramitas does not equal holding a scroll of the sutra in one’s hands; this is said with reference to True Suchness as the Vehicle.

Thus do the scriptures fully reveal all the characteristics. “Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was dwelling in the country of Sravasti, in the Jeta Grove, in Anathapindika’s Park.”

3. Textual analysis (explanation): This sutra has three parts from beginning to end: a/ the opening section: first, the causes and conditions are set forth; b/ the middle section: beginning with “…at that time, Venerable Subhuti rose from his seat.” This is the section in which he requests instruction from the Buddha, and the Buddha gives an extensive reply; c/ the concluding section: after the Buddha has finished teaching the sutra, those who practice rejoice in their realization.

Section a/ has two points: the general causes and conditions, and the particular occasion or reason. The section on the general causes and conditions has five points: 1/ the accomplishment of the text (the hearer of the sutra): “Thus have I heard” (Venerable Ananda heard the Buddha teach the sutra), which engenders faith and establishes that it was heard; 2/ the accomplishment of time: the speaker of the sutra and the assembly hearing the sutra gathered at the same time, without distinguishing between common and particular, hence the words “at one time”; 3/ the accomplishment of the presiding teacher: the revered teacher who instructs and teaches the Dharma, namely the Buddha;

4/ the accomplishment of place: the place where the teaching is given must surely surpass other places for the proclamation of the wondrous Dharma; therefore it is said to be Anathapindika’s Park in Prince Jeta’s Grove, in the country of Sravasti; 5/ the accomplishment of the assembly: those whose capacities were suited to receiving instruction, namely the 1,250 persons present in the assembly.

Among them were also bodhisattvas, as the Buddha stated, and all eight classes of beings were present, as noted later in the dissemination section. Here, only the assembly of sravakas is mentioned in brief; this should become clear upon considering the entire sutra.

The land referred to is Fa-su, Hsien-ch’ing, or Hu-tu. The old translation “Five Indias” is incorrect. It is now explained as Hsien-tu, translated into Chinese as “Moon Clan.” In these five regions there were many sages and worthies, just as the bright moon dispels darkness and can diminish heat; hence this was adopted as the name.

The old translation “Yueh-chih” is likewise incorrect, and the rendering of the country’s name as Sravasti is also a corruption. It should be called Sravasti-pura, translated into Chinese as “Abundance of Virtue.” The city is called “Abundant in Learning,” “Abundant in Desirable Objects,” “Abundant in Liberation,” and so forth. The lord of this city was Prasenajit, an attendant of King Victorious Army; this was the name of a capital city in Central India.

The country was named Kosala and lay south of the Ganges; hence Kosala was selected to represent the name of the city. The city in southern Kosala had no separate name, so the name of the country was taken as its name. Jeta Grove is also called Jetavana, the grove belonging to Prince Jeta, whose name is translated into Chinese as “Victorious in Battle.” Anathapindika’s Park is also associated with Sudatta, who purchased this property from the prince.

The two representative names are therefore combined, naming both men. This is explained in detail in the sections on the causes and conditions found in the various commentaries.

“Together with a great assembly of 1,250 bhiksus.” Explanation: The Buddha’s being together with the great assembly is expressed by “together with,” clearly showing that the instruction accorded with their capacities. This pertains to the fifth accomplishment, that of the assembly. Nagarjuna explains six meanings as follows: 1.

Together in the city of Abundance of Virtue; 2. Together in time: here, “together” means that the speaker and the listeners were all present at the same time; 3. Together in mind, all receiving the same flavor of Dharma; 4.

Together in view, all realizing the same principle of liberation; 5. Together in precepts, all being united in the pratimoksa precepts; 6. Together in liberation, those of the three vehicles all sitting upon the seat of liberation.

Possessing all these meanings is collectively called “together.”

“Great” has five meanings: 1. Great and numerous, like great persons—a great assembly possessing knowledge; 2. Eminent in rank: all abided in the fruits of the noble ones and were not ordinary beings; 3. Great in merit: they had completely eliminated the afflictions and realized the wisdom arising from their cessation; 4. Great in practice: they sought to attain the wisdom that knows the path of liberation; 5. Numerous in followers, numbering 1,250 persons.

Nagarjuna explains: Among the seven kinds of precious substances, gold is supreme, and among variegated material objects no fine thing is more important. Likewise, among the Three Jewels, the Buddha was supreme during his lifetime; even in the later age of the decline of the Dharma, a Sangha member who breaks the precepts is still supreme. The sutra states: although the campaka flower has withered, it is still superior to other fresh flowers; bhiksus of evil conduct who break the precepts are still superior to precept-observing non-Buddhists. Here, “great” is used in contrast to those who are still in training.

“Bhiksu” has three meanings: 1. One who frightens Mara: with a courageous mind, one leaves the household life, causing the four kinds of Mara (2) to become afraid; 2. Mendicant: one sustains oneself by begging for food, thereby benefiting oneself and others; 3.

One of pure livelihood: one completely avoids wrong conduct (3), and the three kinds of karma are upright. The five forms of wrong livelihood are: 1. Displaying unusual behavior for the sake of material gain, such as sitting where people pass by while reciting with prayer beads, and so forth; 2.

Boasting of one’s own virtue; 3. Divining auspicious and inauspicious signs, good and bad; 4. Assuming an imposing manner and displaying authority; 5.

For the sake of material gain, claiming to have attained this or that realization in order to sway others.

The “assembly” refers to the fourfold assembly that upholds the precepts and maintains the deportments without ever transgressing them, overcomes evil, cultivates the path, eliminates the afflictions, and attains the fruits. Therefore, the Sangha is called an assembly; it is complete in both principle and phenomena. As for the 1,250 persons: when the Buddha first attained the Way, in his first teaching he delivered five people who had formerly been his fellow practitioners.

The second time, he delivered fifty people, including Yasa and the others. The third time, he delivered Sariputra and one hundred people. The fourth time, he delivered Maudgalyayana and one hundred others.

The fifth time, he delivered Uruvilva Kasyapa and his group of five hundred. The sixth time, he delivered Gaya Kasyapa and his group of 295. The seventh time, the Buddha delivered Nadi Kasyapa and his group of two hundred.

Thus, there were 1,250 persons in all, indicating the number of those who regularly accompanied the Buddha. Later there were also bhiksunis, who are omitted here for brevity. However, the Agama Sutras were taught solely for those who had generated the resolve to seek the Sravaka Vehicle, whereas the Prajnaparamita was NOT taught by the Buddha for those who had generated the resolve to seek the Mahayana.

Therefore, it is later said that it was taught for those seeking the Mahayana and the Supreme Vehicle.

The Nirvana Sutra, Lotus Sutra, Samdhinirmocana Sutra, and others generally state that they were taught for those who had generated the resolve to seek the various vehicles. This means that teaching conditioned and unconditioned dharmas is called “existence,” while speaking of self and what belongs to self is called “emptiness.” Here, the sravaka assembly is also included in order to cause them to generate the resolve to seek the Mahayana. Since the bodhisattvas had already generated that resolve, they are omitted here for brevity. The explanation of the general causes and conditions is now complete.

“At that time, when it was time for the meal, the World-Honored One put on his robe, took up his alms bowl, and entered the great city of Sravasti to beg for food. Having gone from house to house within the city and finished his alms round, he returned to his original dwelling. After eating his meal, he put away his robe and bowl, washed his feet, spread out his seat, and sat down.”

Explanation: This is the second section, setting forth the particular occasion. This passage contains ten points: 1) The teaching master is the World-Honored One; 2) The occasion for establishing the teaching conditions, namely the time for receiving the meal; 3) Preparing and putting on the robe; 4) Holding the alms bowl in his hand; 5) Going barefoot and entering the great city of Sravasti; 6) Needing food, he went to beg for alms; 7) After completing the alms round, he returned to his original dwelling; 8) Washing his feet, meaning that he had finished receiving his meal; 9) Putting away the robe and bowl and washing his feet; 10) Spreading out his seat and sitting down, meaning that he abided securely in worldly meditative concentration.

“World-Honored One” means one who fully possesses the six virtues and vanquishes the evil maras. Concerning the six virtues, the Treatise on the Buddha-bhumi states: 1) The virtue of mastery: he is entirely unbound by the afflictions; 2) The meaning of blazing splendor: he uses the fire of samadhi to temper the fire of wisdom; 3) Majestic dignity: he is fully adorned with the excellent marks; 4) Worthiness of his name: all his merits are perfectly complete and supreme, and there is nothing he does not know; 5) Auspiciousness: he is approached and honored with offerings by the world, and everyone joyfully praises him; 6) Venerability: fully possessing every merit, he constantly employs skillful means to benefit and bring peace and happiness to all sentient beings without ever growing weary.

To say “at the time of taking food” means the time of the meal. From here onward, this is explained clearly in each passage. The Vimalakirti Sutra records that the Buddha said to Ananda that all Buddhas perform the work of a Buddha through their dignified deportment and conduct; why, then, is the time of taking food mentioned here?

This clarifies that, after taking food, the Buddha preached the Sutra, which is the main part. The Buddha taught the signless principle of the Mahayana, free from the two attachments to EXISTENCE and NONEXISTENCE; therefore, after finishing the meal, he preached the Sutra. This indicates a distinct point in time.

It demonstrates that, before one wishes to teach the signless Dharma, one must first contemplate the signless principle. For example, before preaching the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, one must first enter the Samadhi of the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings in order to contemplate the principle of the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings. The Buddha takes wisdom as his life and signlessness as his food.

Wishing to expound the meaning of signlessness, he first used wisdom to contemplate the wondrous principle of signlessness and only afterward taught the Dharma; hence it is called the time of taking food.

Putting on the robe: Dharma robes are of three kinds: the Sanghati, the Uttarāsanga, and the Antarvāsa. The Sanghati is worn when entering royal palaces, cities, and villages. The Uttarāsanga is worn within the assembly and when preaching the Dharma.

The Antarvāsa is the robe ordinarily worn while working. Since the Buddha was now about to enter the city, he had to put on the first kind of robe. In accordance with the proper interpretation, this also has three meanings: 1.

Diligence, also called armor, meaning that one urges oneself at the appropriate time to preach the Dharma for the benefit of people and beings, undeterred by cold or heat; therefore, one wears this robe. 2. The robe of gentleness and patient endurance: through patience one can withstand external hostility and harm without being injured, just as, when one wears a robe, heat and cold cannot touch the body. 3. The outer garment of moral shame and conscience: through reverence for the worthy and virtuous, one resists violence and evil; moral shame is a bodily mark, and therefore one wears this robe.

Here it signifies that the Buddha, urging himself to teach the subtle and wondrous signless Dharma, had to put on his robe.

The alms bowl means a vessel of appropriate measure—a vessel that measures correctly—and has two meanings: 1. It accords with the amount one uses. 2. It accords with the quantity of things offered by donors. Because it is neither large nor small, it is called “of appropriate measure.” This demonstrates that the Buddha makes no distinction between inner realization and the principle, just as an alms bowl receives food. Because the mind arises in wisdom, it is also called “holding.”

Entering the great city of Sravasti signifies the intention to enter the great city of the true Dharma and partake of the food of signlessness; that is, the true Dharma is spoken of as being like a city. The Vimalakirti Sutra records: “Kha” means the city that protects the Dharma, while the bodhisattva is like the guardian of the city. Alternatively, the true Dharma is like the people within the city, while the bodhisattva is like the city itself; thus “the Bowl” is called the city that protects the Dharma. Or it means entering the great city of the dharmadhatu and drinking the flavor of signlessness. This is what is signified by saying that he entered the great city of Sravasti.

Begging for food rightly signifies nonconceptual wisdom realizing the signless principle. Going in sequence to beg for food means proceeding from one lane to another and from one house to another, thereby revealing that in each and every dharma one attains the signless principle. Returning again to his original place signifies that the Buddha was about to preach the signless Dharma; upon returning, he therefore aroused subsequently attained wisdom and, for the sake of others, extensively proclaimed the sound of the Dharma. Washing his feet signifies that, after going outside, earth and dust adhered to them, and therefore his feet had to be washed clean of soil and dust. If the inner mind is defiled, the Dharma one hears cannot penetrate deeply.

Spreading out his seat and sitting down: because he wished to teach the supreme Dharma, the Blessed One himself spread out his seat and sat down, just as we see that a venerable person does not rely upon someone else to spread out his sitting mat. Master Asanga’s treatise states that this demonstrates that only one who is tranquil can awaken to and expound the Dharma. Thus, the Blessed One seated himself with his body upright in meditative concentration, demonstrating that inwardly he had awakened to the true principle and outwardly was able to preach the signless Dharma.

The Vajracchedika Sutra states: “Sitting with the back turned away and the face directed toward contemplation.” “Back” means distancing oneself, while “face” means turning toward contemplation; that is, using wisdom to contemplate the principle is like using a mirror to look at one’s face. To speak of the back means that the back represents samsara, while the face represents nirvana; the back abandons afflictions, while the face attains the true principle; the back departs from existence and nonexistence, while the face abides in the Middle Way.

These meanings should be understood. It may also be said that “facing mindful contemplation” means intimate familiarity; that is, using wisdom to attain the principle is like coming face to face with someone familiar.

“At that time, the elder Subhuti, who was in the midst of the great assembly, rose from his seat, bared his right shoulder, placed his right knee upon the ground, joined his palms respectfully, and addressed the Buddha, saying:”

At that time, the elder Subhuti, in the midst of the great assembly, immediately rose and left his seat, drew back his robe to bare his right shoulder, respectfully joined his palms, knelt with his knee touching the ground, and addressed the Buddha, saying…

Explanation: This important second passage is the section in which the Blessed One is questioned. Regarding the main portion, Vasubandhu divides the text into two parts: from here through “…the karmic result is inconceivable” is the first cycle of teaching; and from “At that time, Subhuti…” through “How should one abide?” and onward as far as “…should contemplate in this manner” is the second cycle of teaching. This means that the first cycle raises three questions: how those who have not yet aroused the mind should arouse it, and even how those who have already practiced should eliminate obstacles.

The second cycle teaches how bodhisattvas should arouse three kinds of mind regarding themselves and practice, namely, “I am able to arouse the mind,” through “…I am able to eliminate obstacles.” This eliminates the conceit of superiority, as already explained. Thus, in the first cycle, the Buddha taught the Dharma to instruct those who had not yet aroused the mind and cause them to arouse it. In the latter cycle, he taught the Dharma for those who, having already aroused the mind, thought, “I am able to arouse the mind.” Alternatively, the second cycle separately explains practitioners’ elimination of obstacles.

The old explanation states that the first cycle concerns the arising of good, while the latter concerns the elimination of obstacles, namely the cognitive obscuration. Therefore, the treatise below states that if, while cultivating the inner mind, one still thinks, “I am a bodhisattva,” one remains obstructed and cannot abide in the Way. Because bodhisattvas who do not abide in the Way make no distinction regarding inner obstacles and attain the true principle only through realization, no thought arises in them that says, “I have attained.” Furthermore, correctly understanding the two faculties—sharp and dull—before and after, the Buddha taught two cycles.

The first cycle has two purports: from “…should subdue the mind in this manner…” through “…abide in accordance with the teaching” is the main section. “Can the Tathagata be seen by means of bodily marks?” begins the subsequent section on resolving doubts. This means that cultivation is that which can eliminate, while prajna is that by which elimination is accomplished, and what is eliminated consists of the two obstacles.

The preceding passage has four purports: 1. Subhuti sincerely seeks instruction and poses his questions. 2. The Buddha praises the questions and promises to explain. 3.

He respectfully receives the rare teaching. 4. The questions are answered in sequence. Alternatively, the preceding passage may be said to have three parts: 1.

Reverence for the Buddha. 2. Wholehearted praise. 3. Presentation of the request.

This is the opening passage.

However, Bodhisattva Asanga established seven kinds of meaningful statements by means of which prajnaparamita is established, meaning that they are inseparable from the spiritual lineage. These are the first three statements among the seven meaningful statements. In analyzing this Sutra, they comprise three sections in all; the latter four sections are clearly contained within them, meaning that what is included cannot be discussed separately. Those three textual sections are as follows:

1. Venerable Subhuti’s praise concerns the lineage of emptiness. 2. Venerable Subhuti’s request initiates the characteristics of practice; that is, he asks about cultivation. 3.

The Buddha promises to answer, through the passage “one should contemplate in this way.” This is called the practice of the abiding places, meaning that one cultivates in reliance upon the Buddha’s teaching. This is one aspect of applying the method of cultivation. 4. Counteraction: within the practice of the abiding places, there is no separate passage concerning the counteracting subject and the object to be counteracted.

The Treatise states that such corresponding practice constitutes the characteristics of practice in the abiding places, in which there are two kinds of counteraction. One should know them to be the discernment of wrong practice and right practice. Here, the word “discernment” means conceptual discrimination.

In the first abiding place, the passage from “A bodhisattva should give rise to such a mind” through the words concerning the existence of sentient beings and so forth counteracts wrong practice. Giving rise to such a mind is the wrong practice of a bodhisattva. Furthermore, the statement that a bodhisattva entertains the perception of sentient beings counteracts the discriminative view concerning right practice.

Such discriminative attachment by a bodhisattva must also be eliminated; this refers to the thought that sentient beings must be delivered. In the second abiding place, the statement that one should practice giving counteracts wrong practice, for failing to give is the wrong practice of a bodhisattva. Furthermore, the notion of abiding in the act of giving counteracts the discriminative view concerning right practice.

Such discriminative attachment by a bodhisattva must also be eliminated, as in the notion that one should practice giving. On the basis of this passage, there are two aspects—the counteracting subject and the object to be counteracted—as already explained. 5. Not losing: this means not losing the right path.

It prevents the attachments of superimposition and denigration. Within the practice of the abiding places, attachment to the existence of persons and dharmas is called the attachment of superimposition, while denying the existence of the Dharma of true suchness is called the attachment of denigration. One who holds such attachments immediately loses the right path.

Since these two attachments are now prevented, it is called “not losing.” The Treatise explains that the statement, “The Tathagata teaches that the nature of merit is not the nature of merit,” prevents attachment to the extreme of advantage, because the nature of that merit is not conceptually discriminated. Furthermore, the statement that what the Tathagata teaches is indeed merit possessed by the Tathagata prevents the extreme of deprivation.

For although it is held that things do not possess an intrinsic nature corresponding to words, the act of teaching nevertheless exists. Thus the Buddha speaks of an accumulation of merit, up through the passage declaring that those Buddha-dharmas are not Buddha-dharmas. The foregoing explains the point of not losing. 6.

The stages here are of three kinds: 1) The stage of practice through faith, namely the stage of ordinary beings, beginning with the initial aspiration and encompassing all dharmas. 2) The stage of the purified mind: the ten abodes, beginning with the passage, “For example, the body of a great person.” 3) The stage of Buddhahood: beginning with the passage, “If a bodhisattva were to think thus: ‘I should adorn the Buddha-land,’” and continuing to the end of the Sutra. 7.

Establishing the title: the meaning of the term “Vajracchedika” should be understood. However, the southern explanation of the Vajra Immortal divides this general treatise into twelve sections. Because the people of the north are free and unrestrained, making their own paths to follow, we do not rely upon that division.

Concerning the term “elder”: just as people in the Western Regions honor an aged person as an elder, a young person who possesses virtue is honored as a Great Virtuous One. It is not as it is here, where calling Subhuti an “elder” would be inappropriate. One should say Subhuti, whose name in Chinese is “Good Manifestation.” He was one of the disciples of the Blessed One and foremost among those who realized emptiness.

This means that, having been born into the world and encountered the Buddha, he was able skillfully to understand clearly the meaning of emptiness directly. Alternatively, when he was first born, the household became empty. A physiognomist examined the signs and named him Good Manifestation; “manifestation” means appearing.

When he was born, all the objects in the house became empty, signifying that when he grew up he would skillfully understand the meaning of emptiness; therefore he was called Good Manifestation. The new translation of the Vajracchedika calls him “the Venerable Good Manifestation.” Life is of two kinds: 1. the supramundane life of wisdom; 2. the worldly bodily life, meaning the continuity of form and mind. If only the life of wisdom were mentioned, it would not encompass the worldly; if only bodily life were mentioned, it would not include the supramundane.

Only one who fully manifests both is called Venerable. Thus Good Manifestation possessed both: 1. he attained the supramundane life of wisdom; 2. he possessed worldly longevity. Therefore he is also called an elder.

Rising from his seat symbolizes relinquishing the unreality of the Two Vehicles and proceeding toward the ultimate realization of the One Vehicle. Baring his right shoulder by arranging his robe symbolizes reverence. The right side is regarded as auspicious, signifying that wisdom can bring peace and well-being to the assembly.

Placing his right knee upon the ground symbolizes subduing the faults of birth and death, for since beginningless time the right hand and right foot have committed many offenses; it signifies that this Dharma can subdue the suffering of birth and death. Joining his palms demonstrates attentive listening and the unification of mind and Dharma. Reverence expresses the observance of respectful propriety.

In his Treatise, Venerable Asanga explains six reasons why Venerable Subhuti asked his questions: 1. To eliminate doubt. Since beginningless time, sentient beings have had their minds obscured by ignorance and covered by afflictions, causing them to give rise to doubts concerning such teachings as the Four Noble Truths, the Three Jewels, and so forth, and preventing them from developing faith.

When these questions are asked, all such points of doubt are eliminated. 2. To give rise to faithful understanding, questions must be asked. Even if one has faith in the Dharma, one may not know what to rely upon to arouse faith; therefore questions must be asked, causing the prajna of faithful understanding to arise. 3.

To penetrate deeply. This means that although wisdom gives rise to thoughts of faithful understanding, one may not yet penetrate the profound meaning; therefore questions must be asked so that one may understand it more deeply. 4. To attain non-retrogression, questions must be asked.

Although one may clearly understand the exceedingly profound Dharma, upon encountering minor matters such as disputes, indolence, and so forth, one may sometimes retreat in resolve. Once these questions are asked, one will never again regress. 5. To give rise to joy, questions must be asked.

Sentient beings are bewildered within birth and death and constantly harbor many anxieties and sufferings. Once these questions are asked, those sufferings are eliminated, and therefore a joyful mind arises. 6. For the long endurance of the true Dharma, questions must be asked.

This means that if the Buddha did not teach prajna in this manner, the true Dharma might quickly perish, with no one to preserve it. Once these questions are asked, the aspiration is that the true Dharma may long remain.

“How rare, O Blessed One! The Tathagata skillfully protects and keeps the bodhisattvas in mind, and skillfully entrusts the bodhisattvas.”

Explanation: According to Vasubandhu’s analysis, the first cycle contains two meanings: 1/ the principal section of the request; 2/ beginning with “Can the Tathagata be perceived by bodily marks?” the dispelling of doubts. Section (1) contains four meanings: a. reverent praise; b. the Buddha’s promise to answer; c. reverently accepting the rare teaching one is to hear; d. answering in accordance with the question. The first meaning is further divided into four: a. the place is clearly specified, namely, amid the great assembly; b. the manifestation of reverence; c. praise; d. posing the question. The foregoing completes the first two meanings.

This is the third point, praise: “How rare is the Blessed One!” During the abiding kalpa, a Buddha appears in the world only after the period of a declining kalpa has been reached. For example, in this Bhadrakalpa there are one thousand Buddhas, of whom four Buddhas have already appeared. Within this abiding kalpa, no Buddha appeared during the first five kalpas.

In the sixth kalpa, when the human lifespan was forty thousand years, Krakucchanda Buddha appeared in the world. In the seventh kalpa, when the human lifespan was thirty thousand years, Kanakamuni Buddha appeared in the world. In the eighth kalpa, when the human lifespan was twenty thousand years, Kasyapa Buddha appeared in the world.

In the ninth kalpa, when the human lifespan was one hundred years, Sakyamuni Buddha appeared in the world. In the tenth kalpa, when the human lifespan will be eighty thousand years, during the first period of decline, Maitreya Buddha will appear in the world. In the fiftieth kalpa and in the nine hundred and ninetieth kalpa, four Buddhas will appear together within a single kalpa.

Afterward, during the abiding kalpa, Rucika Buddha will appear in the world within a single kalpa. From then onward, twelve great kalpas will pass, and only in the Constellation Kalpa will the first Buddha, Sunlight Buddha, appear in the world. Thereafter, three hundred kalpas will pass before Buddhas again appear in the world.

The Lotus Sutra states that the appearance of Buddhas in the world occurs only after an exceedingly long time and is therefore very difficult to encounter. As for “skillfully protecting and keeping in mind,” Vasubandhu says that it means augmenting those who accompany one, and this has two meanings: 1. empowering the person; 2. increasing the number of fellow practitioners of the holy life.

Suppose a bodhisattva who had previously aroused the resolve in the presence of Buddhas has faculties that have already matured. The Buddha then protects and keeps that bodhisattva in mind; this is empowerment of the person, causing the wholesome qualities conducive to personal benefit to increase. Empowering fellow practitioners of the holy life means that a bodhisattva has companions who uphold the precepts together, enabling them to receive the Dharma teachings and thereby increase their work for the benefit of others.

“Skillfully entrusting” means bringing to maturity the faculties of bodhisattvas whose faculties have not yet matured, even though they have already aroused the resolve. There are two kinds of immaturity: 1. those who have never possessed merit; 2. those who have possessed merit but have regressed in resolve. These two kinds of people are entrusted to mature bodhisattvas for guidance: those who have not attained and have regressed are enabled to attain; those who have attained but have regressed are encouraged to advance diligently in cultivation.

Hence this is called entrusting. Furthermore, those who have attained non-retrogression are caused not to abandon the Mahayana. Previously, those whose faculties had not yet matured were entrusted to those whose faculties had matured; here, the Blessed One entrusts the Dharma to those whose faculties have not yet matured, causing them not to forsake the Mahayana.

Seeking to make them advance further in the Mahayana is called entrusting. The Treatise explains entrusting with two meanings: 1. Among bodhisattvas who have attained but regressed in resolve, or who have not attained and have fallen back, it means causing them not to abandon the Mahayana so that they may advance further; this is called entrusting.

Yet Asanga’s explanation is somewhat more comprehensive than that given here. He means that when the Buddha first attained enlightenment, there were bodhisattvas who had cultivated wholesome roots in the past and whose faculties had already matured. For them the Buddha taught the practices of the abiding grounds, taught the noble path as the means of personal counteraction, and distinguished what was to be counteracted.

He also taught the elimination of the two attachments of exaggeration and diminution, so that they would not lose the right path. Ordinary beings cultivate the practices of the bodhisattva and the Buddha ground; this is also the establishment of the designation prajna. Such is “skillfully protecting and keeping in mind.”

Again, “skillfully entrusting”: bodhisattvas whose faculties have not yet matured and who have not yet aroused the resolve to practice were entrusted by the Buddha before his nirvana. Having gathered and accepted them, he caused the bodhisattvas to teach according to these five meanings so that the Buddhadharma would endure. “Having gathered and accepted” refers to bodhisattvas whose faculties have already matured.

The phrase “protecting and keeping in mind” has six meanings: 1/ time: the Buddha always protects and keeps beings in mind during the two periods of the present and the future. In the present he causes them to attain peace and happiness—that is, he prevents them from doing evil and thereby incurring future retribution—so that they obtain benefit. He is unlike a loving mother who makes her young child happy in the present but, on the contrary, allows the child to commit evil. 2/ distinctions: he skillfully knows the differences among the faculties of sentient beings and teaches the Dharma accordingly;

this is skillfully protecting and keeping them in mind. 3/ sublimity: nothing surpasses using prajna to bring benefit and happiness to sentient beings. 4/ firmness: everything in the world is subject to disintegration; only prajna is ultimately enduring and firm. 5/ universality: because it is universal, it encompasses benefit for both oneself and others, unlike the Two Vehicles, which seek only personal benefit. 6/ differing characteristics: among ordinary beings cultivating at the stage of faith and practice, there are many distinctions.

In accordance with those distinctions, the Buddha differentiates and teaches distinct Dharmas for them.

“Skillfully entrusting” also has six meanings: 1/ a place of entry: the place to which one returns is called a place of entry; it is also called a place of security. This means that the Buddha entrusted those whose faculties had not yet matured, saying that after he entered nirvana, they should turn for refuge to the bodhisattvas and Buddhas, and therefore should take virtuous spiritual friends as their place of return. 2/ attaining the Dharma in this way: those whose faculties have matured and who have attained the Dharma should be gathered, transformed, and benefited, just as a mother cares for her young child. 3/ transmitting the teaching: the profound and wondrous Dharma of prajna must be widely transmitted and expounded,

so that the lamp of the true Dharma may continue without extinction. 4/ not losing: this refers to the place of entry; because there is a place to which one may return, one does not lose the right path, namely, the true Dharma. 5/ compassion: because the Dharma of suchness is endowed with compassion, it brings the benefit of the Dharma to others. 6/ reverence: this refers to transmitting the teaching; because prajna is revered, the teaching can be transmitted successively.

“Blessed One, when good men and good women arouse the mind of Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi, how should they abide, and how should they subdue their minds?”

Blessed One, if good men and faithful women arouse the resolve for unsurpassed bodhi, how should they abide in mind, and how should they subdue their minds?

Explanation: The third section: requesting the Buddha to explain the subduing of the mind.

A good man is called an upasaka. If one does not receive the precepts of individual liberation and does not regularly draw near and render assistance, one cannot be called good. “Arouse” means to produce or initiate.

Anuttara is translated into Chinese as “unsurpassed”; sam means “right”; yak means “equal”; sam again means “right”; and bodhi means “awakening.” Thus, taken together, it is called unsurpassed, right, equal, right awakening—unsurpassed bodhi. The first term is a general designation; what follows first excludes the false awakening of non-Buddhist paths, next excludes the one-sided awakening of the Two Vehicles, and then excludes the incomplete awakening of bodhisattvas in order to reveal perfect awakening.

Thus it is called unsurpassed, right, equal, right awakening. The essence of this awakening is the Dharma-body. As the Srimala Sutra states: “The Tathagata is the Dharma-body, and the Dharma-body is the realm of nirvana.” To “arouse” means to set out toward prajna; hence it is called arousing.

“How should they abide in mind?” asks: With what abiding mind do they arouse the resolve, and upon what should they abide when arousing it? Then how should they practice? Having aroused the resolve, how should they cultivate?

“How should they subdue their minds?” asks: once they understand how to practice, how should they eliminate the afflictions? “How should they abide?” means contemplating extensively the minds of sentient beings. “How should they practice?” means seeking the mind of bodhi.

“How should they subdue?” means becoming free from the conditioned mind. Furthermore, eliminating every evil is knowing how to subdue the mind. Cultivating every wholesome deed is knowing how to practice.

Liberating all kinds of sentient beings is knowing how to abide. Again, the three collections of precepts—the precepts that encompass moral discipline, the precepts that encompass wholesome qualities, and the precepts that benefit sentient beings—are also included as explained above, and this likewise follows Vasubandhu’s interpretation. Asanga, however, does not share this view.

He holds that “should abide” signifies aspiration and vow. Aspiration is correct seeking, namely, seeking Buddhahood. A vow is that which is sought; thus one causes the mind to contemplate and makes the vow to eliminate every evil.

Therefore, practice must accord with samapatti. Samapatti is non-discrimination. Samadhi means counteracting discrimination: one gives rise to non-discrimination, leading to non-discriminating wisdom.

The meaning is that discrimination gives rise to judgments of right and wrong; judgments of right and wrong give rise to afflictions; when afflictions arise, evil karma is created; and because evil karma is created, one revolves through birth and death. Now, to eliminate this, one gives rise to the practice of non-discrimination; discrimination itself is the cognitive obscuration. “Should subdue” means to break, overcome, and dissolve.

When it is broken and dissolved, the mind in samapatti restrains it and causes it to abide. This means that when the discriminating mind is overcome so that it is no longer scattered, this is called subduing. Giving rise to the non-discriminating samapatti is called practice.

Question: Why does it not say, “If good men and so forth, how should they abide in relation to the Three Vehicles?” Why does it speak only of the Mahayana?

Answer: As the Śrīmālā Sūtra says, bearing the four heavy burdens means that both those with inherent capacity and those without inherent capacity are encompassed and benefited. Therefore, the answer in the explanatory treatise is that it is unobtainable, because Venerable Subhūti was a śrāvaka. If he were asking about abiding in the practice of the Great Vehicle, this would be unobtainable; but if he were asking about abiding in the practice of the Two Vehicles, how could that be difficult? Thus, the World-Honored One would not have praised him, saying, “Excellent!” Furthermore, because the three kinds of bodhi differ, the question had to be skillfully posed; therefore, he asked only about the practice of the Bodhisattva Vehicle.

“The Buddha said: ‘Excellent, excellent, Subhūti! It is as you have said: the Tathagata skillfully protects and keeps all bodhisattvas in mind, and skillfully entrusts and gives instructions to all bodhisattvas. Now listen attentively, and I shall explain it for you. Good men and good women who arouse the mind of anuttara-samyak-saṃbodhi should abide in this manner and subdue their minds in this manner.’”

The Buddha taught: “Excellent, excellent, Subhūti! It is as you have said: the Tathagata skillfully protects and keeps all bodhisattvas in mind, and skillfully entrusts and gives instructions to all bodhisattvas. Now listen attentively, and the Tathagata shall explain it for you. Good men and good women who arouse the mind of unsurpassed bodhi should abide their minds in this manner and subdue their minds in this manner!”

Explanation: This is the second point: the Buddha praises him and promises to expound the teaching. It has three parts: 1/ praise; 2/ confirmation; 3/ the promise to explain clearly. The praise is expressed by the words “Excellent, excellent.” This means that if Venerable Subhūti’s question had not been fully reasonable, the Buddha would merely have consented to answer and would not necessarily have praised him a second time.

Because the question was extremely profound, the Buddha repeated “Excellent” twice. “Confirmation” means certifying the truth of his words. “The promise to expound” means that the Buddha was resolved to speak.

“Attentively” means to examine carefully, prompting the listener to receive the teaching thoroughly; hence he said, “Listen attentively.” In the sūtra, “listen” means to listen with concentrated attention, as the hungry need food and the thirsty need drink, devoting one’s entire mind to the discourse with joyful eagerness. When the mind listening to the Dharma rejoices in this way, the speaker is inspired to expound it.

“World-Honored One, I desire and rejoice to hear it.” (Indeed, World-Honored One, I wish and delight to hear.)

Explanation: This is the third point: reverently assenting to hear the rare teaching. “Indeed” is a word of reverence, affirming that the matter is precisely so.

“The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘All great bodhisattvas should subdue their minds in this manner. Whatever kinds of sentient beings there may be—whether born from eggs, born from wombs, born from moisture, or born by transformation; whether possessing form or formless; whether possessing perception or without perception; whether neither possessing perception nor lacking perception—’”

The Buddha taught Venerable Subhūti: “All great bodhisattvas should subdue their minds in this manner. Whatever kinds of sentient beings there may be—whether born from eggs, born from wombs, born from moisture, or born by transformation; whether possessing form or formless; whether possessing perception or without perception; whether neither possessing perception nor lacking perception—”

Explanation: This is the fourth point: answering the questions separately in accordance with each question.

Previously, the question of how to abide in the mind was answered; afterward, the question of how to practice was answered. Next, “Subhuti, a bodhisattva should subdue the mind in this way” answers the question of how to subdue the mind. According to the passage above, there are four meanings: 1. the vast mind; 2. the foremost mind; 3. the constant mind; 4. the non-inverted mind.

The foregoing follows the division established by Master Vasubandhu. According to Master Asanga, however, the third point concerns the abiding places of practice, of which there are eighteen, and thus it differs. If explained in terms of the stages, there are three meanings: the first sixteen positions belong to the stages prior to the bhumis; the two positions of Provisions and Preparatory Practice pertain to ordinary beings.

Practice is the stage of practice through faith. The seventeenth position, realization of the Path, is the Ten Bhumis; the bodhisattva practice is the stage of the purified mind. The eighteenth position, aspiring upward to the Buddha-path, is the Buddha-stage, as in the passage beginning, “I adorn the Buddha-land,” and so forth.

If the passage is explained in terms of abiding places, there are six: 1) the abiding place of gathering and embracing; 2) the pure abiding place of the paramitas. These two abiding places are the first two among the eighteen abiding places. 3) The abiding place of aspiration, which comprises two among the eighteen, namely, the wish to attain the form body and the Dharma body. 4) The abiding place of freedom from obstacles, which comprises the other twelve abiding places. 5) The abiding place of the purified mind, which is the seventeenth, entry into the Path. 6) The ultimate abiding place.

The latter two are not separate from the preceding six; therefore, since all the abiding places are included, only the abiding places are discussed. To say that there are six kinds means that within the first two abiding places there are already the two abiding places of vastness and profound depth. This is fully and clearly presented in the Treatise, and the remaining abiding places are likewise.

Based upon the six abiding places, four abiding places all belong to the stage of practice through faith, within which are the first two positions of Provisions and Preparatory Practice. Nevertheless, Master Asanga’s intention does not accord with Master Vasubandhu’s exposition. Each of the eighteen distinct positions answers the three preceding questions.

The Treatise states: The scripture says, “A bodhisattva should give rise to the mind in this way and abide,” clearly showing that a bodhisattva should abide in such aspiration and resolve. If a bodhisattva’s characteristics are swayed by sentient beings, that one is not a bodhisattva, demonstrating that one must cultivate inner strength so as to correspond with samapatti. If a bodhisattva gives rise to the characteristic of sentient beings, the characteristic of self and person, or the characteristic of a living being, that one is not called a bodhisattva.

This clearly shows how the mind should be subdued by gathering it in when it is distracted. Vasubandhu’s eighteen distinct abiding places therefore combine the first two distinctions to answer the three questions together; this differs from Master Asanga, according to whom each one answers all three questions. Upon examination, this becomes entirely clear.

Here, the answer to “How should one abide?” means how one should establish oneself in order to generate the mind. Practitioners who wish to realize bodhi and bring abundant benefit must first generate the great bodhi-mind and only then undertake right practice. The scripture teaches that when the first joint of a bamboo is split, all the other joints will surely split open as well; when the Path of Seeing first eliminates obstacles, the other obstacles are also swiftly eliminated.

When the bodhi-mind is generated, all virtues must thereby be brought to perfection; hence one first generates this mind. The scripture says: Just as the first drop of water in the great ocean can serve as a foundation for precious treasures, so is the initial generation of the mind. The wholesome dharmas of the Five Vehicles all arise because of it.

Moreover, just as the world first comes into being and then gradually develops, thereby bearing and sustaining sentient beings, so too can this mind serve as the supporting foundation for those in the five destinies, bearing and sustaining innumerable kinds of beings. Again, just as space always possesses the capacity to contain and embrace, the great bodhi-mind is likewise all-pervasive, neither conditioned nor separate from space.

Because bodhi is to be sought and realized, the aspiration extends throughout space; because sentient beings are contemplated deeply, although the initial generation of the mind is still weak, the merit accumulated in a single thought cannot be fully expressed, much less the meritorious benefit gained by generating the mind and practicing over many kalpas.

For what reasons does one generate the mind? 1) Seeing or hearing of the Buddha’s supernormal powers, virtues, and so forth. 2) Hearing the teachings of the bodhisattva Dharma. 3) Seeing or hearing that the Buddha-Dharma is about to disappear. Reflecting that the Dharma, which ought to abide firmly, is being extinguished causes immense anguish. 4) In the age of the final Dharma, most sentient beings are deluded, shameless, miserly, jealous, anxious, sorrowful, given to evil conduct, heedless, indolent, and faithless. Thus, in an evil age, such corrupt and evil afflictions frequently arise. One then thinks, “Now is the time for me to generate the mind and learn all things; I shall give rise to the thought of awakening,” and thereby immediately generates the great bodhi-mind.

When preparing to generate the mind, one must first possess ten virtues and give rise to three wondrous contemplations. The ten excellent virtues are: 1) Drawing near to good spiritual friends: those who share the same aspiration on the Path are close even when far away. Those who do not work together in harmony cannot become good spiritual friends even when nearby.

The Nirvana Sutra states: A good spiritual friend teaches according to the Dharma and practices according to what is taught. Such a person does not kill and also exhorts others not to kill; likewise, that person is free from wrong views and helps others to be free from wrong views, and so forth. This is called practicing in accordance with what is taught—speech and action corresponding with one another.

Moreover, a good spiritual friend is like the waxing moon at midmonth, gradually becoming full. 2) Making offerings to all Buddhas: one should perform the ten kinds of offerings, whether the Buddhas are manifestly present or not. 3) Cultivating the three wholesome roots: whatever one does, one should direct the mind toward wholesome conduct. 4) Resolutely seeking the supreme Dharma, such as taking greater delight in doing good and greater delight in hearing the Dharma. 5) Maintaining a constantly gentle and harmonious mind: one’s nature is not fierce or cruel but is like a well-trained horse. 6) Enduring suffering: for the sake of bodhi, the nature of awakening, one does not fear heat, cold, hardship, suffering,

and so forth. 7) Possessing pure and profound loving-kindness and compassion: helping all beings and removing their suffering. 8) Possessing a profound mind of equanimity: regarding enemy and friend without duality, and the good and bad as equal. 9) Having faith in and delighting in the Great Vehicle. 10) Seeking the Buddha’s wisdom.

The Lotus Sutra sets forth five virtues as above. Furthermore, Buddhist disciples whose minds are pure, gentle, and yielding also bring immeasurable benefit to all Buddhas; this is the profound practice of the wondrous Path.

The remaining three sublime contemplations are: 1) Renouncing the conditioned means contemplating birth and death and the unfortunate destinies, where there is no leisure, because of the many sufferings that oppress beings. Within the body are the five skandhas and four great elements, which can give rise to evil karma; the nine orifices constantly discharge foul and impure substances, and thirty-six kinds of matter accumulate within it.

Immeasurable afflictions torment body and mind; like foam and shadows, they change and perish from thought to thought. Delusion obscures beings, causing them to create karma and revolve through the six destinies. One should deeply reflect and resolve to relinquish all this. 2) Seeking bodhi: contemplate the excellent marks of the Buddha’s body, adorned with merit and virtue; the Dharma-body is originally pure and fully endowed with moral conduct.

The Buddha possesses powers and fearlessness and immeasurably many supreme qualities; he has attained noble, sublime wisdom and compassionately regards sentient beings. The Buddha guides and opens a path for the foolish and deluded, enabling them to follow the upright and correct way. All sentient beings who encounter the Buddha bring their afflictions and wrong views to an end.

Because of the merit gained through cultivation, this is called aspiring upward in quest of bodhi. 3) Being mindful of sentient beings means contemplating how beings, deluded by ignorance and craving, must undergo countless sufferings. They do not believe in cause and effect and thus create evil causes; they reject the true path and follow false paths, drifting upon the four currents and submerged in the outflows and afflictions of delusion.

Although they fear suffering, they repeatedly create evil karma and therefore remain constantly distressed and tormented. Separation from those one loves is suffering; though they see this, they continue to love. Meeting those one resents is suffering; though they know this suffering, their resentment only increases.

Because desire gives rise to karma and produces suffering, yet they feel no revulsion, they desire things that violate the precepts. Harboring anxieties and acting wantonly, they create the karma of the uninterrupted hells; corrupt and shameless, they malign the Great Vehicle. Through deluded attachment they give rise to arrogance; even if intelligent, they sever their roots of goodness.

Deceiving themselves and behaving haughtily, they never know repentance. They are born in places devoid of leisure, where they cannot cultivate the Buddha-Dharma; even if they hear it, they do not practice it. Following false karma, they attain marvelous worldly fruits and regard them as the realization of nirvana; after enjoying these pleasures to the end, they are again born in the unfortunate destinies.

Seeing people such as these, one feels deep and genuine compassion for them! One must next arouse the mind and make this vow: May I resolutely realize unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment, perform righteous deeds, benefit all sentient beings, and rejoice in and delight in the epithets of all Buddhas. This is like the initial arousal of aspiration and vow by Śākyamuni Buddha.

As the Abhidharmakośa states, throughout three incalculable eons of wandering back and forth, he encountered the Buddhas Vipaśyin, Dīpaṃkara, and Ratnaśikhin; these were the earliest Buddhas encountered by Śākyamuni.

Bodhisattva Asaṅga accordingly said: purity, superior power, steadfastness of mind, excellence, and vigor constitute what is called a bodhisattva. First, throughout three great eons of cultivation, one begins by developing the faculties of faith, vigor, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom in order to subdue the obstructions and defilements. Next, one makes the great vow always to encounter good spiritual friends so as to create supreme conditions.

Even upon meeting bad companions who devise ways to obstruct and undermine one, one is firmly resolved never to abandon the mind of great bodhi. Whenever cultivating wholesome dharmas, one diligently applies oneself to increase them. Urging oneself to arouse the mind with a resolve that never retreats constitutes the initial practice.

Arousing the mind in accordance with the foregoing is to enter and advance toward unsurpassed bodhi, enter the Great Vehicle, and join the bodhisattvas. In the ocean of birth and death, one seeks every means of escape and, with courageous determination, swiftly reaches the shore of enlightenment. Here, this single statement is called the vast mind, extending throughout the ten directions to innumerable worlds and limitless, endless sentient beings.

Toward these innumerable sentient beings, among whom since beginningless time I have committed the ten evil karmas, I now arouse the resolve to rescue and deliver them all without exception. It is therefore called the great mind, for I desire to deliver them all from suffering. Asaṅga’s treatise states: beings with perception, beings without perception, and beings belonging to distinct spheres—thus, contemplating these three gateways is contemplation of the realms of beings.

Those with perception possess the seven emotions of joy, anger, sorrow, happiness, love, hatred, and desire. Those without perception inhabit five heavens: the Heaven of Non-Perception, the Heaven Free from Affliction, the Heaven Free from Heat, the Heaven of Emptiness, and the Heaven of Nothingness. Neither-perception-nor-non-perception excludes the two preceding kinds of perception among the five kinds.

This explanation accords with the Sarvāstivāda school. The Great Vehicle explains that the Sphere of Consciousness is called “with perception,” while the Sphere of Nothingness is called “without perception.” The third category, that of neither-perception, is not lacking, but it is not the preceding Sphere of Consciousness; therefore, neither-perception-nor-non-perception is not without the preceding possessions. The other realms are clearly explained in the treatise.

Furthermore, the treatise asks: How are the four kinds of sentient beings—those born from eggs and so forth—brought into nirvana without remainder?

—Answer: There are three causes and conditions. This means that those born in difficult circumstances must await the proper time. In accordance with the treatise, the master answers that sentient beings born in difficult circumstances must wait until they have escaped those circumstances; then they may immediately be caused to enter nirvana without remainder, without obstruction.

“Ngã giai linh nhập vô dư Niết Bàn nhi diệt độ chi”
The Tathagata causes them all to enter nirvana without remainder and thus attain extinction and deliverance.

Explanation: This is the foremost mind. There are four kinds of nirvana: 1) Nirvana of intrinsically pure nature, which, while within bondage, is called the Tathāgata-garbha; 2) nirvana with remainder, in which the causes of birth and death have been extinguished; 3) nirvana without remainder, in which the fruits of birth and death have come to an end; and 4) non-abiding nirvana, which means attaining the two practices of great compassion and prajñā. If another is added—nirvana of purified skillful means—there are five kinds. Because bodhisattvas form the intention that innumerable sentient beings should all joyfully aspire to attain nirvana without remainder, this is called the foremost mind.

Asaṅga’s treatise states: Why not simply say “nirvana”? If so, it would be very convenient for the Blessed One to describe the realm of the first dhyāna as a skillful means, while nirvana would not be distinct. This would mean that the nirvana of the first dhyāna still remains within the world, and that only freedom from desire is the fruit of bodhi. Therefore, the text here speaks of freedom from bondage. Why does it not speak of nirvana with remainder? Because that is a shared fruit. Nirvana without remainder is revealed where suffering has entirely ended and thus is not a shared fruit. Moreover, they do not proceed toward the same destination; because their destinations differ, suffering has, as stated, been utterly extinguished.

Question: Why does it not speak of non-abiding nirvana?

Answer: Because it reveals that the Three Vehicles share in common the need to attain extinction and deliverance in this manner.

“Vô lượng vô số vô biên chúng sanh, thật vô chúng sanh đắc diệt độ giả”.

There are immeasurable, innumerable, and boundless sentient beings, yet in truth no sentient being attains extinction and deliverance.

Explanation: This reveals the constant mind. Because a bodhisattva gathers in and delivers others as though they were oneself, delivering others means that apart from oneself there is no other person; therefore, one constantly delivers beings.

“Hà dĩ cố, Tu Bồ Đề, nhược Bồ Tát hữu ngã tướng, nhơn tướng, chúng sanh tướng, thọ giả tướng tức phi Bồ Tát”

Why is this so, Subhūti? If a bodhisattva has the mark of a self, the mark of a person, the mark of a sentient being, or the mark of a living being, then he is not a bodhisattva.

Explanation: This is the fourth point: the undeluded mind. If one gives rise to attachment to these four marks, one remains obstructed, for discriminations have not yet been eliminated; one continues to entertain deluded thoughts throughout the long night and remains inverted. When attachment to the four marks no longer exists, this is called the undeluded mind.

Medicine is originally taken to eliminate illness; it would be unreasonable for it instead to aggravate the illness. Vasubandhu says: one generally contemplates the five skandhas and the distinct erroneous attachments regarding the three periods of time. Attachment to a self continuing uninterruptedly from the past into the present is called the mark of a sentient being.

Seeing the present faculty of life as not remaining still is the embodied life. Seeing the faculty of life from the past being severed and, after death, taking birth in the six paths is the mark of one who undergoes birth.

However, the Buddha taught that what is called the living being is here termed the mark of a person, while Asaṅga’s treatise differs slightly.

“Phục thứ Tu Bồ Đề, Bồ Tát ư pháp ưng vô sở trụ hành ư bố thí, sở vị bất trụ sắc bố thí, bất trụ thanh, hương, vị, xúc, pháp bố thí”.

Furthermore, Subhūti, a bodhisattva should practice giving without abiding anywhere in relation to dharmas. This means giving without abiding in form, and giving without abiding in sound, fragrance, taste, touch, or dharmas.

Commentary: This follows Vasubandhu’s answer to the second question. Giving, however, represents two meanings: 1) for householders, the cultivation of the three meritorious practices, and for monastics, giving as the first of the six paramitas; 2) in its broad essence, it encompasses all six perfections. The three meritorious practices cultivated by householders are giving, morality, and cultivation, or generosity, observance of the precepts, and cultivation of spiritual progress.

These three are called meritorious karma because, in this life or a future life, they cause one to be cherished by many and praised by the virtuous and honorable. This is not the same as the way merit has ordinarily been understood. Practicing generosity first means that sentient beings, from beginningless time until now, have been bound by birth and death entirely because of greed.

By now practicing generosity, those who do not yet possess wealth are prevented from developing attachment to it, while those who already possess wealth and beauty do not give rise to stinginess; this is giving. Morality means being instructed to observe and uphold the Five Precepts, the Eight Precepts, and so forth. Cultivation means cultivating wholesome dharmas such as meditative concentration.

Monastics cultivate the six paramitas; for example, they first cultivate the perfection of generosity, proceeding from shallow to profound, coarse to subtle, and easy to difficult. Thus, the Sutra speaks with reference to what is superior, meaning the supreme basis of reliance—the safer refuge—of the noble ones. Each paramita is explained according to a particular meaning, and these meanings do not conflict.

2) In its broad essence, giving encompasses the six perfections: Vasubandhu states that the perfection of dana embraces all six perfections, among which the first, second, and third constitute the abiding in cultivation; Asanga likewise explains it this way. Furthermore, dana has three meanings: 1) one’s own resources, which are of two kinds: internal wealth and external wealth; 2) fearlessness, whereby one helps others leave suffering, attain happiness, and no longer be afraid; 3) the gift of Dharma, whereby one teaches the Dharma according to the faculties and afflictions of the audience.

Thus, material resources contain the meaning of the perfection of dana. The gift of fearlessness encompasses two parts: patience and morality. Whether evil has already been committed or has not yet been committed, one causes others not to give rise to fear.

The gift of Dharma therefore encompasses vigor, concentration, and wisdom. One teaches the Dharma at the proper time without weariness, observing and discerning the capacities of the listeners in order to select the appropriate teaching; the Treatise on the Absence of Essential Nature also says this. Thus, the practice of giving fully contains the six paramitas; the gifts of material resources, fearlessness, and Dharma collectively encompass them all.

Each of these three kinds of giving also contains all six perfections. For this reason, only dana is mentioned. To practice generosity without abiding in anything means not clinging to oneself.

When practicing generosity, one seeks absolutely nothing for oneself but acts solely for bodhi. Thus, “without abiding anywhere” means not expecting gratitude or repayment; “not abiding in forms,” and so forth, means not being attached to external fruits of increased prosperity, such as wealth, servants, and so forth, when practicing generosity. The treatise explains that one is not bound by either of these two aspects: oneself or repayment of kindness.

One does not retain one’s possessions and refuse to give out of concern for obtaining recompense. Here, the first two clauses make the point clear, and the latter two explain the preceding meaning. The first clause has two meanings: not clinging to oneself and not expecting karmic recompense, as the treatise makes clear.

“Subhuti, a bodhisattva should give in this way, without abiding in characteristics.”

Subhuti, a bodhisattva should practice generosity in this way, giving without abiding in characteristics.

Commentary: This answers the third question. The preceding statement has two parts: answering the question that was raised and resolving a doubt. This is the presentation of the question: how should one avoid abiding in conceptualized characteristics?

Conception arises when the discriminating mind apprehends characteristics in its objects. “Not abiding” means eliminating inward discrimination and outwardly not grasping characteristics. Because one does not perceive a recipient or a gift, the act of giving is pure.

If one perceives emptiness and therefore does not give, that is attachment; if one merely gives but does not perceive emptiness, an affliction of attachment immediately arises. It is essential to perceive emptiness while practicing generosity; only then is giving exalted, accords with the Middle Way, and becomes a paramita. The Consciousness-Only teaching says that a practice can become a paramita only when embraced by the seven supreme qualities.

Because one’s intention, abiding, basis of reliance, practice, and dedication are all purified, the seven supreme qualities are thereby perfected. Here, “without characteristics” refers to the most excellent skillful means. Next, the resolution of doubt has four parts: a) posing the question, b) presenting an analogy, c) applying the analogy, and d) exhorting.

The foregoing follows Vasubandhu’s interpretation. According to Asanga, the passage beginning with “not abiding” elucidates the eighteen abodes. Among them, the second paramita corresponds to six kinds of abodes, the second of which is the abode of the pure mind.

This passage is divided into two parts: from the beginning through “not toward what came before” is precisely the abode of the pure mind. Next, from “not abiding in characteristics” onward, because one does not accept anything in relation to this and is thereby made capable of enduring, it demonstrates giving without abiding. The treatise further states: “From this point onward, there are five kinds of abodes, which should be understood and explained as appropriate,” meaning from the second abode onward.

Those five kinds of abodes are: 1) reliance upon meaning: “reliance” means a basis of dependence, namely, taking the antidote as one’s basis; 2) discussion of characteristics: “characteristics” means forms or appearances; 3) preservation: relying upon the attained fruit of bodhi is called preservation; 4) establishment: this means establishment in the principle of suchness; 5) revelation: revealing what accords with samapatti and subduing the mind when it is distracted.

Yet, according to the principal point clearly expressed here concerning the abode of the pure mind, “not abiding in anything” means relying upon the abode of the antidotal meaning, possessing the antidote of non-abiding. “Practicing generosity” describes its characteristic and also means preservation, through aspiring to attain the fruit of bodhi in a future life. “Practicing generosity without abiding” is the fourth dharma of establishment, meaning not being obstructed by the intrinsic nature of the three factors; this is the meaning of the first establishment.

Taking the first establishment as non-abiding, the Vimalakirti Sutra therefore states that non-abiding is without foundation. Because, while practicing generosity, one establishes the mind so that it abides in non-abiding, this is called practicing generosity without abiding. “Not abiding in conceptualized characteristics” is the revelation, meaning that during these two occasions—accordance with samapatti and the gathering in of the distracted mind—one does not abide in conceptualized characteristics.

This is how the treatise comments upon it. The treatise fully discusses the two kinds of fruits of the six paramitas: future fruits and present fruits. It says that “not abiding in anything” means not clinging to the future fruit of giving.

Thus, “without abiding anywhere” specifically means not clinging to the future fruits of the remaining five perfections. If one practices generosity while seeking a present fruit, this is called giving while abiding in form, sound, fragrance, and so forth. If one practices generosity while seeking present nirvana, this is called practicing generosity while abiding in and clinging to dharmas.

The Compassionate Father taught: Here, after “without abiding anywhere,” the single word “dharma” should be added. It should properly read: “One should practice generosity without abiding in any dharma.” The other perfections should therefore be examined and determined accordingly.

“Why is this so? If a bodhisattva gives without abiding in characteristics, that bodhisattva’s merit cannot be measured.”

Why is this so? If a bodhisattva practices generosity without abiding in characteristics, the merit thereby attained is immeasurable.

Commentary: According to Vasubandhu, the answer to the third question above completes the response concerning abiding in characteristics. From here onward, the explanation of the doubt has four parts: a/ stating the Dharma; b/ presenting an analogy; c/ correlating the analogy; d/ exhorting faith. Stating the Dharma means addressing the doubt: if the substance of the three characteristics is emptiness, then, without practicing generosity, how could merit be produced?

The Buddha resolves this doubt and answers that if one practices generosity without abiding in characteristics, the merit is supreme. Why is this? The Buddha replied to Subhuti that the Tathagata taught this in order to cause beings to practice generosity without abiding in characteristics.

Thus, generosity with characteristics is spoken of in conformity with the worldly realm; it can be disrupted and destroyed, and it seeks to attain a result. The worldly realm does not endure for long, because it remains subject to conceptual thought and calculation. Generosity without characteristics accords with the supramundane realm; it cannot be disrupted or destroyed and leads to the enduring, steadfast supramundane fruit of bodhi.

Therefore, it cannot be fathomed by ordinary thought or measured by numerical calculation. When there is the characteristic of self, there are divisions and limitations, and one is constrained. Generosity without characteristics has no boundaries or limitations; it is boundlessly expansive and unconstrained.

Therefore, the merit obtained is immeasurable and cannot be reckoned by thought or measured numerically as being more or less.

“Tu Bồ Đề, ư ý vân hà, Đông phương hư không khả tư lượng phủ? Phất dã Thế Tôn. Tu Bồ Đề, Nam, Tây, Bắc phương, tứ duy thượng hạ hư không khả tư lượng phủ? Phất dã Thế Tôn”.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Can the emptiness of space in the eastern direction be measured?” “It cannot, O World-Honored One.” “Subhuti, can the emptiness of space in the southern, western, and northern directions, in the four intermediate directions, and above and below be measured?” “It cannot, O World-Honored One.”

Commentary: This is the second point, presenting an analogy. First, the emptiness of space in the eastern direction is mentioned; next, the emptiness of space in the remaining nine directions is indicated. Regarding each direction, the Buddha asks the same question as before, and Subhuti answers in accordance with the Buddha’s intent.

The meaning is that mountains, rivers, the great earth, the moon, stars, and so forth—all things—have limits of greater or lesser extent, just as when generosity is practiced with attachment to forms and characteristics. Only the unobstructed emptiness of space, in which no distinction of great or small is made, can serve as an analogy for generosity without characteristics. Some sutras state that only the emptiness of space can serve as an analogy for the Dharma-body.

Because the emptiness of space throughout the ten directions is boundless and cannot be calculated or measured, it is likewise impossible to measure fully the merit of generosity without characteristics. According to Vasubandhu’s intent, however, material things comprise many dissimilar kinds: male or female, good or bad, this or that, and so forth. All such distinctions, limitations, and measures of more or less arise from practicing generosity with characteristics.

If the mind accords with the undifferentiated principle of characteristiclessness when practicing generosity, the merit is inexhaustible. In the future, upon attaining Buddhahood, one’s merit will pervade everywhere, without this or that and without any further distinction between self and other. This undifferentiated principle is the principle of emptiness and no-self, which pervades everywhere like the emptiness of space.

“Tu Bồ Đề, Bồ Tát vô trụ tướng bố thí phước đức diệc phục như thị, bất khả tư lượng.”

“Subhuti, the merit of a bodhisattva who practices generosity without abiding in characteristics is likewise such: it cannot be conceived or measured.”

Commentary: This is point (c), correlating the analogy; that is, drawing the conclusion and bringing the two together.

“Tu Bồ Đề, Bồ Tát đản ưng như thị giáo trụ.

“Subhuti, a bodhisattva should abide only in accordance with this teaching.”

Commentary: This is point (d), exhorting faith. It means exhorting one to practice generosity without characteristics in accordance with the Buddha’s teaching, for its merit is boundless and will before long assuredly culminate in a vast fruit. The meaning is that although you may not yet understand, you should simply act according to the Buddha’s teaching; after attaining realization, you will naturally understand it thoroughly.

The foregoing explanation follows the intent of Vasubandhu. According to Asanga, this passage alone is sufficient to demonstrate pure abiding. First, the place of pure abiding is clarified; next comes non-abiding in characteristics; and afterward beings are enabled to accept it patiently.

Therefore, the Buddha clearly teaches that when one practices generosity without abiding in characteristics, the merit is inexhaustible. Some bodhisattvas, however, upon hearing of generosity without characteristics, may give rise to a mind unable to accept it patiently in their cultivation; hence these words were spoken. Generosity itself is, by nature, superior, while merit is merely its result.

Since generosity is practiced without characteristics, how could there be anything attained? It is only because one craves the merit gained from generosity and clings to characteristics that one’s fundamental intention becomes the pursuit of merit. In generosity without characteristics, one does not seek to obtain happiness.

Thus there is the common saying: “If one does not learn while young, when grown one will be incapable of accomplishing anything.” Some who do not practice generosity continually think that even into old age they will be unable to follow the Buddha’s teaching and will die unknown; this is because there are bodhisattvas who crave merit. To enable them to accept this patiently, the World-Honored One uses the emptiness of space as an analogy.

The emptiness of space has three qualities: 1) It pervades every place. This means that merit arises whether one abides in characteristics or does not abide in them. This statement is explained by observing that the emptiness of space pervades all regions; it pervades both the realm of form and the formless realm, unlike form, which neither pervades everywhere nor endures for long.

Practicing generosity without characteristics is likewise like the emptiness of space: until Buddhahood is attained, its merit extends boundlessly, becoming complete, enduring, and inexhaustible. Since merit arises whether one abides or does not abide in characteristics, by practicing generosity without characteristics one may, as an immediate result, obtain the karmic reward of becoming a king, and as a remote result realize bodhi and the Dharma-body.

The karmic reward of becoming a sovereign already entails the fullness of merit. Bodhi and the Dharma-body constitute merit that does not abide. If one practices generosity while clinging to characteristics, one cannot even become a king, much less attain the Buddha’s bodhi! 2) It is vast, all-embracing, lofty, great, and supreme.

The emptiness of space, for example, is both vast and lofty, and it is also supreme: wind cannot shake it, water cannot submerge it, fire cannot burn it, and other things cannot destroy it. Precisely because the emptiness of space is lofty, vast, and supreme, the practice of generosity without characteristics is likewise so. 3) It is ultimately inexhaustible and without end. Thus it is said that the emptiness of space always endures, continuing forever without end.

Generosity without characteristics is likewise infinite and inexhaustible, never running dry.

“Tu Bồ Đề, ư ý vân hà, khả dĩ thân tướng kiến Như Lai phủ?”

“Subhuti, what do you think? Can the Tathagata be seen by means of bodily characteristics?”

Commentary: According to Vasubandhu, the principal teaching has been clarified above. From this point onward, doubts are dispelled. The discussion comprises thirteen parts, but here it is arranged into twelve sections.

This means that, from this point onward in the first cycle of teaching, comparisons are repeatedly made four times, as follows: First, giving the seven precious substances in charity throughout the three-thousand-great-thousand world-system is not equal to receiving and upholding four lines of verse from the Diamond Sutra. Second, suppose every grain of sand in the Ganges were itself another Ganges. If the sands of all those Ganges rivers were each a world, then universally giving the seven precious substances throughout all those worlds would still not equal receiving and upholding four lines of verse from this Sutra.

These first two comparisons concern the giving of material wealth. Third, giving away bodies and lives as numerous as the sands of the Ganges does not equal receiving and upholding four lines of verse from the Diamond Sutra. Fourth, if, during each of the three periods of every day, one were to give away bodies and lives as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, this too would not equal hearing this Sutra and then giving rise to faith without opposition.

These are two comparisons concerning the Dharma offering. Thus, one may make a Dharma offering through the practice of offering one’s own body, compare it with the two kinds of external wealth, or compare it with the two kinds of internal wealth. Among the four comparisons, the second and third are combined into one; therefore, they are generally divided into three sections.

Each section contains four points: the first three dispel doubts, and the fourth presents the comparison. Combined, these make twelve sections. The first comparison is divided into four passages: a/ Can the Tathagata be seen by means of characteristics? b/ Subhuti addressed the Buddha: Will there indeed be beings who, upon hearing this, believe? c/ Has the Tathagata attained unsurpassed complete and perfect enlightenment? d/ The comparison.

Of these four passages, the first three dispel doubts, while the last presents a comparison and does not dispel a doubt. Of the first three, the first raises a doubt concerning the signlessness of the cause; the next raises a doubt concerning the signlessness of cause and effect; and the last raises a doubt concerning the signlessness of the fruit. In accordance with this, the World-Honored One first poses a question, Good Manifestation then answers in accord with it, and finally the Tathagata confirms his answer.

The first doubt is this: If one practices giving without abiding in characteristics, then the cause created by that act is signless; how, then, could it produce a fruit possessing characteristics? Because the Buddha’s manifestation is seen as the three bodies, this doubt arises. The three characteristics mean that the Buddha’s state before attaining enlightenment is called the characteristic of arising; after attaining enlightenment, when the Buddha teaches the Dharma and liberates beings, it is called the characteristic of abiding (or the characteristic of change); and when the Buddha enters nirvana, it is the characteristic of cessation.

The characteristics of abiding and change are combined, as is commonly explained. That is, the Buddha manifests bodies in accordance with beings’ capacities in order to receive and liberate them, thereby displaying the characteristics of the three bodies. Beings see these and regard them as a fruit attained through characteristics, and thus they consider it incompatible with a signless cause.

To explain this doubt, the Sutra states that the Tathagata cannot be seen by means of characteristics. Because the signless Dharma-body is the Tathagata, one must transcend the three characteristics above; this is the Dharma-body Tathagata.

“Phất dã Thế Tôn, bất khả dĩ thân tướng đắc kiến Như Lai. Hà dĩ cố, Như Lai sở thuyết thân tướng tức phi thân tướng.”

“No, World-Honored One. The Tathagata cannot be seen by means of bodily characteristics. Why is this? Because the bodily characteristics spoken of by the Tathagata are not bodily characteristics.”

Commentary: Good Manifestation answers in accord with the question. In his reply, he first directly addresses the matter and then explains it. Because he possessed penetrating wisdom and luminous understanding, and because this signifies that only through the Buddha’s empowering support could he be keenly perceptive and grasp the Buddha’s intent, he said that the Tathagata cannot be so seen. The statement that bodily characteristics are not bodily characteristics means that the bodily characteristics comprising the three characteristics are not the signlessness of the Dharma-body. “Body” here means that the body possessing the three characteristics is a body with characteristics; “not bodily characteristics” does not mean a signless body, for signlessness itself is its characteristic.

“Phật cáo Tu Bồ Đề, phàm sở hữu tướng giai thị hư vọng, nhược kiến chư tướng, phi tướng tức kiến Như Lai”.

The Buddha told Subhuti, “Whatever possesses characteristics is false and illusory. If one sees that all characteristics are not characteristics, one thereby sees the Tathagata.”

Commentary: This is the third instance, in which the Buddha reiterates his confirmation. Whatever possesses characteristics is false and illusory. Falsehood and illusion are explained in three ways: 1) The suchness of the Dharma-body neither arises nor ceases and is therefore true; all other dharmas are false and illusory, as already stated. 2) All uncontaminated dharmas are true, while contaminated dharmas are false and illusory.

The Madhyantavibhaga states that the three realms, mind, and mental factors are all false and illusory. 3) The dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature are true, while the imagined nature is false and illusory. A later passage states that the characteristic of self is precisely not a characteristic, and goes so far as to say that those who have transcended all characteristics are called Buddhas. Here, “false and illusory” means that everything conditioned and contaminated is called false and illusory.

“Seeing all characteristics” refers to the three characteristics; “not characteristics” refers to the signless Dharma-body. The explanation above follows Vasubandhu; from this point onward, it follows Asanga’s treatise.

This passage alone constitutes, among the eighteen abodes, the third abode: the abode of wishing to attain the form-body. Among the six abodes, the third is the abode of aspiration. This abode has two aspects: the aspiration to attain the form-body and the aspiration to attain the Dharma-body.

The section on the form-body contains the three passages analyzed above. “Wishing to attain the form-body” means that, after bodhisattvas have generated the aspiration for enlightenment and subsequently begun cultivating the path, they see the Buddha’s three bodies fully endowed with excellent marks and consequently wish to attain them. Therefore, the Buddha says that those three bodies are not the Tathagata.

In response to Subhuti’s question, the Buddha reveals this meaning. As the treatise explains, the discourse has five meanings: gathering, maintaining, securing, establishing, and revealing. Thus, the statement that characteristics are not characteristics signifies gathering and maintaining.

“Tu Bồ Đề bạch Phật ngôn Thế Tôn: phả hữu chúng sanh đắc văn như thị ngôn thuyết chương cú sanh thật tín phủ?”

Subhuti addressed the Buddha, saying, “World-Honored One, will there indeed be beings who, upon hearing words and passages such as these, give rise to genuine faith?”

Commentary: According to Vasubandhu, the foregoing comparison is first used to dispel a doubt. It has just been stated above that cultivating a signless cause leads to a signless fruit; this meaning is extremely profound and unlike teachings concerning characteristics. After the Buddha’s passing, and even while the Buddha remains in the world, if beings do not generate faith, does this mean that the Tathagata did not teach?

Even if they are exhorted to give rise to faith, how could evil people in later ages believe? To dispel this doubt, the Buddha answers that, in the future, bodhisattvas endowed with the three virtues, having accumulated roots of goodness in the past, will give rise to genuine faith; thus, it cannot be said that the teaching was not given. The verse says, “It is not nonexistent,” with reference to true existence.

Because there are beings capable of giving rise to genuine faith, it cannot be said that the Buddha did not teach. The three virtues are the trainings in moral discipline, meditative concentration, and wisdom. Alternatively, they may be explained as: 1) fully cultivating the three trainings; 2) encountering good spiritual friends, meaning encountering Buddhas; and 3) abandoning attachment to NONEXISTENCE and EXISTENCE, thereby realizing the two principles of selflessness—the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of dharmas.

Here, as shown by the question in the preceding scriptural passage and the answer that follows, words and passages are fully provided for teaching and transforming beings. Giving rise to a genuine perception means that wisdom can arise in accord with the signlessness of cause and effect. Evil beings do not accord with the meaning of signlessness; instead, their minds accord with characteristics.

For this reason, Good Manifestation raises this doubt.

The Venerable Asaṅga’s exposition of the three distinctions has now been completed. This is the fourth abiding place: the aspiration to attain the Dharma body. Among the six abiding places, the third—the abiding place of aspiration—has two aspects, as already stated concerning the aspiration to attain the Dharma body.

Within it are two intentions: the aspiration to receive teachings concerning the Dharma body and the aspiration to realize the Dharma body. Receiving teachings concerning the Dharma body means becoming fully capable of teaching and transforming others; realizing the Dharma body means that the principle is clearly revealed. The meaning is that, when one previously cultivated and sought to realize the form body, the Buddha taught that the Dharma body possessing characteristics is illusory and unreal.

Consequently, one then aspires to seek the signless Dharma body. To attain the signless, one must first undertake the four practices of drawing near, such as associating with spiritual benefactors, earnestly aspiring to hear the teaching, reflecting upon it, and cultivating it. Therefore, one first aspires to receive teachings concerning the Dharma body.

“Phật cáo Tu Bồ Đề, mạc tác thị thuyết. Như Lai diệt hậu hậu ngũ bách tuế, hữu trì giới, tu phước giả, ư thử chương cú năng sanh tín tâm, dĩ thử vi thật.”

The Buddha said to Subhūti: “Do not speak thus. In the latter five hundred years after the Tathagata’s parinirvana, there will be people who observe the precepts and cultivate merit. Toward the words and passages of this sutra, they will be able to give rise to faith and regard them as true.”

Explanation: In this second reply, both Venerable Asaṅga and Venerable Vasubandhu divide the passage into three sections. Venerable Vasubandhu, in particular, divides it as follows: first, cultivation; next, “one should know that this person”; and finally, encountering a spiritual benefactor. Beginning with “the Tathagata certainly knows...” the text elucidates merit.

To attain the principle of the twofold emptiness is no longer to cling to either EMPTINESS or EXISTENCE. Venerable Asaṅga clearly divides the passage into three sections: first, indicating cultivation; next, revealing the cause of accumulated practice; and finally, disclosing association with spiritual benefactors. Although these two analyses differ, both answer Venerable Subhūti’s doubt.

“Do not speak thus” is the Buddha’s instruction to Venerable Subhūti: You should not say either that the true characteristic will not arise or that it will arise. According to Venerable Asaṅga’s explanation, Venerable Subhūti asked the Buddha: “Will there be sentient beings capable of hearing the verbal teaching concerning the Dharma body?” The Buddha replied: “There will.” “After five hundred years” means that, following Śākyamuni Buddha’s parinirvana, there are five hundred years of the True Dharma, one thousand years of the Semblance Dharma, and ten thousand years of the Final Dharma.

Those bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs who had not attained liberation before the end of the True Dharma would attain it during the thousand years of the Semblance Dharma. Yet the Dharma has three levels: teaching, practice, and realization. During the age of the True Dharma, all three are present; during the age of the Semblance Dharma, people do not attain realization and therefore do not attain the fruit.

Thus, only teaching and practice resemble those of the True Dharma, and it is consequently called the “semblance.” During the age of the Final Dharma, only the teachings remain, but there are no people who cultivate and realize them. Even if some people observe the precepts and cultivate, they do so largely for fame and material gain. Here, therefore, “after” means five hundred years after the disappearance of the True Dharma.

Hence, the Sutra of Severing states that this is the time when true practice disappears. Moreover, the Moon Treasury Sutra teaches that, during the first five hundred years after the Buddha’s parinirvana, liberation is firmly established; because it is firmly established, most practitioners attain liberation from birth and death. During the second five hundred years, meditative concentration is firmly established; most practitioners attain dhyana but do not attain the state of a noble one.

During the third five hundred years, extensive learning is firmly established; practitioners therefore become broadly versed in sutras and treatises and possess great knowledge. During the fourth five hundred years, merit is firmly established; people devote themselves to building monasteries and stupas and producing sutras and images to create merit. During the fifth five hundred years, contention is firmly established.

The phrase “in the latter five hundred years” here means that, even during the fifth period, there will be people who observe the precepts and cultivate merit. Because they possess precepts, concentration, and wisdom in the latter five hundred years, they can give rise to pure faith in the signless principle of cause and effect taught in the sutra and engender wisdom that accords with it as the true characteristic.

“Đương tri thị nhơn, bất ư nhứt Phật, nhị Phật, tam Phật, tứ Phật, ngũ Phật nhi chủng thiện căn, dĩ ư vô lượng thiên vạn Phật sở chủng chư thiện căn, văn thị chương cú, nãi chí nhứt niệm sanh tịnh tín giả”.

“One should know that such people have planted roots of virtue not in the presence of one Buddha, two Buddhas, three, four, or five Buddhas, but have planted roots of virtue in the presence of countless thousands and myriads of Buddhas. Upon hearing the words and passages of this sutra, they give rise to pure faith for even a single thought-moment.”

Explanation: In analyzing and commenting upon this sutra passage, both Venerable Asaṅga and Venerable Vasubandhu follow precisely the meaning given above. It is said that anyone who gives rise to a single thought-moment of faith in this sutra has previously made offerings to countless Buddhas—how much more so one who gives rise to many thoughts of faith! Those who accept and uphold it, read it, listen to it, and so forth have accumulated even more roots of virtue. If giving rise to a perception of truth can be so beneficial, how much more so when it occurs repeatedly! Why is this? Although in this life there is only a single thought-moment of faith, its perfuming matures in a future body and can eradicate the boundless afflictions of the great cycle of birth and death.

“Tu Bồ Đề, Như Lai tất tri tất kiến thị chư chúng sanh đắc như thị vô lượng phước đức.”

“O Subhūti, the Tathagata certainly knows and certainly sees that these sentient beings attain such immeasurable merit.”

Explanation: This passage elucidates the principle of the twofold emptiness, free from the two extremes of EMPTINESS and EXISTENCE. Venerable Asaṅga says that the latter section concerns association with spiritual benefactors: first it makes a clear statement, and then it explains it. Venerable Vasubandhu holds that “the Tathagata certainly knows” simply means that he sees with the physical eye and knows with wisdom; “certainly sees” means that, through inferential cognition, he sees direct perception.

Because sentient beings attain the twofold selflessness by observing the precepts and so forth, they acquire merit, and the Buddha certainly knows this through direct perception by means of the Buddha’s wisdom. As the sutra states, bodhisattvas generate merit in the manner set forth at the beginning. “Possessing merit” means accumulating merit over a long period.

Here the matter is stated only in general terms, and it is therefore said that they attain such immeasurable merit. Venerable Asaṅga explains that “certainly knows” means knowing the name-body: the four skandhas are “name”; “certainly sees” means seeing the form-body—that is, with regard to every activity, whether walking, standing, acting, or performing deeds, he knows what is in their minds. “Seeing” means relying upon them; that is, it indicates the inclusion of spiritual benefactors.

“Generating immeasurable merit” means generating it at the time merit arises; “receiving” means preserving its seeds when that merit ceases.

“Hà dĩ cố, thị chư chúng sanh vô phục ngã tướng, nhơn tướng; chúng sanh tướng, thọ giả tướng”.

“Why is this? Because these sentient beings no longer have the characteristic of a self, the characteristic of a person, the characteristic of a sentient being, or the characteristic of a living being.”

Explanation: This passage explains selflessness and next clarifies the signlessness of the four dharmas. It means that, in the latter five-hundred-year period, there will be bodhisattvas who understand clearly that the body arises and perishes without any foundation and without a self. They also understand that enemies and intimates are not inherently distinct, for all originate from the mind and are unreal.

Having heard the principle of the twofold emptiness of person and dharmas, they also accumulate merit, observe the precepts, and so forth. Therefore, the Tathagata sees them with the Buddha’s wisdom and with visual perception. Generally speaking, the five skandhas differ throughout the three periods of time, yet each skandha is regarded as a self.

Such deluded attachment is called attachment to a self. Seeing the body as continuing without interruption, as though the self extended from the past into the present, is the characteristic of a sentient being. Regarding the uninterrupted life faculty of the present retributive body as life is the characteristic of a living being; after that life faculty is severed, being born again in the six realms in a future life is a lifespan.

Thus, a human being presently possesses a provisional lifespan.

Venerable Asaṅga explains this somewhat differently. Attachment to the continuity of the self’s own essence is called the perception of a self; attachment to what belongs to the self is called the perception of a sentient being. These are the two attachments to self and possessions of the self.

Attachment to the body and life, from the self through the living being, is the perception of a lifespan; successively grasping at passage into other realms or classes of existence is the perception of a person. It should be understood that Venerable Asaṅga speaks of the living being where this text speaks of the person. The four deluded emotional attachments described above generally cling to EXISTENCE.

They are declared to be EMPTY; therefore, the text says that there is no characteristic of a self.

“Vô pháp tướng diệc vô phi pháp tướng”

Neither the mark of dharmas nor the absence of the mark of dharmas.

Commentary: This section elucidates the marks of dharmas, within which are the four marks, and then presents the analogy of the raft. The four marks involve two points: (a) the marks of emptiness and existence; (b) relying upon words while being free from the marks of words. Within (a) there are two parts: a general presentation and a separate explanation.

Here the text has been abridged; for the complete teaching, one should consult other sutras and treatises. First, the four marks of dharmas are indicated; afterward, they are explained separately. The explanation has two parts: 1.

The existence of the mark of dharmas is attachment to self and person; the nonexistence of the mark of dharmas is likewise attachment to self and person. As explained above, one should not cling to the marks of emptiness or existence. Next, the statement that one should not grasp dharmas and should not grasp what is not dharma is based upon the preceding explanation: relying upon words while being free from the marks of words.

This passage now presents only the marks of emptiness and existence, omitting the marks of relying upon words while being free from words, because they have already been fully treated in the explanation. Ordinary beings deludedly grasp the self and dharmas as existent; this is therefore called the mark of dharmas. Having understood emptiness, one knows that the essence of all dharmas is not real; hence it is said that there is no mark of dharmas.

One does not grasp the mark of dharmas as truly existent, nor does one grasp the absence of the mark of dharmas. If foolish people, through deluded thinking, deny the perfectly accomplished nature as empty, this is called the mark of what is not dharma. Where there is no object of grasping, there is no conception; therefore, the principle of the two kinds of selflessness truly exists.

Here it should be understood that the absence of marks is also not the nonexistence of marks. What is called the absence of marks is precisely the principle of selflessness, which cannot be described in words as either existent or nonexistent. Bodhisattvas on the first ground may suddenly suppose that it can be expressed and call it a mark; the noble ones clearly understand that it is inexpressible.

To say that the absence of marks is also not the nonexistence of marks is to speak, in contrast to wordlessness, according to the marks of words. When foolish people hear that it is inexpressible, they immediately suppose that everything expressed in words is empty. The wise understand that one should speak by relying upon words, yet without clinging to them; hence it is said that it is also not the absence of conception.

“Why is this? If the minds of these sentient beings grasp marks, they will become attached to self, person, sentient being, and life span.”

Why is this? If the minds of these sentient beings grasp marks, they will become attached to self, person, sentient being, and life span.

Commentary: The foregoing explains not grasping the marks of existence and emptiness. It contains two parts: a general presentation and a separate explanation.

“If they grasp the mark of dharmas, they become attached to self, person, sentient being, and life span. Why is this? If they grasp the mark of what is not dharma, they likewise become attached to self, person, sentient being, and life span.”

If they grasp the mark of dharmas, they thereby grasp the marks of self, person, sentient being, and life span. Why is this? Because if they grasp the mark of what is not dharma, they likewise grasp self, person, sentient being, and life span.

Commentary: This is the separate explanation. If one grasps the self and dharmas as existent, one also grasps self and person. If one grasps the perfectly accomplished nature as empty, one likewise grasps self and person.

“Grasping” means attachment. The two emptinesses and the twofold freedom from attachment accord with the Middle Way. Therefore, it is said that there is neither the mark of dharmas nor the mark of what is not dharma, thus transcending both attachments.

A verse says: “All is empty, and things are empty; the two—self and dharmas—are alike.” True existence is the principle of the two kinds of selflessness. Its essence is not nonexistent and is inexpressible; it cannot be described in words as either existent or nonexistent. Since the Dharma-nature transcends speech, speech is nevertheless relied upon to explain it and make it readily understood.

It is further said that if one grasps the mark of dharmas, one grasps self, person, and so forth. What does this mean? There is only the latent influence of ignorance, while coarse afflictions do not manifest; thus it is as though there were no attachment to self.

The explanation is that “only the latent influence of ignorance” means the ground of abiding ignorance, namely discriminative attachment to dharmas. “Coarse afflictions do not manifest” means that the afflictive hindrances do not arise, but only their seeds closely persist. This means that because attachment to dharmas manifests, the afflictive hindrances arise along with it.

The Venerable Asanga likewise states that so long as the latent disposition toward the conception of self continues without interruption, there is attachment to self. Therefore, the Sutra states that if sentient beings grasp the mark of dharmas, they grasp self and so forth. Vasubandhu’s meaning is the same.

Because of attachment to dharmas and grasping the mark of dharmas, self and so forth then arise.

“Therefore, one should not grasp dharmas, nor should one grasp what is not dharma.”

Therefore, one should not grasp dharmas, nor should one grasp what is not dharma.

Commentary: Relying upon words while being free from the marks of words: “One should not grasp dharmas” means that, upon hearing words, one should not grasp dharmas and should not cling according to the words. One should not grasp what is not dharma, but should accord with the correct exposition of the ultimate truth. Grasping in this manner means that one must rely upon words to awaken to the true principle.

“Therefore, the Tathagata has always taught: ‘Bhiksus, you should know that the Dharma I teach is analogous to a raft. Even dharmas should be relinquished; how much more so what is not dharma.’”

Therefore, the Buddha has always taught: “Bhiksus, you should know that the Dharma taught by the Tathagata is analogous to a raft. Even dharmas should be relinquished; how much more so what is not dharma.”

Commentary: This passage presents the analogy of the raft. To realize the truth, verbal teachings are certainly necessary; once the fruit has been realized, words need no longer be borrowed. It is like a raft that is no longer needed after one has reached the other shore. The foregoing follows Vasubandhu’s explanation. According to Asanga’s treatise, however, this grasping reveals the true mark as an antidote to five kinds of erroneous attachment: 1. non-Buddhist paths; 2. ordinary Buddhists and sravakas; 3. bodhisattvas of overweening pride; 4. worldly meditative concentrations; and 5. the concentration of non-perception.

First, the conception of self operates; second, the conception of dharmas operates; third, the conception of the absence of dharmas operates. This results from grasping dharmas as existent, grasping that dharmas exist, and likewise grasping that dharmas are empty. Fourth, the conception of existence operates, as when one grasps the concentration of perception; fifth, the conception of non-perception operates, namely grasping the concentration of non-perception.

A bodhisattva does not operate through any such attachment to dharmas. The statement that a true conception arises is made according to the disclosed meaning, as an antidote to untrue conceptions. The phrase or chapter of the Sutra here speaks of marks in order to reveal the verbally taught Dharma-body; that is, it speaks of the arising of the true mark as what should occur.

“Should arise” is said in order to gather and sustain all bodhisattvas. Furthermore, the non-operation of the conception of self and so forth establishes the ultimate truth and reveals that one should grasp neither dharmas nor what is not dharma.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Has the Tathagata attained anuttara-samyak-sambodhi? Has the Tathagata taught any Dharma?”

Subhuti, what do you think? Has the Tathagata attained unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment? Has the Tathagata taught any Dharma?

Commentary: According to Vasubandhu, this is the third point at which doubt is resolved. The foregoing doubt holds that a cause devoid of conception would in turn produce a fruit devoid of conception. Why, then, did Sakyamuni Buddha attain Buddhahood at the Bodhi seat, teach the Dharma to liberate sentient beings, and enter nirvana between the twin sala trees? Paramartha cites the following verse as evidence:

For seven years he was an infant;

For eight years he was a child;

For four years he studied the five sciences;

For ten years he enjoyed sensual pleasures;

At twenty-nine, he renounced the household life;

At thirty-five, he attained the Way;

For forty-five years he taught the Dharma,

Universally liberating all sentient beings.

These chronological milestones are fruits possessing marks. Did the Buddha not cultivate a cause free from marks? To dispel this doubt, the preceding passage was taught.

In it, the Buddha first asks, and then the Venerable Subhuti replies. The Buddha, however, has three bodies: 1. the Dharma-body, which has abandoned delusion and realized truth; 2. the reward body, which fully possesses the wondrous wisdom of suchness; and 3. the transformation body, which skillfully adapts in response to beings. Even bodhisattvas cannot fathom the true and wondrous Dharma-body.

The sravakas and pratyekabuddhas cannot know the true wisdom of the reward body. The transformation body responds to beings by manifesting forms and employs various means to gather and transform them. Only when all these qualities are complete is there true realization of bodhi and genuine teaching of the Dharma; this is what is meant by possessing conception.

Now, to dispel this doubt, the Buddha questions the Venerable Subhuti from the standpoint of the Dharma-body, true suchness.

“Subhuti said: As I understand the meaning of what the Buddha has taught, there is no fixed dharma called Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi, nor is there any fixed dharma that the Tathagata can teach.”

Subhuti replied: As I understand the meaning of what the Buddha has taught, there is no fixed dharma called unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment, nor is there any fixed dharma taught by the Tathagata.

Commentary: This is Subhuti’s reply, which has two parts: first, he answers the Buddha; afterward, he explains. Venerable Subhuti’s meaning is that, according to conventional truth, the reward body and transformation body can attain bodhi and can teach the Dharma. According to ultimate truth, however, the Dharma body of true suchness, inherently pure in itself, neither attains bodhi nor teaches the Dharma. There is no fixed dharma: just as the signless Dharma body is not a fixed dharma that attains bodhi, so too there is no dharma that can be taught. Precisely because there is no fixed attainment and no fixed teaching, this does not preclude the two bodies at the level of conventional truth from having an indeterminate attainment and an indeterminate teaching.

“Why is this so? All the dharmas taught by the Tathagata cannot be grasped and cannot be spoken; they are neither dharmas nor non-dharmas.”

Why is this so? Because all the dharmas taught by the Tathagata cannot be grasped and cannot be spoken; they are neither dharmas nor non-dharmas.

Commentary: This explains that dharmas are not non-dharmas. Why is there no fixed dharma that can be taught? Inwardly it is already inexpressible, and outwardly it also cannot be grasped.

If it could be grasped outwardly, it could also be spoken inwardly; since it cannot be grasped, it is clearly inexpressible. Being inexpressible, it is neither dharma nor non-dharma. Foolish people cling to persons and dharmas as existent, regarding this as dharma; they therefore reject the perfectly accomplished nature as nonexistent, and this is called non-dharma.

Sages realize that persons and dharmas are EMPTY, which is called non-dharma; yet they clearly understand that the perfectly accomplished nature EXISTS, and therefore it is said not to be non-dharma. The Dharma body is quiescent: it cannot be called non-dharma, nor can it be said not to be non-dharma. The treatise explains that the responsive transformation body is not the true Buddha, nor does it teach the Dharma.

The teaching of Dharma is nondual, while non-teaching is free from the marks of words. That the responsive transformation body is not the true Buddha constitutes the true teaching; this clarifies that there are also a provisional Buddha and a provisional teaching. Inwardly, since there are no two truths, sages likewise do not grasp nonduality by clinging to dharma and non-dharma.

Truth is beyond words and has no mark of being taught. Why, then, does the explanation speak only of teaching and not of realization? The author of the treatise replies that without realization there can be no teaching; therefore, realization must first occur before teaching is possible.

“For what reason? All worthy ones and sages are distinguished by means of the unconditioned Dharma.”

Why is this so? Because all worthy ones and sages are distinguished by means of the unconditioned Dharma.

Commentary: This passage further explains the preceding section. Worthy ones and sages, through non-discriminating wisdom, accord with and awaken to truth; only then can they end delusion, thereby giving rise to their distinctions. Thus the sages teach the unconditioned Dharma.

The Dharma realized by sages cannot be spoken in this way, much less grasped in this way. Why? Because that Dharma is far removed from the marks of verbal expression and cannot be spoken.

The foregoing follows Vasubandhu’s explanation. According to Asanga, this passage is the fourth section: the wish to attain the Dharma body. The preceding section clarified attaining the Dharma body expressed through words.

This is the second meaning, concerning the wish to realize the Dharma body, and it is also divided into two parts: 1/ The mark of wisdom, extending to the attainment of the abiding place of the Dharma body. Thus, non-discriminating wisdom can accord with the Dharma body of true suchness, and the mark of wisdom is therefore taken as its abiding place. 2/ The mark of merit, extending to the attainment of the abiding place of the Dharma body.

Because one initially wishes to attain the Buddha’s form body, yet the form body is illusory, one seeks to attain the Dharma body. To seek the Dharma body, one must first cultivate the genuine wisdoms, or practices; these are the bodhi of the Dharma body and are therefore called the mark of wisdom. Because one aspires to attain the Dharma body as the mark of wisdom, the Buddha raises the Dharma body of true suchness as a question: although externally there are the reward and transformation bodies that can attain bodhi and, according to the capacities of sentient beings, can teach the Dharma, within the signless Dharma body there is inherently no wisdom that can attain the body of bodhi, just as there is no dharma that can be taught.

He therefore makes this the subject of his question. Venerable Subhuti’s reply conveys the same meaning. According to the Buddha’s intent, however, both are EMPTY when considered on the basis of the principle of true suchness.

Since the principle of true suchness is inwardly inexpressible—neither dharma nor non-dharma—there is neither teaching nor grasping. Outwardly, listeners who rely upon the principle of true suchness cannot grasp it; therefore, there is no hearing and no attainment. This means that both teaching and hearing rely upon true suchness.

Vasubandhu’s meaning is that because true suchness is realized, one does not speak of dharma or non-dharma. Listeners, having abandoned deluded grasping, grasp neither dharma nor non-dharma. To speak of dharma means that, through clinging to persons and dharmas as EXISTENT, one consequently regards non-dharma as denying the perfectly accomplished nature and declaring it nonexistent.

The treatise’s explanation of the passage above according to the five meanings is now complete.

“Subhuti, what do you think? If someone filled the trichiliocosm with the seven treasures and used them in giving, would the merit gained by that person be great?”

Subhuti, what do you think? If someone were to give the seven treasures throughout the three-thousand-great-thousand world system, would the merit gained by that person be great?

Commentary: According to Vasubandhu, the comparison above contains three passages that resolve doubts, and from this point onward comes the comparison. Another interpretation is that, since in truth there is already no teaching, no grasping, and no bodhisattva who attains anything, the practice of signless merit surely does not mean that generosity is absent. The Blessed One, with this meaning in mind, questions Venerable Subhuti. In the preceding sentence, the Buddha asks; afterward, Venerable Subhuti replies; and finally, the Tathagata summarizes the opening section.

“Subhuti said: It would be exceedingly great, Blessed One. Why? Because this merit is not the nature of merit; therefore, the Tathagata says that the merit is great.”

Venerable Subhuti said: It would be exceedingly great, Blessed One. Why? Because this merit is not the nature of merit; therefore, the Tathagata says that the merit is great.

Commentary: This addresses the doubt concerning merit. It is called merit, yet the merit of giving wealth is not the nature of merit, because it is not the nature of merit that brings about the supramundane. One must hear and understand, thereby generating non-discriminating wisdom, before attaining the signless supramundane fruit. Therefore, the Tathagata says that the merit is great. Thus, the Buddha says that the giving of wealth can bring about abundant worldly merit.

“The Buddha said: If, moreover, someone receives and retains this Sutra, even so little as a four-line verse, and explains it to others, that person’s merit surpasses the former person’s.”

The Buddha taught: If, moreover, someone receives and retains this Sutra, even so little as a four-line verse and so forth, and expounds it to others, that person’s merit surpasses that of the former giver.

Commentary: For the purpose of comparison, the Buddha explains the reason. “Even so little as a four-line verse” and the passage below, extending to “receives and retains a four-line verse”: to accept it in the mind is called “receiving,” and to remember it without forgetting is called “retaining.” A four-line verse is one that elucidates the following meaning. A statement whose meaning is full and complete may be exemplified by the vast mind, the foremost mind, the constant mind, and the undeluded mind; each of these four minds constitutes one line.

Again, “practicing generosity without abiding in phenomena” constitutes one line. It should be understood according to this standard. The central purport of this Sutra is non-discrimination, taught in order to overcome discrimination.

Statements such as “forms, sounds, odors, tastes, contacts, and so forth are accumulations” may contain many clauses, but if their meaning is incomplete, they do not constitute a line. Likewise, statements such as “neither arising nor ceasing, neither eternal nor annihilated,” and so forth, also do not constitute a line in this sense. Because one receives and retains the Sutra and teaches it to others, one can generate wisdom and realize the signless fruit.

This merit is not nonexistent, and these two practices alone can lead to bodhi.

“Why is this so? Subhuti, all Buddhas and the Dharma of the Buddhas’ anuttara-samyak-sambodhi arise from this Sutra.”

Why is this so? Subhuti, all Buddhas and the Dharma of the Buddhas’ unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment arise from this Sutra.

Commentary: This explains the benefit of this Sutra. By hearing and understanding the Sutra, one follows its teaching in reflection and cultivation, attaining non-discriminating wisdom, corresponding with the truth, and perfecting wisdom. From this arises the principle that was previously obscured by delusion; therefore, it is said to arise from the Sutra.

Here the statement is general, so it merely says “arise.” “All Buddhas” refers to the two Buddha-bodies—the reward body and the transformation body—which both arise from this Sutra; and the enlightenment of the Buddhas refers to the Dharma bodies of the Buddhas, which come into being through this Sutra. The author of the Treatise says that, in relation to reality, it is called an illuminating cause, as when the attained illuminating cause is the unconditioned true characteristic.

“Subhuti, that which is called the Buddha-Dharma is precisely not the Buddha-Dharma.”

Subhuti, that which is called the Buddha-Dharma is precisely not the Buddha-Dharma.

Commentary: This explains the meaning that the merit gained from accepting and retaining the Sutra is greater. Through non-discriminating wisdom one realizes the truth; when principle and wisdom are complete, this is called the Buddha-Dharma. Because only the Buddhas of the ten directions attain it in common, it is called the Buddha-Dharma.

Because others do not attain it, it is not the Buddha-Dharma. Moreover, only a Buddha understands the supreme Dharma; others do not understand it, and therefore it is called “not the Buddha-Dharma.” Accepting and retaining this Sutra and expounding it for others are causes of this supreme Dharma; therefore, the merit of these two acts is said to be far greater. The foregoing is the meaning given by Vasubandhu.

According to Asanga, realization of the Dharma body has two aspects: the preceding passage concerns the Dharma body as the characteristic of wisdom, while this passage clarifies the attainment of the characteristic of merit, extending as far as attaining the abiding place of the Dharma body. Furthermore, a doubt may arise: as stated above, within the principle of suchness there is no Dharma body characterized by wisdom that can be attained, nor any Dharma that can be taught; then does one wish to accept and retain this Sutra merely to gain merit?

Therefore, the Tathagata makes this comparison. In relation to the Tathagata’s verbal teaching of the Dharma body, if someone accepts and retains it, that person may produce the characteristic of merit and ultimately attain the Dharma body. Thus, accepting and retaining even one four-line verse produces exceedingly great merit.

This has been explained in detail according to the five meanings.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Can a stream-enterer entertain this thought: ‘I have attained the fruit of stream-entry’?”

Subhuti, what do you think? Can a stream-enterer think in this way: “Have I attained the fruit of stream-entry?”

Commentary: According to Vasubandhu, there are two kinds of comparison which, when combined, form a single statement containing two meanings: first, a doubt is raised; afterward, a comparison is made. There are three points of doubt: 1. A doubt arises based on the Two Vehicles, because it was said above that all noble ones acquire their designation through the unconditioned Dharma.

Within the unconditioned Dharma there is neither teaching nor attachment; why, then, would one who has attained the fruit of stream-entry think, “I am able to realize the fruit”? Would one not also say, “I have attained; I have realized”? 2. If it is said that there is neither teaching nor attachment, why did the Tathagata formerly hear the Dharma from Dipankara Buddha and thereby pass from the seventh bhumi into the eighth bhumi?

That would indeed involve teaching and attachment. 3. If it is said that there is neither teaching nor attachment, why do bodhisattvas become attached to adorning pure lands? These three doubts arise from the preceding statement that all noble ones are differentiated by the unconditioned Dharma.

Unlike the doubts arising in the preceding comparison, all of which arose in relation to not abiding in the perception of characteristics, these doubts arise here. On this basis, the first doubt is dispelled. Each passage contains a question from the Buddha and an answer from Venerable Subhuti, comprising four points.

This is the first question. “Stream” is of two kinds: the stream of birth and death and the supramundane stream of the Path. To follow the deluded course of birth and death is to go against the stream; to turn toward the supramundane is to enter the stream.

“Subhuti said: ‘No, World-Honored One. Why is this so? A stream-enterer is said to have entered the stream, yet there is nowhere that he enters. He does not enter forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, or dharmas; therefore, he is called a stream-enterer.’”

Subhuti said: “No, World-Honored One. Why is this so? A stream-enterer is called one who has entered the stream, yet there is nowhere that he enters. He does not enter forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, or dharmas; therefore, he is called a stream-enterer.”

Commentary: This is Venerable Subhuti’s reply. Its meaning is that if, during correct contemplation when realizing the principle, one neither proceeds toward nor enters anything and does not form an understanding of proceeding toward or entering, then “stream-enterer” is merely an established designation. Furthermore, if one entered forms, sounds, odors, and so forth, there would be discrimination.

When realizing the truth, there is only the one principle of unity, and one does not enter such dharmas as forms, sounds, and so forth; therefore, one is called a stream-enterer. The remaining answers are likewise explained in terms of contemplative practice. Since, during contemplation, one does not entertain the notions of being able to attain or being able to realize, this does not contradict the foregoing.

The preceding is Vasubandhu’s explanation. Asanga, however, sets forth four distinct points.

This is the fifth part: excellence in cultivating the Path without arrogance. In the fourth of the eight kinds of abiding places, the abiding place free from obstructions is divided into twelve parts; the first is freedom from the obstruction of arrogance. If noble ones think, “I am able to attain the fruit; I am a stream-enterer,” and so forth, this is called arrogance. The present answer explains that, at the very moment of contemplation, they do not arrogantly think, “I have attained.” The first three fruits, however, arise from contemplation directed toward them; with the fourth fruit, the afflictions have been exhausted, and the obstruction of what is knowable no longer arises.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Can a once-returner entertain this thought: ‘I have attained the fruit of once-returning’? Subhuti said: ‘No, World-Honored One.

Why is this so? A once-returner is said to go and return once, yet in truth there is no going or returning; therefore, he is called a once-returner.’ ‘Subhuti, what do you think? Can a non-returner entertain this thought: “I have attained the fruit of non-returning”?’ Subhuti said: ‘No, World-Honored One.

Why is this so? A non-returner is said not to return, yet in truth there is no non-returning; therefore, he is called a non-returner.’ ‘Subhuti, what do you think? Can an arhat entertain this thought: “I have attained the path of the arhat”?’ Subhuti said: ‘No, World-Honored One.

Why is this so? In truth, there is no dharma called an arhat, World-Honored One. If an arhat were to entertain the thought, “I have attained the path of the arhat,” he would thereby be attached to a self, a person, a sentient being, and a life span.’”

Subhuti, what do you think? Can a once-returner think in this way: “Have I attained the fruit of once-returning?” Subhuti replied: “No, World-Honored One. Why is this so?

A once-returner is so called because he has only one more going and returning, yet in truth there is no going or returning; therefore, he is called a once-returner.” Subhuti, what do you think? Can a non-returner think in this way: “Have I attained the fruit of non-returning?” Subhuti replied: “No, World-Honored One. Why is this so?

A non-returner is so called because he does not return, yet in truth there is no non-returning; therefore, he is called a non-returner.” Subhuti, what do you think? Can an arhat entertain the thought: “Have I attained the path of the arhat?” Subhuti replied: “No, World-Honored One. Why is this so?

In truth, there is no dharma called an arhat, World-Honored One. If an arhat were to entertain the thought, ‘I have attained the fruit of the arhat,’ he would still be attached to a self, a person, a sentient being, and a life span.”

Commentary: These are the latter three fruits and should be explained generally according to the preceding standard. In the passages concerning these three fruits, attachment to existence—namely, attachment to a self, a person, a sentient being, and so forth—is included, but the translator omitted it. Concerning the fourth fruit, the Buddha first asks, and Venerable Subhuti then answers. In his answer concerning the fruit of arhatship, Venerable Subhuti cites the Sutra as proof in order to inspire faith in others.

“World-Honored One, the Buddha has said that I have attained the samadhi of non-contention and that, among people, I am foremost—the foremost arhat free from desire. Yet I do not entertain this thought: ‘I am an arhat free from desire.’ World-Honored One, if I were to entertain the thought, ‘I have attained the path of the arhat,’ then the World-Honored One would not have said that Subhuti is one who delights in the practice of arana. Because Subhuti truly has no practice that he performs, he is named Subhuti, one who delights in the practice of arana.”

“World-Honored One, the Buddha has declared that, among those who have attained the samadhi of non-contention, I am foremost, and that among arhats free from desire, I am foremost. Yet, World-Honored One, I do not give rise to the thought: ‘I am an arhat free from desire.’ World-Honored One, if I were to think, ‘I have attained arhatship,’ the World-Honored One would not say that Subhuti is one who delights in the practice of tranquility. Because Subhuti truly has nothing that he practices, he is called Subhuti, one who practices in tranquility (aranya).”

Commentary: This passage sets forth the practice of tranquility. It is said that he is foremost in freedom from desire because he is able to abandon both the afflictive hindrances and the cognitive hindrances.

This is regarded as liberation and therefore differs from liberation through wisdom, which abandons only the afflictive hindrances. The cited passage has three parts: a. the Buddha’s supreme designation; b. the clear absence of thought; and c. the explanation of the preceding meaning. If one gives rise to the thought, “I have attained arhatship,” and so forth, then one possesses the marks of self, person, and so forth; the afflictions would consequently remain, and one could not attain the samadhi of non-contention. The World-Honored One would not say that I practice non-contention. Because contention would remain, the World-Honored One’s statement itself shows that I neither possess nor conceive of attaining the practice of non-contention.

“The Buddha said to Subhuti, ‘What do you think? When the Tathagata was formerly in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, did he attain anything with respect to the Dharma?’”

The Buddha said, “Subhuti, what do you think? When the Tathagata was formerly in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, did he attain anything with respect to the Dharma?”

Commentary: According to Master Vasubandhu, this passage dispels a doubt. Dipankara Buddha is also called Buddha Prabhakara. In a former life, when Sakyamuni Buddha was still a bodhisattva and was nearing completion of the seventh bhumi, there was an ascetic who heard that Buddha Prabhakara was about to enter the city.

He immediately bought flowers from a woman and scattered them as an offering to the Buddha, thereby expressing his profound reverence; he also spread his hair over the mud for the Buddha to walk upon. At that time, the Buddha taught him the Dharma, and the bodhisattva entered the eighth bhumi. At the beginning of those three asamkhyeya kalpas, when the flower-selling woman heard that the flowers were to be offered to the Buddha, she refused payment, and the two made vows together.

Because of this, throughout many lives they regularly became husband and wife, serving as virtuous spiritual friends to one another. Furthermore, a doubt may arise: it was stated above that because sages differ according to the unconditioned Dharma, they neither expound nor grasp it. Why, then, did Sakyamuni Buddha receive a prediction in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, or why did Buddha Prabhakara teach him about realization?

This question is raised to dispel that doubt. “Having something attained” means that the discriminating mind falsely grasps the Dharma. “Having nothing attained” is like the wisdom that realizes true emptiness, in which there is no discriminating mind that regards the Dharma as something attained.

To say that this non-discriminating mind has attainment means that its attainment is non-attainment; this does not deny that inward wisdom realizes suchness and that this too is an attainment. The meaning is that when the Buddha heard the Dharma from Buddha Prabhakara, he did not discriminatively grasp any Dharma as something attained. Inward wisdom alone realized suchness, and with respect to all grasping there was nothing attained.

The wisdom of realization is inexpressible and cannot be grasped; therefore, it is neither expounded nor grasped. The question now asks: When the Buddha, in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, attained the wisdom of realization, did he attain anything with respect to the Dharma?

“World-Honored One, when the Tathagata was in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, he truly attained nothing with respect to the Dharma.”

“World-Honored One, when the Tathagata was in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, he truly attained nothing with respect to the Dharma—nothing realized and nothing obtained.”

Commentary: This is the reply concerning whether the Buddha attained or did not attain the Dharma. The author of the treatise states that non-grasping is the wisdom of true principle. “Non-grasping” means that the mind does not discriminatively appropriate anything.

The wisdom of true principle is the wisdom that awakens to the true principle; in it, discriminative appropriation has nothing whatsoever to attain. Master Vasubandhu thus completes his explanation of this meaning. Master Asanga observes that this fifth point concerns not being separated from the time when a Buddha appears in the world; therefore, it is the twelfth abode from which hindrances are abandoned and constitutes the second part concerning freedom from defiling hindrances.

If one practices without anything to attain, this is called being learned; if one holds that there is something attained, this is called being little learned. Yet, in the presence of Buddha Prabhakara, the Buddha did not discriminatively grasp anything as attained; therefore, he was free from the hindrance of being little learned.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Does a bodhisattva adorn a Buddha-land?”

“Subhuti, what do you think? Does a bodhisattva adorn a Buddha-land?”

Commentary: According to Master Vasubandhu, this passage dispels a third doubt. One might wonder: if the unconditioned Dharma can neither be grasped nor expounded, why do bodhisattvas grasp at adorning and purifying Buddha-lands? One might further ask: what recompense does the Buddha receive that he grasps at himself as the Dharma King?

One might also ask: who outside the world would grasp him as the Dharma King? The question contains two parts: first, it dispels the doubt that bodhisattvas grasp at adorning pure lands; next, it dispels the doubt that the Buddha grasps at himself as the Dharma King. In this passage, the Buddha asks the question, Venerable Subhuti replies, and the World-Honored One gives his exhortation.

Bodhisattvas may grasp at adorning Buddha-lands. From the first bhumi upward, bodhisattvas are born in pure lands of recompense and, according to the measure of each bhumi, perceive Buddhas differently. Their own bodies differ even though they dwell in pure lands; this is grasping at the adornment of pure Buddha-lands.

Why was it previously said that sages differ according to the unconditioned Dharma and that they neither expound nor grasp it? This doubt is now dispelled. Because bodhisattvas, through non-discriminating wisdom, inwardly realize suchness as adornment, the seven precious substances appear as outward adornments.

Inwardly, at the time of realizing suchness as adornment, they neither expound nor grasp it. But if, with regard to outward bodily appearances, they think, “I adorn the Buddha-land,” this is still grasping. Bodhisattvas have realized signlessness with respect to visible objects as adornment; how, then, can it be said that they grasp at a pure land?

A verse states:

Consciousness-Only calls this the wisdom associated with purified consciousness. “Penetrating” means realizing the true principle; this is genuine adornment. In its explanation of the eighteen perfections of pure lands, the Mahayana-samgraha states that the roots of supramundane goodness cultivated there are the causes of a pure land.

It is essential to arouse bodhicitta and cultivate supramundane wholesome causes accumulated over time; these are the causes capable of bringing about realization. Moreover, vast capacity and mastery of purified consciousness constitute its characteristics, because purified consciousness is taken as the substance of a pure land. When the mind is pure, the Buddha-land is pure.

It also says that great mindfulness, wisdom, and practice serve as the paths of travel, while great serenity and sublime contemplation are the conveyances. The profound and vast joy and bliss of the taste of Dharma provide sustenance. Emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness are the gateways through which bodhisattvas enter to adorn Buddha-lands.

The Buddha asked Venerable Subhuti whether, with respect to outward appearances, a bodhisattva adorns a Buddha-land. This is the reply:

“No, World-Honored One. Why? The adornment of a Buddha-land is not adornment; therefore, it is called adornment.”

“No, World-Honored One. Why? Because the adornment of a Buddha-land is precisely not adornment; therefore, it is called adornment.”

Commentary: Regarding the adornment of Buddha-lands, or pure Buddha-lands, bodhisattvas must first realize inward adornment; only then do the seven precious substances appear outwardly. Merely visualizing the pools of the Western Land cannot be called adornment. Adornment in outward form belongs to the realm of visible forms. Thus, to speak of adorning a Buddha-land means inward adornment. “Not adornment” means that it is not the adornment of outward appearances. “Therefore, it is called adornment” means signless, non-grasping, genuine adornment.

“Therefore, Subhuti, all bodhisattva-mahasattvas should thus give rise to a pure mind. They should not give rise to a mind that abides in form; they should not give rise to a mind that abides in sound, scent, taste, touch, or dharmas. They should give rise to that mind without abiding anywhere.”

Therefore, Subhuti, the great bodhisattvas should give rise to a pure mind in this way. They should not give rise to a mind that abides in forms; they should not give rise to a mind that abides in sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, or dharmas. They should give rise to a mind that abides nowhere.

Commentary: This is the section in which the Buddha offers exhortation and instruction. “Should give rise to a pure mind in this way” means that one should cultivate until pure wisdom and pure consciousness are attained, thereby purifying the mind. “Should not give rise to a mind that abides in forms” means that one should not give rise to a mind of adornment in relation to external appearances.

“Should give rise to a mind that abides nowhere” means that it is essential to employ the wisdom that realizes non-abiding; non-abiding means being without causal attachment. Master Asanga explains that, among the eighteen distinct abiding places, this is the seventh abiding place: the aspiration to purify a Buddha-land. Among the twelve obstacles relinquished within these abiding places, this is the third: relinquishing the mind that engages in limited objective conditions while contemplating the work of cultivation.

“Limited objective conditions” means creating the outward adornments of a pure land, as when aspiring to the Western Land and contemplating the sun, pools of water, and so forth.

“Tu Bồ Đề, thí như hữu nhơn thân như Tu Di Sơn Vương, ư ý vân hà, thị thân vi đại phủ?”

“Subhuti, suppose there were a person whose body was as immense as Sumeru, King of Mountains. What do you think? Would such a body be immense?”

Commentary: Here a doubt is answered concerning attachment to the Buddha as possessing the body of the Dharma King. Someone may doubt: It was previously said that distinctions among sages arise from the unconditioned Dharma, in which there is neither teaching nor attachment. Why, then, is the reward-body, which personally experiences the bliss of the Dharma, regarded as the body of the Dharma King? Because that body is boundless and pervades the entire dharmadhatu, all beings throughout the world regard it as the body of the Dharma King. To dispel this doubt, the following verse is given:

Like the King of Mountains, it does not conceive

Of itself as the mass called Sumeru;

Though surrounded by other mountains,

It nevertheless remains without thought

And does not proclaim itself King of Mountains.

Sentient beings, possessing discriminating minds, themselves regard it as the King of Mountains. The Buddha’s reward-body is likewise: because it has no discriminating mind, it does not say, “I am the body of the Dharma King.” Sentient beings possess discriminating minds and therefore give rise to the discriminating thought that it is the Dharma King. The Buddha has no discriminating mind and therefore does not cling to being the body of the Dharma King.

“Tu Bồ Đề ngôn: thậm đại Thế Tôn. Hà dĩ cố, Phật thuyết phi thân thị danh đại thân”.

Subhuti said: “It is exceedingly immense, World-Honored One. Why? Because the Buddha teaches that what is not a body is called an immense body.”

Commentary: “The Buddha teaches that it is not a body” means that it is not a body possessing discrimination; “it is called an immense body” means that it is a body free from discrimination.

Master Asanga explains that this is the eighth abiding stage, that of bringing sentient beings to maturity. It is also an abiding place in which an obstacle is relinquished, belonging to the fourth category: relinquishing the obstacle of abandoning sentient beings. Here it is held that, although the Tathagata knows that freedom from attachment to appearances is called freedom from limited objective conditions, the Buddha’s reward-body is nevertheless immeasurably immense.

Rahu, king of the asuras, is as immense as Mount Sumeru, yet the assembly cannot even perceive his essential body, much less could the small and inferior beings of the desire realm perceive it. The implication would then be that the Tathagata abandons sentient beings and does not liberate them. It is for this reason that the preceding passage was taught.

“Tu Bồ Đề, như Hằng hà trung sở hữu sa số, như thị sa đẳng hằng hà. Ư ý vân hà? Thị chư Hằng hà sa ninh vi đa phủ?”

“Subhuti, suppose there were as many Ganges Rivers as there are grains of sand in the Ganges. What do you think? Would the grains of sand in all those Ganges Rivers be numerous?”

Commentary: According to Master Vasubandhu, this passage belongs to the major section concerning the second comparison; the doubts have been dispelled above. The comparison from this point onward also has two parts: first, a comparison involving the giving of wealth, and then a comparison involving the giving of one’s body and life. The giving of wealth also has two parts: the comparison proper and, following the words “This sutra” below, an explanation of the reason.

Within it are three points: the World-Honored One poses a question by means of an analogy; next, Venerable Subhuti answers in accord with the Buddha’s intent; and finally, the Tathagata presents the comparison. Lake Anavatapta is the source of four great rivers; therefore, a manifestation of the Ganges River is used as the analogy. The Agama Sutras record four significances of the Ganges: 1/ it contains much sand; 2/ the world regards it as a source of merit, as when those who are about to bathe in that river seek merit; 3/ throughout long ages its name has not changed; 4/ the Buddha frequently taught the Dharma near that river.

“There are many grains of sand in the Ganges” means that the grains of sand in a Ganges River forty miles wide, deep, and long are already numerous. “As many Ganges Rivers as those grains of sand” means taking the number of grains in one Ganges River and comparing it with the grains in many Ganges Rivers. Suppose each of the innumerable grains of sand in all those Ganges Rivers were made into a Buddha-land, and wealth filling that number of trichiliocosms were given in charity; this still would not equal accepting and retaining even four lines of verse from this sutra.

Why? Because even this small portion of the merit gained from accepting and retaining the sutra becomes a cause of bodhi, and no external condition can destroy it. Material giving is a cause within samsara and can easily be ruined or seized by kings, thieves, and so forth.

“Tu Bồ Đề ngôn: thậm đa Thế Tôn, đản chư hằng hà thượng đa vô số, hà huống kỳ sa”…

Subhuti said: “They would indeed be exceedingly numerous, World-Honored One. Those Ganges Rivers alone would already be innumerable; how much more so their grains of sand?”...

Commentary: This is Venerable Subhuti’s reply.

“Tu Bồ Đề, ngã kim thật ngôn cáo nhữ: nhược hữu thiện nam tử, thiện nữ nhơn dĩ thất bảo mãn nhỉ sở Hằng hà sa số tam thiên đại thiên thế giới dĩ dụng bố thí đắc phước đa phủ? Tu Bồ Đề ngôn: thậm đa Thế Tôn. Phật cáo Tu Bồ Đề, nhược thiện nam tử, thiện nữ nhơn ư thử Kinh trung, nãi chí thọ trì tứ cú kệ đẳng vị tha nhơn thuyết nhi thử phước đức, thắng tiền phước đức”.

“Subhuti, I shall now speak truthfully to you. If a good man or good woman filled as many trichiliocosms as there are grains of sand in those Ganges Rivers with the seven treasures and gave them in charity, would the merit gained be great?” Subhuti replied: “It would be exceedingly great, World-Honored One.” The Buddha told Subhuti: “If a good man or good woman accepts and retains even four lines of verse from this sutra and expounds them to others, this merit would surpass the merit gained from the former giving.”

Commentary: The comparison employing the sands of the Ganges has three points: the Buddha asks the question, Subhuti replies, and finally the Buddha compares which merit is greater and which is lesser.

“Phục thứ Tu Bồ Đề, tùy thuyết thị Kinh nãi chí tứ cú kệ đẳng, đương tri thử xứ nhứt thiết thế gian, thiên nhơn, A Tu La giai ưng cúng dường như Phật tháp miếu, hà huống hữu nhơn tận năng thọ trì, độc tụng. Tu Bồ Đề đương tri thị nhơn thành tựu tối thượng đệ nhứt hy hữu chi pháp. Nhược thị Kinh điển sở tại chi xứ tức vi hữu Phật, nhược tôn trọng đệ tử”.

“Furthermore, Subhuti, wherever this sutra, or even four lines of verse from it, is expounded, you should know that all beings in the world—devas, humans, and asuras—should make offerings at that place as though it were a shrine or stupa of the Buddha. How much more so if someone is able to accept and retain the entire sutra and read and recite it. Subhuti, you should know that this person accomplishes the foremost, supreme, and rare Dharma. Wherever this sutra is present, there is the Buddha, or there are the Buddha’s venerable disciples.”

Commentary: This passage explains the reason, within which the phrase “furthermore” occurs three times. Why does the giving of abundant wealth not equal accepting and retaining even a small portion of the sutra? To explain this point, “furthermore” is used three times, as follows: 1/ wherever the sutra is present, that place is supreme; whoever possesses it is worthy of reverence; 2/ what this sutra should be called—because it can eliminate the two obstacles, it is superior; 3/ beginning with the passage concerning the trichiliocosm below, it is clarified that the giving of wealth is a cause of defilement, whereas the giving of Dharma is a cause of purity and is therefore superior.

Wherever this Sutra is present, that place is supreme; whoever possesses it is worthy of reverence. Just as a stupa or shrine dedicated to the Buddha represents the Buddha’s Dharma-body pervading the ten directions, while bodily relics are merely one form of the transformation Buddha, so this Prajnaparamita Sutra is the complete and true Dharma-body of all Buddhas. Master Asanga explains that this passage concerns the ninth of the eighteen distinct abodes: the abode of abandoning conformity with distraction caused by non-Buddhist treatises.

Therefore, it is the fourth among the twelve—abandoning the obstruction to the abode—and the fifth—abandoning delight in the distraction of non-Buddhist treatises. Its purpose is to cause practitioners to rely upon Prajnaparamita in their study and practice and not to read the scriptures of non-Buddhist paths. This passage has two points: it uses four kinds of causes and conditions to demonstrate the supremacy of the Prajnaparamita teaching, and it explains what this Sutra should be called as an antidote to attachment to meanings when teachings are expounded.

According to the four causes and conditions above, it is divided into four sections: 1/ The preservation of merit, as the Sutra states that one obtains abundant merit; 2/ Offerings by devas and humans, and so forth, according to wherever the Sutra is present; 3/ The difficulty of its practice, as the Sutra states that one accomplishes the supreme and rare Dharma; 4/ Contemplating the Tathagata, as the Sutra states that one thereby sees the Buddha.

“At that time, Subhuti addressed the Buddha, saying: ‘World-Honored One, by what name should this Sutra be known, and how should we receive and uphold it?’”

At that time, Venerable Subhuti addressed the Buddha: “World-Honored One, by what name should this Sutra be called, and how should we receive and uphold it?”

Commentary: According to Master Vasubandhu, because the afflictions are like mountains and rocks, there is therefore a vajra to shatter them; or the afflictions are like vajra, while prajna is capable of cutting them off; or it is like a depiction of the form of a vajra. Master Asanga explains this extensively: because Prajnaparamita possesses many functions, receiving and upholding it brings merit surpassing that of giving material wealth.

“The Buddha told Subhuti: ‘This Sutra is named the Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita. By this name, you should receive and uphold it.’”

The Buddha told Subhuti: “This Sutra is called the Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita. Such is its name, and you should receive and uphold it.”

Commentary: This is an exhortation to receive and uphold the Sutra.

“Why is this so? Subhuti, the Prajnaparamita spoken of by the Buddha is precisely not Prajnaparamita.”

Why is this so? Subhuti, the Prajnaparamita spoken of by the Buddha is precisely not Prajnaparamita.

Commentary: All Buddhas teach it in common and together praise Prajnaparamita. The Prajnaparamita spoken of by the Buddha is the Dharma jointly taught by all Buddhas throughout the ten directions. Although it is free from discrimination, its being spoken nevertheless has a cause, and it is discussed in accordance with the teaching. One simply does not discriminatively cling to it as the Dharma-king; it is not a self-existent entity arising without cause. Prajnaparamita is not presented by one Buddha alone. This means that because Prajnaparamita is the mother of the Buddhas and is able to give birth to all Buddhas, all Buddhas praise it together. If someone receives and upholds even as little as a four-line verse, the merit surpasses that of making offerings by far.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Is there any Dharma that the Tathagata has taught?” Subhuti addressed the Buddha, saying: “World-Honored One, the Tathagata has taught no Dharma.”

“Subhuti, what do you think? Has the Tathagata taught any Dharma?” Subhuti addressed the Buddha: “World-Honored One, the Tathagata has taught no Dharma.”

Commentary: This clarifies that the Dharma of Prajnaparamita was not taught solely by Buddha Sakyamuni. The intent of the question is: Is there, then, any particular Dharma taught exclusively by the Tathagata? Venerable Subhuti replies that there is not.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Are all the minute particles contained within a three-thousandfold great-thousand world-system numerous?”

Subhuti, what do you think? Are the minute particles contained within the three-thousandfold great-thousand world-system numerous?

Commentary: This further explains the reason. First, it states why receiving and upholding the Sutra brings abundant merit; next, it resolves a doubt. The explanation resolving the doubt has two parts: first the question, then the answer.

The illustration of reducing a world-system into particles contains two analogies: 1/ The superior analogy: although the cause of receiving and upholding the Sutra is small, the resulting merit is great. The world-system is like a small handful that is dispersed and reduced into minute particles, which illustrates abundant merit. 2/ The inferior analogy: giving material wealth gives rise to many afflictions. For example, those who receive gifts may consequently give rise to all kinds of disputes.

The world-system represents the material wealth given, and its being dispersed and reduced into minute particles illustrates the arising of many afflictions. Just as the world-system is the cause of the minute particles, material giving also creates causes of defilement. Although what is received and upheld from the Sutra may be little, it produces immense merit; although the material gifts may be many, they only increase afflictions.

Therefore, it is said that even the giving of much wealth does not equal receiving and upholding a single four-line verse. Thus, relying upon this meaning, the question is raised.

“Subhuti said: ‘They are exceedingly numerous, World-Honored One.’ ‘Subhuti, the minute particles spoken of by the Tathagata are not minute particles; therefore, they are called minute particles. The world-system spoken of by the Tathagata is not a world-system; therefore, it is called a world-system.’”

Subhuti replied: “They are exceedingly numerous, World-Honored One.” “Subhuti, the minute particles spoken of by the Tathagata are not minute particles; therefore, they are called minute particles. The world-system spoken of by the Tathagata is not a world-system; therefore, it is called a world-system.”

Commentary: They are numerous, yet they are not real. “Minute particles” refers to reducing a world-system into particles of dust. “Not minute particles” means that they are not as one might cling to the world-system as truly existent.

Minute particles are provisionally borrowed merely as an analogy for greed and so forth. It does not mean that minute particles truly exist as such. It is further explained that minute particles are borrowed merely to illustrate greed and so forth; it does not mean that minute particles constitute the substance of greed.

“Therefore, they are called minute particles” means that minute particles are provisionally relied upon as an analogy. “World-system” means that the world-system is taken as an analogy for giving material wealth. “Not a world-system” means that it is a cause of greed and so forth.

Material giving is a cause of greed; the world-system is merely borrowed as an analogy.

“Subhuti, what do you think? Can one see the Tathagata by means of the thirty-two marks?” “No, World-Honored One. One cannot see the Tathagata by means of the thirty-two marks. Why is this? The thirty-two marks spoken of by the Tathagata are precisely not marks; therefore, they are called the thirty-two marks.”

Subhuti, what do you think? Can one see the Tathagata by means of the thirty-two marks? “No, World-Honored One. One cannot see the Tathagata by means of the thirty-two marks. Why is this? The thirty-two marks spoken of by the Tathagata are precisely not marks; therefore, they are called the thirty-two marks.”

Explanation: This is an indirect way of resolving a doubt. It was said above that receiving and upholding the Sutra generates immense merit; this would seem to imply that merit has characteristics, so here those characteristics are refuted. The Dharma body is spoken of as the Tathagata; it is not the transformation body endowed with the thirty-two marks.

In this passage, the question comes first and the answer afterward. The thirty-two marks refer to the transformation body. A mark is therefore a non-mark, not a mark of the Dharma body.

Those thirty-two marks are the thirty-two marks of the transformation body. The foregoing follows the thought of Vasubandhu. According to Asanga, however, the passage beginning with the Sutra’s reference to the great trichiliocosm concerns, among the eighteen distinct abiding places, the tenth: the bondage of the physical body and the body of sentient beings.

Contemplation within it puts an end to corresponding conditioned activity—that is, it abandons the obstruction associated with this abiding place. The sixth abiding place concerns abandoning the lack of skill in attaining mastery over phenomenal appearances and images. The meaning, therefore, is that sentient beings, lacking skillful means concerning the physical body and the nominal body within bondage, construct a composite characteristic.

A skillful means is now employed to refute that composite characteristic; hence the preceding passage. This refutation has two parts: refuting the physical body and refuting the nominal body. The refutation of the physical body has two parts: 1/ The subtle, called minute particles, as raised in the Sutra: “Are all the minute particles numerous?” 2/ The refutation of the coarse physical body, as in the statement that the minute particles spoken of by the Tathagata are not minute particles.

The nominal body is refuted in the statement that a world is not a world, using the formless nature of a name to eliminate it. Since neither coarse nor subtle characteristics can exist, the world is used as an analogy, as in the Sutra’s question concerning whether one may behold the Tathagata by means of the thirty-two marks, and so forth. The eleventh abiding place is making offerings to and attending upon the Tathagata.

In addition, the seventh abandonment concerns insufficient provisions of merit. This means that if one wishes to make offerings to the Buddha and seek the provisions of merit, one should not behold the Dharma body of ultimate truth through characteristics.

“Subhuti, if a good man or good woman were to give away as many bodies and lives as there are grains of sand in the Ganges, and if another person were, from within this Sutra, to receive and uphold even a four-line verse and expound it to others, the latter person’s merit would be exceedingly great.”

Subhuti, if a good man or faithful woman were to give away innumerable bodies and lives, as numerous as the grains of sand in the Ganges, and if another person were, with regard to this Sutra, to receive and uphold even a four-line verse and expound it to others, that person would gain exceedingly great merit.

Explanation: According to Vasubandhu, material wealth was used for comparison above, while bodies and lives are used for comparison from this point onward. Here the comparison is first presented, after which the reason for the abundance of merit is explained. Asanga explains that, among the twelve abiding places, this is the section on abandoning attachment to material support and lack of zeal, because these cause one either to regress in diligence or fail to arouse the aspiration.

Furthermore, among the abiding places for abandoning obstructions, this eighth section concerns abandoning indolence, material support, attachment to pleasure, and so forth. The explanation is that if sentient beings crave flavors and cling to enjoyment, become indolent, or cling to enjoyment and material support, they will not arouse diligent effort; or, although they may previously have created merit, they will regress.

To cause them to abandon such indolence, bodies and lives are employed for comparison, with the intention of making them even more diligent.

“At that time, Subhuti, having heard this Sutra expounded and having profoundly understood its meaning and import, shed tears of sorrow and wept. He addressed the Buddha, saying: ‘How rare, O World-Honored One! The Buddha has expounded such an exceedingly profound scripture. Since long ago, when I attained the wisdom-eye, I have never heard such a Sutra.’”

At that time, Venerable Subhuti, having heard the Sutra expounded and having profoundly understood its sublime meaning and import, shed tears and wept sorrowfully. He addressed the Buddha, saying: “How rare, O World-Honored One! The Buddha has expounded such an exceedingly profound and sublime Sutra. Although I attained the wisdom-eye long ago, I have never before heard such a Sutra.”

Explanation: Vasubandhu subsequently explains the reason, in which there are four points: 1/ He grieves over the suffering of the body and, upon hearing the Dharma, sheds tears. 2/ The passage beginning, “World-Honored One, if another person...” clarifies that when faith arises here, the true characteristic arises. 3/ The passage, “World-Honored One, the true characteristic...” resolves doubt and cures the illness of attachment. 4/ The passage, “World-Honored One... now I have heard it,” arouses the mind of diligence.

Because Subhuti heard the Buddha’s teaching, he could relinquish the body and patiently endure suffering. Moreover, upon hearing the profound and sublime meaning of this Sutra, through which bodhi is realized, he rejoiced and offered praise while shedding sorrowful tears. Asanga explains that from this point onward there are three points: a/ Moved by the relinquishment of the body for the sake of hearing the Dharma, he becomes sorrowful, just as in Vasubandhu’s explanation. b/ The passage, “If there is again a person...” arouses a diligent mind toward the meaning of suchness. c/ The passage beginning, “Now I have heard it,” causes indolent bodhisattvas who have enjoyed the flavor of the Dharma to give rise to a sense of shame.

“World-Honored One, if another person hears this Sutra and gives rise to a pure mind of faith, the true characteristic will arise. One should know that this person has accomplished the foremost and rarest merit.”

World-Honored One, if another person hears this Sutra and gives rise to a pure mind of faith, the true characteristic will arise. One should know that this person has accomplished rare merit of the foremost kind.

Explanation: A person who hears this Sutra and gives rise to a mind of faith will certainly attain nonconceptual wisdom in a future life, eliminate deluded discrimination, and awaken to the twofold emptiness of person and dharmas; this is called the arising of the true characteristic. Therefore, even relinquishing many bodies and lives cannot equal receiving and upholding the Sutra. This is because relinquishing the body, while continually revolving in samsara without seeking the practice of wisdom, does not lead toward bodhi.

“World-Honored One, this true characteristic is precisely a non-characteristic; therefore, the Tathagata calls it the true characteristic.”

World-Honored One, that true characteristic is a non-characteristic; therefore, the Tathagata calls it the true characteristic.

Explanation: This resolves doubt and cures the illness of attachment. “True characteristic” means that non-characteristic is its characteristic. “Non-characteristic” means that it is not the falsely discriminated characteristic—the distinct characteristic to which one clings. It is called the true characteristic because it is a characteristic free from falsity and is therefore the true characteristic. Some people, upon hearing the expression “true characteristic,” might take it to mean a characteristic apprehended through false discrimination. This passage declares that this is not so.

“World-Honored One, now that I have heard such a scripture, it is not especially difficult for me to believe, understand, receive, and uphold it. If, in the future, in the latter five-hundred-year period, there are sentient beings who hear this Sutra and believe, understand, receive, and uphold it, those persons will be foremost and exceedingly rare.”

World-Honored One, now that I have heard such a Sutra, it is not especially difficult for me to believe, understand, receive, and uphold it. If, in the future, five hundred years hence, there are sentient beings who hear this Sutra and believe, understand, receive, and uphold it, those persons will indeed be exceedingly rare.

Explanation: This concerns diligence born of faith. It is the third point identified by Asanga: causing indolent bodhisattvas to give rise to a sense of shame. It is as though to say: even in an evil age, there will still be sentient beings capable of giving rise to the true characteristic; how much more, then, should bodhisattvas in the present age who hear the Prajnaparamita Sutra practice it? For an evil person to believe and understand it is rare; a bodhisattva’s receiving and upholding it is hardly worthy of praise. Hence this passage appears. According to the text, there are two parts: first, the question of Venerable Subhuti; afterward, the Buddha’s answer.

“Why is this? This person has no characteristic of a self, no characteristic of a person, no characteristic of a sentient being, and no characteristic of one who lives out a lifespan.”

Why is this? Because this person has no characteristic of a self, no characteristic of a person, no characteristic of a sentient being, and no characteristic of a lifespan.

Explanation: Vasubandhu explains that the emptiness of the apprehended is clarified first, followed by the emptiness of the apprehender. Here, only the emptiness of dharmas is discussed. Asanga maintains that the emptiness of persons comes first and the emptiness of dharmas afterward; both forms of attachment must be abandoned.

“And why is this? The characteristic of a self is precisely a non-characteristic; the characteristic of a person, the characteristic of a sentient being, and the characteristic of one who lives out a lifespan are precisely non-characteristics.”

What is the reason? The characteristic of a self is a non-characteristic; the characteristic of a person, the characteristic of a sentient being, and the characteristic of a lifespan are non-characteristics.

Explanation: This concerns the emptiness of dharmas.

“Why is this? One who has abandoned all characteristics is called a Buddha.”

Why is this? Because those who have abandoned all characteristics are called Buddhas.

Explanation: Completely relinquish all characteristics. If there is discrimination, karma leading to birth and death arises. Once the characteristics of discrimination have ceased, the deluded thoughts of birth and death are all empty: this is the state of the Buddhas.

The meaning is that, even if one were to relinquish many bodies and lives but did not awaken to the cause of the principle, this would not equal hearing the Sutra even briefly and thereby relinquishing characteristics and gaining merit. Because hearing, understanding, accepting, and upholding it are causes through which one realizes the principle of the twofold selflessness—the selflessness of persons and of dharmas—and because these are superior causes, their merit surpasses many times over the merit gained by relinquishing one’s body.

End of the First Fascicle

Notes

1. The Middle Way: The middle path is the path that is attached neither to Existence nor to Nonexistence. Because attachment to one extreme readily leads one into wrong views, one falls into the cycle of birth and death. Such views include believing that after death a human being will invariably return as a human being, or that after death a person is utterly annihilated and undergoes no rebirth. To eliminate these two dangerous, one-sided attachments, the Buddha taught the doctrine of the Middle Way, guiding sentient beings back to the true path.

2. The four maras: These are four kinds of maras, or more precisely, four kinds of evil maras. These maras gather followers in hopes of unsettling the minds of those who cultivate wholesome Dharma; hence they are called evil maras.

The four kinds are: a/ The mara of afflictions, such as greed, anger, delusion, conceit, doubt, wrong views, and so forth, which continually cause the mind to become agitated and uneasy, fearful, sorrowful, discouraged, brusque, violent, quarrelsome, abusive, angry, or inert. b/ The mara of the five skandhas: form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. Examples include becoming infatuated with sensual pleasures and thereby ruining one’s entire life; craving fine food and beautiful clothing; delighting in indulgence; entertaining lofty, fantastical thoughts beyond one’s reach; acting recklessly as though to challenge heaven and stir the seas; or adopting a narrow, partial outlook lacking careful consideration. c/ The mara of death, called the death-mara.

Almost everyone in the world fears this kind of mara, but if we steadfastly believe that “the mara is none other than ourselves,” we will certainly cease fearing it at once. d/ The mara of celestial spirits, or the celestial mara. This kind of mara is explained in various ways. In the Śūraṅgama Sutra it is called Mātaṅga, while in other sutras it is called Māra Pāpīyān, the King of Maras, referring to evil persons, those who delight in killing and harming, and those who entice people ruled by craving onto the path of wrongdoing.

3. Five wrong practices: a/ Pretending to cultivate the path in order to seek the respect and offerings of others. b/ Boasting of one’s own talents and virtues in order to manipulate others’ minds for personal gain. c/ Reading physiognomy, casting divinations, and so forth—pronouncing what is auspicious or inauspicious, favorable or unfavorable—to exploit the credulous. d/ Intimidating, bullying, and acting arrogantly and imperiously: the treacherous methods of those greedy for power and determined to retain their positions, used against people who are weak and voiceless. e/ Claiming to have attained spiritual fruition: this is a blatant form of deception, yet there are still people in the world who fall into its snare and cannot find a way to escape.

4. The Auspicious Kalpa: The present kalpa of sentient beings in this world. It is called the Auspicious Kalpa because sages and noble beings appear during it, including one thousand Buddhas who come into the world. To date, four Buddhas have appeared: Buddha Krakucchanda, Buddha Kanakamuni, Buddha Kāśyapa, and Buddha Śākyamuni. Buddha Śākyamuni is the fourth Buddha of the Auspicious Kalpa, and Buddha Maitreya will be the fifth. Thereafter, another 995 Buddhas will appear. The Auspicious Kalpa lasts 236 million years. (See also the Sutra of the Auspicious Kalpa, The Thousand Buddhas of the Present Auspicious Kalpa, and so forth.)

5. The samadhi of non-contention: A practice of meditative concentration in which all contradiction, dispute, and conflict have ceased; the practitioner truly attains a harmonious and peaceful state of mind. This is also the Dharma practice attained by Venerable Subhūti, for which Buddha Śākyamuni praised him.

6. The mind that engages with conditions: The mind that is continually disturbed and governed by external objects such as forms, sounds, fragrances, unusual flavors, smoothness, sleekness, fineness, roughness, and so forth, thereby giving rise to imaginings and cravings. Because of craving, one creates karma through thoughts, words, and actions in order to possess these objects, thereby committing many wrongdoings.