無量壽經優婆提舍願生偈註

Upon careful examination, the Treatise on the Ten Bodhisattva Stages by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna states: When bodhisattvas seek the stage of avaivartika ⁽¹⁾, there are two paths: the first is the difficult path, and the second is the easy path. The difficult path means that, during the period of the five defilements ⁽²⁾, at a time when no Buddha is present, it is exceedingly difficult to attain avaivartika. This difficulty has many different aspects.

Here, three or five of them are briefly stated to illustrate its meaning. First, the attractive appearances ⁽³⁾ of non-Buddhist teachings disrupt the bodhisattva Dharma. Second, the self-benefiting concern of the shravakas obstructs great compassion.

Third, evil and lawless persons destroy the superior virtues of others. Fourth, results that appear wholesome but are actually inverted ⁽⁴⁾ can ruin pure conduct. Fifth, one relies solely upon one’s own power, without the supporting power of another.

Difficulties of this kind are encountered everywhere. It is like traveling overland: going on foot is arduous. The easy path means that, solely through the cause and condition of faith in the Buddha and the aspiration to be born in the Pure Land, one relies upon the Buddha’s power and is immediately reborn in that pure realm.

Then, sustained securely by the Buddha’s power ⁽⁵⁾, one directly enters the Mahayana assemblage of right concentration ⁽⁶⁾. Right concentration is precisely avaivartika. It is like traveling by water: sailing in a boat is pleasant.

This Upadesha on the Sutra of the Buddha of Infinite Life: Verses of Aspiration for Birth is the ultimate teaching of the Supreme Vehicle ⁽⁷⁾, a ship borne by the favorable wind of non-retrogression. “Infinite Life” is the distinctive epithet of the Tathagata in the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss. At Rajagriha and in the kingdom of Shravasti, Shakyamuni Buddha, amid the great assembly, proclaimed the meritorious adornments of the Buddha of Infinite Life and took that Buddha’s name as the essence of the sutra.

The later sage, Bodhisattva Vasubandhu, mindful of the Tathagata’s compassionate teaching, composed verses expressing the aspiration for birth and appended them to the sutra; he then further composed a prose section to explain them. The Sanskrit term is upadesha ⁽⁸⁾, for which this land ⁽⁹⁾ has no exact equivalent. If only one aspect of its meaning is indicated, it may be called a “treatise.” The reason there is no exact equivalent is that this land originally had no Buddha.

Among the writings of this land, those deriving from Confucius are called “classics,” whereas those composed by others are all called works of the “masters.” The various categories of national histories and national chronicles each have their own conventions. Yet among the twelve divisions of scriptures spoken by the Buddha is the scripture of discussion and exposition, called upadesha. Moreover, when disciples of the Buddha explain the Buddha’s scriptural teachings in a manner corresponding to the Buddha’s meaning, the Buddha also permits these works to be called upadesha, because they enter the Dharma characteristics ⁽¹⁰⁾ of the Buddhadharma.

What this land calls a “treatise” properly conveys only the meaning of discussion and exposition; how, then, could it be an exact translation of that term? It is like a woman who, in relation to her child, is called “mother,” but in relation to her elder brother is called “younger sister.” Matters of this kind differ according to their meanings. If one used only the general designation “woman” for both mother and younger sister, the general category of woman would not be lost, but how could the respective implications of seniority and inferiority be encompassed?

The use of the word “treatise” here is likewise comparable to using the word “woman.” Therefore, the original Sanskrit sound is retained, and it is called upadesha.

The remainder of this treatise comprises two divisions: first, the general exposition; and second, the explanation of the meaning. The general exposition consists entirely of the five-character verses. The explanation of the meaning consists entirely of the prose beginning with the words “The treatise states.” It is divided into these two sections for two reasons: the verses recite the sutra and gather its meaning together, while the treatise explains the verses and elucidates their meaning.

“Infinite Life” refers to the Tathagata of Infinite Life, whose lifespan is so long that it cannot be measured.

“Sutra” means constant. The pure meritorious adornments of the Buddha and bodhisattvas in the Land of Peace and Bliss, and the pure meritorious adornments of that land, can bring great benefit to sentient beings. Because these teachings can constantly circulate throughout the world, they are called a Sutra ⁽¹¹⁾.

“Upadesha” is the name of the Buddha’s scripture of discussion and exposition ⁽¹²⁾.

“Aspiration” means joyful desire.

“Birth” means that Bodhisattva Vasubandhu aspired to be born within the Tathagata’s pure lotus blossom in that Pure Land of Peace and Bliss; therefore, it is called “aspiration for birth.”

“Verse” refers to a fixed number of lines. Because the Buddha’s sutra is briefly recited in five-character lines, they are called Verses.

“Vasu” is translated as “Heaven,” and “bandhu” as “Kin” ⁽¹³⁾; thus, this master’s name is Vasubandhu. His biography is recorded in the Sutra of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasury ⁽¹⁴⁾.

If the full Sanskrit sounds of “bodhisattva” were retained, it should be spoken as “bodhisattva.” “Bodhi” is the name of the path to Buddhahood, while “sattva” may mean “sentient being” or “courageous one.” These sentient beings all seek the path to Buddhahood and possess strong, valiant resolve; therefore, they are called bodhisattvas. Here it is stated simply as “Bodhisattva” because the translator abbreviated it.

“To compose” also means “to make.” Furthermore, because the Dharma is proclaimed anew through a certain person, it is said to have been composed by that person. Therefore, the title states: “Verses of Aspiration for Birth from the Upadesha on the Sutra of the Buddha of Infinite Life, composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu.” The explanation of the title of the treatise is now complete.

NOTES 1:

⁽¹⁾ A Tỳ Bạt Chí (avaivartika), also transliterated as A Bệ Bạt Chí or A Duy Việt Chí, means “non-retrogression”: not falling back, but proceeding directly toward the fruit of Buddhahood. It refers to bodhisattvas of the Ten Bhumi.

⁽²⁾ The five defilements are those of the evil world of the five defilements. The five defilements are five forms of impurity. First is the defilement of the kalpa: according to Buddhism, the lifespan of sentient beings passes through two phases, one of increase and one of decrease.

The minimum lifespan is ten years, and the maximum is eighty-four thousand years. Beginning at ten years, it increases by one year every hundred years until reaching eighty-four thousand years; this is called an increasing kalpa. Conversely, beginning at eighty-four thousand years, it decreases by one year every hundred years until only ten years remain; this is called a decreasing kalpa.

Furthermore, the universe has four periods: formation, abiding, destruction, and emptiness. Each period lasts for twenty cycles of increase and decrease. During the abiding kalpa, whenever the human lifespan decreases to twenty thousand years, the other four defilements begin to arise, and this phase is called the defilement of the kalpa.

Second is the defilement of views: during the defiled kalpa, sentient beings begin to give rise to various deluded views, such as the view of a self, extreme views, wrong views, attachment to views, and attachment to prohibitions and observances. Third is the defilement of afflictions: also beginning during the defiled kalpa, the conceptual delusions of greed, anger, and delusion become rampant; this is called the defilement of afflictions.

Fourth is the defilement of sentient beings: because of the preceding two defilements, sentient beings during the defiled kalpa experience much suffering and little merit; their minds are dull, their bodies weak, and they readily incur painful retributions. This is called the defilement of sentient beings. Fifth is the defilement of lifespan: owing to the foregoing conditions, the lifespans of sentient beings grow progressively shorter until only ten years remain; this is called the defilement of lifespan.

⁽³⁾ The original reads: “The auspicious appearance of non-Buddhist paths.” This means that in the age of the decline of the Dharma, the influence of non-Buddhist paths is powerful. Yet non-Buddhist paths have never truly attained the genuine Dharma of liberation, nor awakening and the deliverance of sentient beings. Therefore, their overwhelming influence is described merely as an appearance, a phenomenon without true substance; hence the word “appearance” is used. At the same time, this also suggests that non-Buddhist paths overwhelm the bodhisattva path in terms of outward appearance, that is, form. This means that forms regarded at the time as good and admirable among non-Buddhist paths spread extensively into the bodhisattva path.

⁽⁴⁾ The original reads: inverted wholesome results. This means that people can no longer distinguish the genuine “wholesomeness” of the Buddha-Dharma, especially of the bodhisattva path, from the inverted “wholesomeness” of non-Buddhist paths and the mundane world. Alternatively, it refers to the powerful “meritorious qualities of the five sensual desires,” which render practitioners incapable of maintaining pure conduct.

⁽⁵⁾ The original reads: sustained through the Buddha’s power.

⁽⁶⁾ Here Master Tanluan directly affirms that the Pure Land is the right concentration of the Mahayana.

⁽⁷⁾ That is, the Mahayana. To praise the ultimate purport of the Mahayana, the designation Supreme Vehicle is sometimes used; the Chan school also calls it the Supreme-Most Vehicle.

⁽⁸⁾ The Sanskrit term Upadeśa is commonly transliterated into Chinese as Youpotishe, Youbotishe, Wubotishe, Wubodishuo, and so forth. It is translated into Chinese as “discursive treatise.”

⁽⁹⁾ That is, China.

⁽¹⁰⁾ Every explanation and discussion concerning the truth-principle, that is, the truth of the Buddha-Dharma, belongs to the phenomenal aspect of the Buddha-Dharma, namely Dharma-characteristics, and not to its aspect of true substance, which belongs to true realization.

⁽¹¹⁾ In explaining “sutra” in this way, what does Master Tanluan mean to say? Is it perhaps that the truth of the Buddha-Dharma—and here, the Pure Land—is always continually manifest and operative, and that if this activity is made known in the world through some expedient means, the means by which the perpetual presence of this truth is transmitted is the Sutra?

⁽¹²⁾ The Buddhist scriptures comprise twelve divisions, classified according to the various ways in which the Buddha taught the Dharma, in many literary forms and under different subjects. They may be in prose (1. prose discourse), in verse (2. restatement in verse and 3. independent verse); or they may concern such subjects as the causes and conditions for the Buddha’s teaching of the Dharma (4. causes and conditions), accounts of the Buddhas’ former lives (5. birth stories), and accounts of the disciples’ former lives (6. past events).

They may also be classified according to the ways in which the Buddha taught the Dharma: using parables (7. parables), using analysis and discussion (8. discursive treatises, that is, Upadeśa), employing supernatural powers (9. unprecedented events), speaking spontaneously without being asked (10. unsolicited teachings), expounding profound meanings (11. extensive teachings), and speaking upon affirming that disciples would attain the path or Buddhahood (12. predictions of awakening).

These twelve categories are called the twelve divisions of scripture.

Discursive treatise is one of the twelve divisions.

⁽¹³⁾ Vasu, in the Vedic sense, means goodness and prosperity. It also serves as a general designation for a class or order of deities. Furthermore, the term is used to refer to Indian deities such as Siva, Agni, and others. It is precisely in this sense that it is translated as “Deva.” In addition, it can mean earth or ground. Was it perhaps because of this meaning that Xuanzang translated it as “World”? Bandhu, rendered phonetically as Bantu, means a close relation, kinsman, and so forth; hence it is translated as “Kin.”

⁽¹⁴⁾ The Taishō Tripiṭaka’s “Account of the Causes and Conditions of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasury” (Volume 50, no. 2058, p. 321) mentions Vasubandha, transcribed as either Posupantuo or Posupantou, whom the Chinese Chan tradition regards as the twenty-first Chan patriarch. However, his biography in the Account of the Dharma Treasury is neither clear nor detailed. There is also the “Biography of Dharma Master Vasubandhu” (Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 50, no. 2049), translated by Paramārtha of the Chen dynasty, which is comparatively detailed and complete.

The verse section is divided into the five gates of mindfulness, as explained in the prose section below. The four lines of the first stanza comprise three gates of mindfulness. The first three lines constitute the two gates of worship and praise, while the final line constitutes the gate of aspiration.

In the second stanza, the author of the treatise himself declares his intent: “Relying upon the Buddha’s sutras, I compose this treatise in accord with the Buddha’s teaching.” This means that what he accepts in faith has an authoritative basis, a root. Why must this be stated? It is to establish the designation Upadeśa, to complete the foregoing three gates, and to introduce the following two gates; therefore, these two gates are discussed next.

From the third stanza through the end of the twenty-third stanza is the gate of contemplation. The entire final stanza is the gate of dedication of merit. This completes the division of the verses into their sections and gates.

O WORLD-HONORED ONE, WITH SINGLE-MINDEDNESS I TAKE REFUGE IN THE TATHAGATA OF UNHINDERED LIGHT FILLING THE TEN DIRECTIONS, AND ASPIRE TO BE BORN IN THE LAND OF PEACE AND BLISS.

World-Honored One is a title common to all Buddhas. In terms of wisdom, there is assuredly no principle that he has not penetrated. In terms of eradication, not even the slightest residual habit remains.

Perfectly endowed with both wisdom and eradication, he is able to benefit the world and is therefore honored by the world; hence he is called the World-Honored One. Here, this refers to Sakyamuni Tathagata. How do we know this?

Because the line below says, “I rely upon the Sutra.” Bodhisattva Vasubandhu lived during the Semblance Dharma age of Sakyamuni Tathagata and followed the sutra teachings of Sakyamuni Tathagata; therefore, he made the aspiration to be born there. Because this aspiration for birth has an authoritative basis and a root ⁽¹⁾, we know clearly that “World-Honored One” here refers to Sakyamuni Buddha. If one maintains that the term here refers comprehensively to all Buddhas, there is nothing wrong with that either.

When bodhisattvas take refuge in the Buddha, it is like filial children relying upon their parents or loyal ministers relying upon their sovereign. Whether active or still, they do not act on their own; whether departing or entering, they necessarily have a reason. Knowing kindness and repaying virtue, they should, according to principle, first report their intention.

Moreover, this aspiration is no trivial matter. If the Tathagata did not manifest his awe-inspiring spiritual power in support, how could the aspiration be fulfilled? Therefore, to request the manifestation of the Buddha’s spiritual power, he first addresses the Buddha.

“With single-mindedness” is Bodhisattva Vasubandhu’s exhortation to himself. It means that, while recollecting the Tathagata of Unhindered Light and aspiring to be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss, thought follows thought continuously, without any other thought intruding or becoming intermingled.

Question: The Buddha-Dharma teaches that there is no self. Why, then, is “I” used here (that is, why does he refer to himself as “I”) ⁽²⁾?

Answer: The expression “I” has three fundamental usages. First, “I” may be spoken from wrong views. Second, “I” may be spoken from self-conceit. Third, “I” may be spoken according to common usage. Here, when Bodhisattva Vasubandhu says “I,” he is merely referring to himself using conventional language; it is not due to wrong views or self-conceit.

“I take refuge in the Tathagata of Unhindered Light throughout the ten directions” means: “I take refuge” is the gate of worship, while “the Tathagata of Unhindered Light throughout the ten directions” is the gate of praise. How do we know that taking refuge means worship? In the Praise of Amitabha Tathagata ⁽³⁾, composed by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, it says in various places, “I bow my head in worship” ⁽⁴⁾, “I take refuge,” or “I take refuge and worship.” The prose section of this treatise also speaks of cultivating the five gates of mindfulness, of which worship is the first.

Bodhisattva Vasubandhu aspired to attain rebirth there; how could he possibly have omitted worship? Therefore, it should be understood that taking refuge means worship. Worship, however, signifies only reverence and does not necessarily mean taking refuge, whereas taking refuge necessarily entails worship.

Considered in this way, taking refuge is the more important expression. Since the verse gives voice to the author’s own mind, it must say, “I take refuge.” Since the treatise explains the meaning of the verses, it speaks generally of worship. These two meanings mutually establish one another and render the meaning all the clearer.

How do we know that “the Tathagata of Unhindered Light throughout the ten directions” is the gate of praise? The prose section below says: What is the gate of praise? It is to invoke the name of that Tathagata in accordance with the wisdom-form and radiance of that Tathagata and in accordance with the meaning of that name, wishing to cultivate in true correspondence with reality.

In the Sutra of Infinite Life preached in the land of Shravasti ⁽⁵⁾, the Buddha explained the name of Amitabha Tathagata as follows: Why is he called Amitabha? The radiance of that Buddha is immeasurable, illuminating the lands of the ten directions without obstruction; therefore, he is called Amitabha. Moreover, the lifespan of that Buddha and of his people extends for immeasurable, boundless asamkhya kalpas; therefore, he is called Amitabha.

Question: If the radiance of the Tathagata of Unhindered Light is immeasurable, universally illuminating the lands of the ten directions without anything capable of obstructing it, why, then, are the beings here not illuminated by that light? If there are places the light does not reach, would this not mean that it encounters obstruction?

Answer: The obstruction belongs to sentient beings; it is not that the light itself is obstructed. For example, sunlight pervades all four continents ⁽⁶⁾, yet the blind do not see it. This is not because sunlight fails to pervade them.

Likewise, dense clouds may pour down torrential rain, yet a bare rock is not moistened. How could this mean that the rain does not permeate? The assertion that one Buddha presides over a three-thousand-great-thousand world-system ⁽⁷⁾ is made in the treatises of the shravakas.

The assertion that all Buddhas preside universally over immeasurable and boundless worlds throughout the ten directions is made in the treatises of the Mahayana. Here Bodhisattva Vasubandhu speaks of “the Tathagata of Unhindered Light throughout the ten directions.” This is praise rendered in accordance with the name of that Tathagata and with the wisdom-form and radiance of that Tathagata. Therefore, it should be understood that this line constitutes the gate of praise.

“I aspire to be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss”: this single line constitutes the gate of aspiration and expresses Bodhisattva Vasubandhu’s intention in taking refuge. The meanings of “Peace and Bliss” will be fully explained below under the gate of contemplation.

Question: Throughout the Mahayana sutras and treatises, it is said that sentient beings are ultimately unborn, like empty space. Why, then, does Bodhisattva Vasubandhu say that he aspires to be born?

Answer: The statement that sentient beings are unborn, like empty space, has two meanings. First, ordinary beings believe that sentient beings truly exist and perceive birth and death as truly existent. Yet the phenomena perceived in this manner ultimately have never existed; they are like the hair of a tortoise or like empty space.

Second, because all dharmas arise through causes and conditions, they are precisely unborn: there is nothing whatsoever that is born, just as with empty space. Bodhisattva Vasubandhu’s aspiration to be born has the meaning of arising through causes and conditions. Because it has the meaning of causes and conditions, this birth exists merely as a provisional designation; it is not the supposedly real existence of sentient beings or the supposedly real existence of birth and death conceived by ordinary beings.

Question: According to what principle does one speak of attaining rebirth?

Answer: Within this provisionally designated human realm, one cultivates the five gates of mindfulness, each preceding mindfulness serving as the cause of the one that follows. The provisionally designated person in the Pure Land and the provisionally designated person in the defiled land cannot be definitively said to be one, nor can they be definitively said to be different. The preceding mind and the subsequent mind are likewise. Why is this so? If they were one, there would be no cause and effect; if they were different, there would be no continuity. This meaning is explained in detail in the “Treatise Contemplating the Gate of Identity and Difference” ⁽⁸⁾. The first three gates of mindfulness have now been explained.

NOTES 2:

⁽¹⁾ This means that the treatise takes as its guiding principle the scriptural teachings of Shakyamuni Buddha and was not composed according to the author’s personal ideas.

⁽²⁾ The Chinese word is “wo,” meaning “I.” Here, however, in the context of wholehearted and utterly sincere devotion to Shakyamuni Buddha and the aspiration to heed his teaching and attain rebirth, the Vietnamese spirit is conveyed by translating it as “con,” the humble first-person pronoun used by a disciple before the Buddha.

⁽³⁾ See the Chapter on Easy Practice in the Commentary on the Ten Bodhisattva Stages (Taisho, vol. 26, p. 43).

⁽⁴⁾ Chinese: qishou li, “to bow one’s head in worship.”

⁽⁵⁾ This is the shorter Amitabha Sutra, commonly recited in the daily liturgy of Chinese and Vietnamese monasteries. The Buddha preached this sutra in the city of Shravasti, the Contemplation Sutra of the Buddha of Infinite Life in the city of Rajagriha, and the larger Sutra of Infinite Life at Vulture Peak near Rajagriha.

⁽⁶⁾ The four continents are the four lands surrounding Mount Sumeru in the four cardinal directions. To the south is Jambudvipa, also called Southern Jambudvipa. To the east is Purvavideha, also known by the transliterations Eastern Videha or Pushpadeha. To the west is Aparagodaniya, also known by the transliterations Western Godaniya or Guyaniya. To the north is Uttarakuru, also called Kuru or Uttanavata. According to Buddhist cosmology, these four continents comprise the entire inhabited domain of the human realm, as distinguished from the heavenly realms and the three evil destinies. When a wheel-turning sage-king subdues all four continents, that sage-king is considered to rule all humankind.

⁽⁷⁾ A great-thousand world-system, that is, a three-thousand-great-thousand world-system, is the spatial sphere within which a Buddha exerts his influence and guides beings. Buddhism explains the world as follows: each world has a central axis, namely Mount Sumeru. Encircling the lower half of this axial Mount Sumeru are three layers: wind, water, and metal, the last meaning earth.

Upon the metal wheel, around the upper half of Mount Sumeru, lie eight concentric seas and nine concentric mountain ranges, alternating with one another. Mount Sumeru at the center is the highest and most beautiful and is therefore called “Wonderfully High.” The human world lies in Jambudvipa, south of this mountain, upon the “Jambu Sea.” At the summit of Mount Sumeru is the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. All of the foregoing constitutes one small world-system.

One thousand small world-systems constitute one medium-thousand world-system. One thousand medium-thousand world-systems constitute one great-thousand world-system. Because the factor of one thousand is applied three times, it is called a three-thousand-great-thousand world-system.

⁽⁸⁾ It is unclear which treatise is meant by the “Treatise Contemplating the Gate of Identity and Difference.” It is perhaps the “Gate of Contemplating Identity and Difference,” the sixth gate in Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Treatise on the Twelve Gates (see Taisho, vol. 30, p. 164).

Next comes the section establishing the designation Upadesha. This verse also completes the gates discussed above and introduces the gates discussed below.

Why does this line of verse constitute what is called an Upadeśa? Why does it complete the three preceding gates and give rise to the two following gates? The verse says: “I, relying on the sutras, accord with the Buddha’s teaching.” Sutra is the name given to the Buddha’s scriptures.

I discuss the meaning of the Buddha’s scriptures and accord with the sutras; because this enters into the characteristics of the Buddha-Dharma, it is therefore called an Upadeśa. Thus the designation is established. As for completing the three preceding gates and giving rise to the three following gates: upon what does this rely, why does it rely upon it, and how does it rely upon it?

“Upon what does this rely?” It relies upon the sutras. “Why does it rely upon them?” Because the Tathagata is precisely the characteristic of true merit and virtue. “How does it rely upon them?” By cultivating the five gates of mindfulness and thereby according with the Buddha’s teaching.

Among the twelve divisions of scripture, the direct exposition ⁽¹⁾ is called sutra, meaning such collections as the four Āgamas of the Tripitaka ⁽²⁾. The Mahayana scriptures outside the Tripitaka are also called sutras. Here, “relying upon the sutras” means relying upon the Mahayana sutras outside the Tripitaka, not upon the Āgama scriptures and the like.

The characteristic of true merit and virtue comprises two kinds of merit and virtue. The first arises from the defiled mind and does not conform to the Dharma-nature. This refers to the virtuous deeds of ordinary humans and devas and to the karmic recompenses of humans and devas, whether causes or effects.

All are inverted and all are false; therefore, they are called unreal merit and virtue. The second arises from the pure karma belonging to the wisdom of bodhisattvas. It consists of the adornments of the Buddha’s work; relying upon the Dharma-nature, it enters the characteristic of purity.

This Dharma is neither inverted nor false and is called true merit and virtue. Why is it not inverted? Because it relies upon the Dharma-nature and accords with the two truths ⁽³⁾.

Why is it not false? Because it gathers sentient beings and brings them into ultimate purity ⁽⁴⁾.

As for the statement that the vow-verses comprehensively retain the meaning and accord with the Buddha’s teaching: “retain” means that they neither scatter nor are lost; “comprehensively” means that the few encompass the many; “verses” refers to lines of five characters; “vow” means aspiring with delight to attain rebirth; and “exposition” refers to the verses of the treatise. In brief, it means that the verses expressing the vow for rebirth comprehensively retain the Buddha’s sutra and accord with the Buddha’s teaching. “Accord” means fitting together like a lid and its vessel.

NOTES 3:

⁽¹⁾ This refers to the “long-line” section, meaning prose as distinguished from the verse section.

⁽²⁾ Āgama means teaching, doctrine, sacred teaching, sacred word, and so forth. The scriptures of the Lesser Vehicle were compiled into four major collections called the four Āgamas, comprising:

– Dīrgha Āgama

– Madhyama Āgama

– Ekottara Āgama

– Saṃyukta Āgama.

In addition to the scriptures, there are also the Vinaya texts and Abhidharma treatises, collectively called the Tripitaka, the three collections of the Buddha-Dharma. Chinese Mahayana scholars used the term Tripitaka to designate the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle Śrāvaka Piṭaka, in contrast to the Mahayana Bodhisattva Piṭaka.

⁽³⁾ These are the truth of the ultimate meaning and the conventional truth. The truth of the ultimate meaning (paramārtha-satya) is always paired with conventional truth (saṃvṛti-satya). Parama means first, foremost (translated into Chinese as “first” and “supreme”), or highest. Artha means meaning. Paramārtha (parama + artha) is translated as “truth of the ultimate meaning” or “supreme meaning.” Satya means reality and is translated as “truth.” The distinction of truth (satya) into two kinds was discussed in the Prajnaparamita scriptures and the treatises of the Lesser Vehicle; however, it was not until Nāgārjuna that the meaning of the two truths was emphasized and became fundamental to every inquiry into Buddhism.

The truth of the ultimate meaning is the highest reality or absolute truth; therefore, it must be the ultimate meaning of Buddhism and, above all, of Mahayana Buddhism. That ultimate meaning is precisely the EMPTINESS realized by Mahayana prajna-wisdom. The Pure Land is manifested through the vow of Amitābha Buddha, with the radiance of his wisdom as its essence; therefore, the Pure Land naturally belongs to the truth of the ultimate meaning.

⁽⁴⁾ Chinese text: “ultimate purity,” meaning absolute and final purity.

CONTEMPLATE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THAT WORLD,
SURPASSING THE PATHS OF THE THREE REALMS.

From here onward is the fourth gate, that of contemplation. Within this fourth gate, contemplation is divided into two distinct kinds. The first is contemplation of the fulfillment of adornments belonging to the world as a receptacle ⁽¹⁾; the second is contemplation of the fulfillment of adornments belonging to the world of sentient beings.

From this line through the passage expressing the vow to be born in the land of Amitābha Buddha is the contemplation of the fulfillment of adornments belonging to the world as a receptacle. The contemplation of the world as a receptacle is further divided into seventeen distinct kinds, whose headings will be given when they occur in the text. These two lines constitute the first, called contemplation of the fulfillment of the merit and virtue of the adornment of purity.

Here, purity is the general characteristic.

The reason the Buddha brought forth this merit and virtue of the adornment of purity was that he saw the three realms to possess the characteristic of falsity, the characteristic of cyclic existence, and the characteristic of being endless, like the circular movements of the inchworm ⁽²⁾, or like silkworms binding themselves within their own cocoons. How pitiable are sentient beings, tightly bound within the inverted and impure three realms!

Wishing to establish sentient beings in a place free from falsity, cyclic existence, and endless wandering, where they might attain the ultimate peace and joy of great purity, he therefore brought forth this merit and virtue of the adornment of purity. The fulfillment of these merits and virtues means that this purity cannot be destroyed or defiled. It is unlike the three realms, which bear the characteristic of defilement and the characteristic of destructibility.

“Contemplate” here means to observe. “That” refers to the Land of Peace and Bliss. “The characteristics of the world” means the pure characteristics of that World of Peace and Bliss.

These characteristics are distinguished and explained below. As for “surpassing the paths of the three realms,” “path” ⁽³⁾ means continuity. That is, from a cause of a certain kind, a corresponding result is obtained; and from a result of a certain kind, the corresponding cause may be known.

Because there is continuity from cause to effect and, in turn, from effect back to cause, it is called a path. Of the three realms, the first is the desire realm, referring to the six heavens of the desire realm ⁽⁴⁾, humans of the four continents, animals, hungry ghosts, hell-beings, and so forth. The second is the form realm, referring to the heavens of the first, second, third, and fourth dhyānas.

The third is the formless realm, referring to the heavens of the sphere of infinite space, the sphere of infinite consciousness, the sphere of nothingness, and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception ⁽⁵⁾. These three realms are the dark house in which ordinary beings revolve through birth and death. Although their suffering and pleasure differ somewhat, and their lifespans are provisionally long or short, when considered as a whole, there is none that is not defiled.

Leaning upon and supporting one another ⁽⁶⁾, they revolve without end; intermixed with one another ⁽⁷⁾, they give rise to contact and sensation, and are perpetually seized by the four inversions ⁽⁸⁾. Both causes and effects are merely false and oppress one another.

The Land of Peace and Bliss has the bodhisattva’s right contemplation and compassion as the cause of its arising, and it was established through the spiritual power of the Tathagata’s original vows. Beings born from wombs, eggs, and moisture ⁽⁹⁾ are elevated through this land; the bonds of karma ⁽¹⁰⁾, which ever bind them, are forever severed here. Taking up the authority of the arrow’s nock, they draw the bow without awaiting exhortation ⁽¹¹⁾; diligent in humility and skilled in yielding, they stand alongside Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and equal him in virtue and practice ⁽¹²⁾. To say that it far surpasses the three realms is still only an approximate description.

NOTES 4:

⁽¹⁾ The world (loka), according to Buddhism, is divided broadly into two kinds: the insentient world, namely the receptacle-world (bhājana-loka), and the sentient world, namely the world of living beings (sattva-loka). A receptacle is a utensil or instrument; thus, the term refers to the natural world, which has neither feelings nor consciousness and which sentient beings endowed with feelings and consciousness use as a receptacle and depend upon for their lives. The world therefore cannot lack either of these two elements.

⁽²⁾ Xích Oách: a kind of worm that undergoes a transformation similar to that of a butterfly, abandoning its worm-body and becoming a winged creature.

⁽³⁾ The Chinese term is “dao,” meaning a way or road. Since a road allows passage, it also carries the meaning of being open and unobstructed.

⁽⁴⁾ This refers to the six heavens of the desire realm: the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven (or Heaven of the Thirty-Three), the Yāma Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Transformation, and the Heaven of Freely Enjoying the Transformations of Others.

⁽⁵⁾ The form realm comprises the four levels of dhyana. The heavens of the First Dhyana comprise three celestial realms: the Heaven of Brahmā’s Retinue, the Heaven of Brahmā’s Ministers, and the Great Brahmā Heaven. The heavens of the Second Dhyana likewise comprise three: the Heaven of Lesser Light, the Heaven of Immeasurable Light, and the Heaven of Light-Sound.

The heavens of the Third Dhyana also comprise three: the Heaven of Lesser Purity, the Heaven of Immeasurable Purity, and the Heaven of Universal Purity. Finally, the heavens of the Fourth Dhyana comprise nine celestial realms: the Cloudless Heaven, the Heaven of Merit-Born Beings, the Heaven of Abundant Fruit, the Heaven of Non-Perception, the Heaven Free from Affliction, the Heaven Free from Heat, the Heaven of Excellent Vision, the Heaven of Excellent Manifestation, and the Ultimate Heaven of the Form Realm.

The four heavens of the formless realm are the Sphere of Infinite Space, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, the Sphere of Nothingness, and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.

⁽⁶⁾ This means that they have no true substance.

⁽⁷⁾ This means that feelings, consciousness, and so forth arise through the mutual opposition and interaction of the faculties and their objects.

⁽⁸⁾ The four inversions are:

-Regarding the impermanent as permanent, and in turn regarding the permanent as impermanent.

-Regarding suffering as bliss, and in turn regarding bliss as suffering.

-Regarding the self as non-self, and in turn regarding non-self as self.

-Regarding the pure as impure, and in turn regarding the impure as pure.

⁽⁹⁾ That is, being born from a womb, from an egg, or from moisture.

⁽¹⁰⁾ Karma continually leads beings into the three realms and prevents their escape; it is therefore called the bonds of karma (karmic bondage).

⁽¹¹⁾ The original reads: “Tục quát chi quyền, bất đãi khuyến nhi luyến cung.” The meaning of the phrase “Tục quát chi quyền” is unclear. Its rough literal meaning is “to take up the imposing authority of the arrow’s nock.” It probably means that, upon receiving the merit of the Pure Land, one advances vigorously and directly upon the Mahayana path without needing anyone’s exhortation, as expressed in the following phrase, “bất đãi khuyến nhi luyến cung”: drawing the bow without waiting to be invited.

⁽¹²⁾ The original reads: “Lao khiêm thiện nhượng, tề Phổ Hiền nhi đồng đức.” This sentence describes the virtues attained in the Pure Land as equal to the practices of Samantabhadra.

ULTIMATELY LIKE SPACE, VAST AND BOUNDLESS.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of immeasurability. The Buddha originally aroused this merit of the adornment of immeasurability because he saw that the three realms were narrow and confined, with eroded mounds, crumbling hills, alluvial ground, and built-up banks; places constricted by palaces and terraces or crowded by fields and farms; aspirations for freedom but roads that were cramped and pressing ⁽¹⁾; mountains and rivers that obstructed passage; and territories divided by borders—all manner of restrictions such as these.

The bodhisattva ⁽²⁾ therefore aroused this vow for the merit of the adornment of immeasurability, vowing: “May my land be like space, vast and without boundaries.” “Like space” means that although those born there are numerous, it is as though there were none. “Vast and boundless” establishes the meaning of “like space” stated above. Why is it like space?

Because it is vast and boundless. This fulfillment of immeasurable merit means that beings throughout the ten directions who attain rebirth there—whether already born, presently being born, or yet to be born—though immeasurable and boundless in number, will ultimately always be like space, vast and without boundaries, with no time when they will be exhausted. Therefore it is said: Ultimately like space, vast and boundless.

Question: Vimalakirti’s square chamber ⁽³⁾ contained everyone completely, leaving no one outside. Why must there be immeasurable boundaries before something may be called vast?

Answer: The term “vast” here is not illustrated by an area of thirty or fifty mu. It is enough simply to say that it is like space; there is no need to trouble ourselves with the square chamber ⁽⁴⁾. Moreover, what the square chamber contained exemplifies spaciousness within a confined place. If one speaks truly of the resultant recompense, how could spaciousness within a narrow place equal spaciousness within a vast expanse?

NOTES 5:

⁽¹⁾ The original reads “chí cần lộ xúc,” perhaps meaning: the mind aspires to ease and freedom, but the roads are narrow and constricted?

⁽²⁾ The term “bodhisattva” here refers to Amitabha Buddha when he was still the bhiksu Dharmakara and formulated the forty-eight vows. If the term “bodhisattva” is used in the verses below, it should likewise be understood in this sense.

⁽³⁾ The square chamber was one zhang square—a zhang being nearly three and a half meters—and refers to the room of Bodhisattva Vimalakirti. When Bodhisattva Manjusri led the great assembly of bodhisattvas and sravakas to this room to inquire after Vimalakirti’s illness, Vimalakirti used the spiritual power of “inconceivable liberation” to summon thirty-two thousand lion thrones from Buddha Sumeru-Lamp-King in the world called Sumeru-Banner, located to the east of this world beyond Buddha lands as numerous as the sands of thirty-six Ganges Rivers, and invited the assembly to sit upon them.

These lion thrones were beautifully adorned and as tall as eighty-four thousand yojanas—one yojana being approximately eleven kilometers—yet all were arranged in their entirety within Vimalakirti’s “square chamber” (see The Sutra Spoken by Vimalakirti, Chapter Six, “The Inconceivable,” Taisho Tripitaka, volume 14, page 546). Subsequently, nine million bodhisattvas from Buddha Fragrance Accumulation’s world of Myriad Fragrances all came together and assembled in this small room.

Bodhisattva Vimalakirti then manifested another nine million lion thrones like those described above. At that time, eighty-four thousand elders of the city of Vaisali, together with earth spirits, spirits of space, and devas of the desire and form realms, followed the fragrance of the rice from the world of Myriad Fragrances and entered Bodhisattva Vimalakirti’s “square chamber” (same source, Chapter Ten, “Buddha Fragrance Accumulation,” page 552).

Vimalakirti’s square chamber contained that great multitude without being crowded in the least.

⁽⁴⁾ This means that saying it is like space is already entirely precise. If one must still resort to the “square chamber,” then a measurable dimension remains; would it not be needlessly laborious to argue from that measurable dimension to immeasurability?

THE GREATLY COMPASSIONATE RIGHT PATH, FROM WHICH SUPRAMUNDANE ROOTS OF GOODNESS ARISE.

These two lines are called the accomplishment of the merit of the adornment of its nature. Why did the Buddha originally bring forth this adornment? He saw that there were lands which, because of sensual desire, belonged to the desire realm, and that, because meditative concentration was conditioned by disenchantment ⁽¹⁾, there were necessarily the form and formless realms.

These three realms are all produced by the outflow-tainted paths of heterodox teachings; sentient beings remain asleep in this great dream of the three realms, not knowing that they should seek liberation from them. Therefore, he aroused the mind of great compassion and vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, by means of the unsurpassed path of right view, I shall establish a pure land beyond the three realms.” “Nature” means the foundation, indicating that this Pure Land accords with the Dharma-nature and does not contradict the foundation of the Dharma ⁽²⁾.

Its phenomenal characteristics correspond to the meaning in the Avataṃsaka Sutra that phenomena arise from the nature of the Tathagata Jewel King ⁽³⁾. It is also said that accumulation gives rise to its nature, referring to Bodhisattva Dharmākara ⁽⁴⁾, who established the nature of this land through the accumulation of the pāramitās ⁽⁵⁾. It is further said that “nature” means the lineage-nature of the noble ones: when Bodhisattva Dharmākara, in the presence of Buddha Lokeśvararāja, realized the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas ⁽⁶⁾, his stage at that time was called the noble lineage-nature ⁽⁷⁾.

Grounded in this nature, he made forty-eight great vows and cultivated them until this land was accomplished; it is therefore called the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss. That land was attained through this cause; here the cause is spoken of within the fruit, and hence it is called “nature.” It is also said that “nature” means necessity, that which does not change. It is like the ocean, which has a single taste: all streams entering it acquire that one taste, while the ocean’s taste does not change according to them.

It is also like the human body, whose nature is impure: all excellent forms, fragrances, and delicacies that enter the body become impure. Among those reborn in the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss, none fails to possess pure form and none fails to possess a pure mind; ultimately, all attain the pure, equal, unconditioned Dharma-body. This is because the Land of Peace and Bliss is accomplished from the nature of purity.

“The right path of great loving-kindness and compassion, born from supramundane roots of virtue,” is the great path of equality. The path of equality is called the right path because equality is the essential characteristic of all dharmas. Because all dharmas are equal, one brings forth the mind of equality; because one brings forth the mind of equality, the path is equal; because the path is equal, great loving-kindness and compassion are equal.

Great loving-kindness and compassion are the direct cause of the path to Buddhahood; hence it is said, “the right path of great loving-kindness and compassion.” Compassion has three kinds of objects: first, sentient beings as its object, which is lesser compassion; second, dharmas as its object, which is intermediate compassion; and third, no object, which is great compassion ⁽⁸⁾. Great compassion is a supramundane root of virtue.

Because the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss is born from this great compassion, this great compassion is called the root of the Pure Land; hence it is said, “born from supramundane roots of virtue.”

NOTES 6:

⁽¹⁾ The cultivation of meditative concentration takes disenchantment with and relinquishment of sensual craving as its basis and objective, thereby giving rise to the four dhyānas of the form realm and the four attainments of the formless realm.

⁽²⁾ The original reads “the foundation of the Dharma,” meaning the true nature of dharmas.

⁽³⁾ The source of this passage in the Avataṃsaka Sutra has not yet been traced. According to Ding Fubao’s Great Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, however, “Jewel King” is not the name of a Buddha. Rather, because Buddhas adorn their reward-bodies with the “jewel” of merit, they are called Jewel Kings.

⁽⁴⁾ Bhikṣu Dharmākara was the former incarnation of Amitābha Buddha. He made forty-eight great vows and thereby accomplished the Land of Ultimate Bliss. (See the Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life.)

⁽⁵⁾ Pāramitā, in full, is transliterated as Ba La Mật Đa. Its meaning can be analyzed etymologically in two ways. Pārami (or parami) is formed from the word “parama,” meaning highest, supreme, excellent, foremost, or first—as in parama + artha = paramārtha, meaning the ultimate truth or supreme meaning.

When the suffix tā is added to pārami, it becomes pāramitā, meaning supremacy or perfection, as Western scholars commonly translate it. Another analysis derives it from pāram combined with ita. Pāram means the other shore of a river, while ita is the past participle of the verbal root i, meaning “to go.” Pāramitā thus means “gone to the other shore.” This interpretation was accepted by translators of scriptures into Chinese and Tibetan, whereas the former interpretation is accepted in the Pali canonical tradition.

According to Mahayana, there are either six or ten pāramitās. According to the Saṃdhinirmocana Sutra, the six pāramitās encompass two orientations: the first three pāramitās—generosity, moral discipline, and patience—are intended to benefit sentient beings; the latter three—diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom—are intended to counteract afflictions. These six fundamental pāramitās are further supported by four additional pāramitās: 1. the Pāramitā of Skillful Means reinforces generosity, moral discipline, and patience; 2. the Pāramitā of Vows reinforces diligence; 3. the Pāramitā of Power makes meditative concentration more firm and enduring;

and 4. the Pāramitā of Knowledge brings wisdom to perfection. (See the first chapter, “The Stages of the Pāramitās,” in the Saṃdhinirmocana Sutra.) Altogether, these constitute the ten pāramitās.

⁽⁶⁾ Patience regarding non-arising, or patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas (Anutpattika-dharmakṣānti): perceiving the true nature of all dharmas as neither arising nor ceasing and abiding firmly and irreversibly in this Dharma of non-arising and non-cessation. This is called patience regarding the Dharma of non-arising and non-cessation, that is, patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas. According to Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva’s Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom (fascicle 73): “In non-arising patience, even subtle dharmas cannot be apprehended, much less great dharmas.

This is called non-arising. Having attained this Dharma of non-arising, one neither performs nor gives rise to karmic activities. This is called attaining patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas.

When a bodhisattva attains patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, that bodhisattva is called Avaivartika, meaning irreversible.”

⁽⁷⁾ “Lineage” means a seed or germ. Because it possesses the pure, supramundane quality, it is called the noble nature.

⁽⁸⁾ Consciousness requires an object upon which to depend in order to arise. The mind of compassion is likewise: it requires an object in relation to which it arises. If it takes all sentient beings as its object and thereby gives rise to compassion, this compassionate mind is called loving-kindness and compassion with sentient beings as its object.

If it takes “dharmas”—here meaning all the qualities that constitute sentient beings—as its object in order to give rise to compassion, it is called loving-kindness and compassion with dharmas as its object. If it takes the true emptiness-nature of dharmas as its object in order to give rise to compassion, this compassionate mind is called objectless loving-kindness and compassion. As the Diamond Sutra says, “One delivers all sentient beings”—that is, loving-kindness and compassion with sentient beings as their object—“yet does not perceive any sentient being whatsoever as having attained extinction”—which is both loving-kindness and compassion with dharmas as their object and objectless loving-kindness and compassion.

PURE RADIANCE COMPLETELY FILLS IT, LIKE THE MIRROR-LIKE DISCS OF THE SUN AND MOON.

These two lines are called the accomplishment of the merit of the adornment of form. The reason the Buddha brought forth this meritorious adornment was that he saw that, although the sun travels throughout the four regions ⁽¹⁾, its light does not fully illuminate the other three directions ⁽²⁾, and although a fire is lit inside a house, its illumination does not extend even ten ren ⁽³⁾. Therefore, he made the vow that pure radiance should completely fill the land, like the luminous discs of the sun and moon, complete in their own essence. Although that Pure Land of Peace and Bliss is vast and boundless, there is nowhere that this pure radiance does not reach and completely pervade. Hence it is said: “Pure radiance completely fills it, like the mirror-like discs of the sun and moon.”

NOTES 7:

⁽¹⁾ The original reads “the four regions,” referring to the area bounded by the four directions, that is, the spatial extent of a world.

⁽²⁾ This means that sunlight can illuminate only one “region” at a time; it cannot illuminate all three other directions equally at the same time.

⁽³⁾ The ren was an ancient unit of measurement. One ren was approximately two and a half meters.

POSSESSING THE NATURE OF PRECIOUS JEWELS, COMPRISING EVERY WONDROUS ADORNMENT.

These two lines are called the accomplishment of the merit of adornment with all varieties of adornments. Why did the Buddha bring forth this adornment? He saw lands where mud and earth were used to adorn palaces and wood and stone were used to make flower terraces; even when jade was carved and gold inlaid, they still did not fulfill one’s wishes; and even when hundreds of thousands of things were arranged, one still had to endure every hardship ⁽¹⁾.

For this reason, he aroused the mind of great compassion and vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, I shall cause my land to be replete with precious jewels and naturally magnificent, so complete that all else will be forgotten, with nothing further desired ⁽²⁾, and beings will spontaneously attain the Buddha Way.” Even Viśvakarman ⁽³⁾, whose craftsmanship is renowned as unsurpassed, could not discover how to produce this adornment, though he exhausted all thought and reflection.

“Nature” means the root. Since that which gives rise is pure, how could that which is produced fail to be pure? Therefore, the sutra says that when the mind is purified, the Buddha-land is necessarily pure. Hence it is said: “Possessing the nature of precious jewels, comprising every wondrous adornment.”

NOTES 8:

⁽¹⁾ This means that even one who possesses sufficient wealth to build according to one’s wishes must still expend a great deal of effort.

⁽²⁾ The original reads: “Mutually forgetting whatever remains.” This means that the adornments of that land are so utterly perfect that sentient beings no longer feel any lack or longing for anything whatsoever and consequently will spontaneously attain the Buddha Way.

⁽³⁾ Viśva-karman is the deity of crafts and industry as well as the deity of architecture. He can conjure every kind of ingenious craft, object, and implement, together with every variety of adornment desired by the kings of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, that is, the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

STAINLESS LIGHT BLAZES BRILLIANTLY, PURE AND RADIANT, ILLUMINATING THE WORLDS.

These two lines are called the accomplishment of the merit of the adornment of form. The Buddha brought forth this adornment because he saw that the lands differed in ugliness and beauty. Because they differed, distinctions of high and low took form. Once high and low had taken form, judgments of right and wrong arose. Once judgments of right and wrong had arisen, beings remained submerged in the three realms of existence ⁽¹⁾. Therefore, he aroused the mind of great compassion and made a vow of equality, vowing: “May the light of my land be lustrous and brilliant, foremost and beyond compare, unlike the golden hues of devas and humans, which can be eclipsed by other colors.”

As for such mutual eclipsing: when a bright mirror is placed beside pure gold, its radiance disappears and is no longer visible ⁽²⁾. Likewise, the gold of the present age, compared with the gold of an age when a Buddha is present, disappears and is no longer visible. The gold of an age when a Buddha is present, compared with Jambūnada gold ⁽³⁾, disappears and is no longer visible.

Jambūnada gold, compared with the golden sand in the great ocean during the reign of a Wheel-Turning King ⁽⁴⁾, disappears and is no longer visible. The golden sand of the Wheel-Turning King’s reign, compared with a golden mountain, disappears and is no longer visible. A golden mountain, compared with golden Mount Sumeru, disappears and is no longer visible.

Golden Mount Sumeru, compared with the gold of the jeweled necklaces in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three ⁽⁵⁾, disappears and is no longer visible. The gold of the jeweled necklaces in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, compared with the gold of the Yāma Heaven, disappears and is no longer visible. The gold of the Yāma Heaven, compared with the gold of the Tuṣita Heaven, disappears and is no longer visible.

The gold of the Tuṣita Heaven, compared with the gold of the Heaven of Delight in Conjuration, disappears and is no longer visible. The gold of the Heaven of Delight in Conjuration, compared with the gold of the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Conjurations, disappears and is no longer visible. The gold of the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Conjurations, compared with the radiance in the Land of Peace and Bliss, disappears and is no longer visible.

Why is this so? It is because the light in that realm arises from the complete elimination of karmic defilements, and thus there is no purity that it does not accomplish. The Pure Land of Peace and Bliss arises from the bodhisattva’s pure karma of the acquiescence to the non-arising of dharmas and is governed by Amitābha Tathagata, the King of the Dharma, for Amitābha Tathagata is its predominant condition ⁽⁶⁾. Therefore, it is said: “Stainless light blazes brilliantly, pure and radiant, illuminating the worlds.” This means that it illuminates the two kinds of worlds ⁽⁷⁾.

NOTES 9:

⁽¹⁾ That is, the three realms of samsara: the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.

⁽²⁾ This means that the mirror’s radiance is too weak compared with that of gold, and so it is overwhelmed by the golden light until the mirror’s radiance can no longer be discerned.

⁽³⁾ Jambūnada-suvarṇa: Jambūnada is transliterated as Viêm Phù Đàn or Diêm Phù Na Đà (or Na Tha), while suvarṇa means gold. Jambu is the name of a tree. Because the southern continent of Jambudvīpa has many such trees, it is also called the continent of Jambudvīpa. Beneath the forest of jambu trees is a river (nada). The river takes its name from the trees and is therefore called Jambūnada. The gold (suvarṇa) found in this river takes its name from the river and is thus called Jambūnada gold (Jambūnada-suvarṇa).

⁽⁴⁾ That is, the age when a Wheel-Turning King (Cakravartin) teaches and transforms sentient beings by means of the path of the ten wholesome deeds, and the age is therefore wholly virtuous.

⁽⁵⁾ That is, the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven: the second of the six heavens in the desire realm (Kāmāvacara). From lowest to highest, these heavens correspond to progressively greater merit acquired through virtuous conduct and observance of the precepts. Below the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven is the first heaven, that of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahārājika). Above the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven are, in order, the Yāma Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Conjuration (Nirmāṇarati), and the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Conjurations (Paranirmitavaśavartin).

⁽⁶⁾ The predominant condition is one of the four conditions. A condition (pratyaya) is a basis, support, or point of origin from which something else arises; that which arises is called the result of the condition. The primary cause that produces a result is called the causal condition (hetu-pratyaya).

The external object that serves as the support for the arising of consciousness is called the object condition (ālambana-pratyaya). Mental states arise and cease while serving as conditions for one another: the cessation of the preceding mental state conditions the arising of the following one, and the preceding and following mental states continue on an equal basis without interruption; this is called the immediately antecedent condition (samanantara-pratyaya).

Finally, all factors that assist “results” in arising powerfully and do not obstruct their “accomplishment” are called predominant conditions (adhipati-pratyaya).

⁽⁷⁾ That is, the mundane and the supramundane; here, the latter is the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

THE GRASS OF MERIT IS MADE OF JEWELS, SOFT AND YIELDING TO LEFT AND RIGHT; CONTACT WITH IT GIVES RISE TO SUPREME BLISS, SURPASSING KĀCILINDIKA.

These four lines are called the accomplishment of the merit of the adornment of touch. Why did the Buddha originally bring forth this adornment? He saw lands that, although filled with gold, jade, and precious things, could not provide clothing ⁽¹⁾; though they had bright mirrors and precious playthings, there was no way to obtain furnishings ⁽²⁾. Such things delighted the eyes but afforded no comfort to the body. Would this not place the eyes and body in conflict with one another? Therefore, he vowed: “May humans and devas in my land have their six sense faculties harmonized like milk and water ⁽³⁾, and may all the hardships of Chu and Yue be extinguished ⁽⁴⁾.” Thus, the seven precious substances there are soft, both pleasing to the eyes and comfortable for the body.

Kātyāyana grass is the name of a kind of soft grass in India ⁽⁵⁾. Touching it can produce a pleasurable sensation, and so it is used here as a simile. The commentator ⁽⁶⁾ may say: In this land, earth, stones, grasses, and trees each have their own distinct and fixed substance; why, then, did the translator ⁽⁷⁾ regard the jewels of that land as grass?

It must be because those jewels are like tender, caressing shoots and like fine, curling grass, and therefore he called them grass. If I ⁽⁸⁾ had participated in the translation, I would have rendered it differently. “Producing supreme bliss” means that touching Kātyāyana grass produces the pleasure of defiled attachment ⁽⁹⁾, whereas touching the soft jewels here produces the joy and bliss of delight in the Dharma ⁽¹⁰⁾.

When these two matters are set side by side, how could the latter not be supreme? Therefore it is said: The grass of merit is made of jewels, soft and yielding to either side; touching it produces supreme bliss, surpassing Kātyāyana grass.

NOTES 10:

⁽¹⁾ This perhaps refers to nonhuman beings, such as nāgas?

⁽²⁾ “Display furnishings” means articles used to exhibit precious objects.

⁽³⁾ The six faculties of sensation are the six sense faculties. Because feelings and consciousness arise from the six faculties, they are sometimes called the six faculties of sensation: the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. “The six faculties of sensation blend like milk and water” means that all six faculties equally enjoy the same bliss.

⁽⁴⁾ “The hardship of Chu and Yue”: Chu and Yue were two states during China’s Spring and Autumn period. Because these two regions were far apart, “Chu and Yue” signifies remoteness and separation. “The hardship of Chu and Yue” means the toil of traversing a great distance and the difficulty of travel.

⁽⁵⁾ In ancient times, the Chinese called India “Tianzhu.”

⁽⁶⁾ It is unclear to whom “the commentator” refers here; perhaps it means those who study this treatise?

⁽⁷⁾ The translator refers to Bodhiruci.

⁽⁸⁾ That is, Great Master Tanluan. The Great Master was not entirely satisfied with the meaning of “grass” here, and he believed that it resulted from Bodhiruci’s manner of translation.

⁽⁹⁾ Defiled attachment means being tainted by sensual desire and troubled by craving when sentient beings come into contact with the sensual pleasures of the world.

⁽¹⁰⁾ Delight in the Dharma is the joy of the Dharma, the pure joy brought about by the Dharma of liberation.

JEWELED FLOWERS OF THOUSANDS AND MYRIADS OF KINDS COVER ALL STREAMS, PONDS, AND LAKES; GENTLE BREEZES STIR THE FLOWERS AND LEAVES, WHILE INTERWEAVING RAYS OF LIGHT TURN AND SHIMMER.

These four lines describe the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of water. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in some lands rivers and waters surged violently, seas heaved with billowing waves, and terrifying foam rose upon them; or ice formed and thawed, soaking and freezing all things, pressing and roiling tumultuously.

To proceed toward them afforded no joy, while turning back brought anxiety about encountering calamity ⁽¹⁾. Seeing this, the bodhisattva aroused great compassion and vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, every river, stream, pond, and lake shall be in harmony with the palaces. Jeweled flowers of every kind shall spread everywhere and beautify the waters; gentle breezes shall softly fan them, and rays of light shall shine forth in ordered succession.

There shall not be a single flower that does not refresh the spirit.” Therefore it is said: Jeweled flowers of thousands and myriads of kinds cover all streams, ponds, and lakes; gentle breezes stir the flowers and leaves, while interweaving rays of light turn and shimmer.

NOTES 11:

⁽¹⁾ This means that the rivers and waters are perilous, and those traveling by boat in such lands readily encounter hardship and danger.

PALACES AND PAVILIONS REVEAL THE TEN DIRECTIONS WITHOUT OBSTRUCTION; TREES OF MANY KINDS ARE PERFECT IN LIGHT AND COLOR, AND JEWELED RAILINGS ENCIRCLE THEM.

These four lines describe the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the land. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? He saw that in some lands lofty mountains towered upward, withered trees stretched across the passes, paths were rugged and perilous, ravines were unfathomably deep, and grasses crowded every hollow.

Vast blue seas drew the gaze with their currents, while boundless broad marshes were places without human footprints ⁽¹⁾. Seeing this, the bodhisattva aroused a vow of great compassion, saying: “May the land of my realm be as level as the palm of a hand. May its palaces and pavilions, like mirrors, gather within them the images of the ten directions.

Truly, they shall belong nowhere, yet there shall be nowhere to which they do not belong. Jeweled trees and jeweled railings shall shine resplendently upon one another.” Therefore it is said: Palaces and pavilions reveal the ten directions without obstruction; trees of many kinds are perfect in light and color, and jeweled railings encircle them.

NOTES 12:

⁽¹⁾ This refers to the wild and desolate character of nature in this realm.

MEASURELESS JEWELS INTERWEAVE, FILLING THE SKY WITH NETS; BELLS OF EVERY KIND RESOUND, THEIR MELODIOUS TONES PROCLAIMING THE WONDROUS DHARMA.

These four lines describe the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of space. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? He saw that in some lands smoke, clouds, mist, and dust obscured the vast sky.

Thunder roared and storms raged, pouring down from above. Inauspicious rainbows appeared from empty space; a hundred anxieties made one’s hair stand on end ⁽¹⁾. Seeing this, the bodhisattva aroused great compassion and vowed: “In my land, jeweled nets shall intersect and spread throughout the sky.

The bells shall sound in the modes of gong and shang ⁽²⁾, melodiously proclaiming the Dharma of the Way. One shall never tire of beholding them, and they shall cause beings to recollect the Way and perceive virtue.” Therefore it is said: Measureless jewels interweave, filling the sky with nets; bells of every kind resound, their melodious tones proclaiming the wondrous Dharma.

NOTES 13:

⁽¹⁾ That is, one’s hair stands on end or one breaks out in gooseflesh. This refers to the terrifying anxieties of this realm that descend from the sky.

⁽²⁾ These are modes of ancient Chinese music.

FLOWERS AND ADORNED ROBES RAIN DOWN; MEASURELESS FRAGRANCE PERFUMES ALL THINGS.

These two lines describe the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of rain. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? He saw that in some lands people wished to spread ornamental articles upon the ground to welcome those worthy of reverence, or wished to use precious incense and flowers to express their respect, yet because their karma left them poor and their merit was meager, they could not accomplish what they desired.

Therefore, he aroused a vow of great compassion: “May these things continually rain down in my land, satisfying the wishes of sentient beings.” Why is rain used to describe this? It was feared that someone might cling to the words and say: “If flowers and robes constantly rained down, they would surely fill and obstruct the sky. How, then, could such rain present no hindrance?” ⁽¹⁾ Therefore rain is used as a simile.

Rain that falls at the proper time never causes concern about flooding. How could the karmic recompense of the Land of Bliss contain anything that troubles sentient beings? A sutra states: “During the six periods of day and night ⁽²⁾, jeweled robes and jeweled flowers rain down.

Their substance is soft and yielding. When one steps upon them, they sink four inches; when the foot is lifted, they return to their former state. After being used, they enter the jeweled ground just as water enters a channel.” Therefore it is said: Flowers and adorned robes rain down; measureless fragrance perfumes all things.

NOTES 14:

⁽¹⁾ This asks why, if such things constantly rained down, those adornments would not accumulate and overflow, thereby obstructing the land and other things.

⁽²⁾ This is the Buddhist division of a full day and night into six periods: early morning, midday, sunset, early night, midnight, and late night. Thus a day and night are called the six periods.

THE SUN OF THE BUDDHA’S WISDOM SHINES BRILLIANTLY, PURELY DISPELLING THE WORLD’S DARKNESS OF DELUSION.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of radiance. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? He saw that in some lands, although the sunlight stood directly overhead, beings were still obscured by ignorance.

He therefore vowed: “May all the light in my land dispel the darkness of ignorance and lead beings into the Buddha’s wisdom, rather than being merely an indeterminate phenomenon ⁽¹⁾.” It also means that the radiance of the Land of Peace and Bliss arises from the fruition of the Tathagata’s wisdom and can therefore dispel the darkness of the world. A sutra states: “In some Buddha lands, radiance performs the work of the Buddha.” This is precisely the meaning here.

Therefore it is said: The sun of the Buddha’s wisdom, pure and radiant, dispels the world’s dark ignorance.

NOTE 15:

⁽¹⁾ “Indeterminate” means neither wholesome nor unwholesome. In ordinary speech, it means “neutral.”

THE PURE SOUND AWAKENS BEINGS FAR AND DEEP; SUBTLE AND WONDROUS, IT IS HEARD THROUGHOUT THE TEN DIRECTIONS.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of sound. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in some lands, although wholesome Dharma existed, its renown did not spread far; in others, although its renown spread far, it was not subtle and wondrous. In still others, although its renown spread far and was subtle and wondrous, it did not awaken beings ⁽¹⁾. He therefore gave rise to this adornment. In India, pure conduct is called brahmacarya, and subtle, wondrous speech is called brahma-speech. Because the people there esteemed Brahma-deva, they often used the word “brahma” as a term of praise. Thus it was also said that the Dharma in the central lands ⁽²⁾ communicated with Brahma-deva.

“Sound” here means “name,” namely, the name of the Land of Peace and Bliss. A sutra states: “If someone merely hears the name of the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss and wishes and vows to be reborn there, that person will attain rebirth in accordance with the vow.” This is evidence that this name awakens beings. A commentary ⁽³⁾ states: “This Pure Land does not belong to the three realms.” Why is this said?

Because there is no desire, it is not the desire realm; because it is situated upon the ground, it is not the form realm; and because it possesses form, it is not the formless realm. It is formed in this way through the bodhisattva’s distinct karma. Because it transcends conditioned existence yet still possesses existence, it is called “subtle”; because its name can awaken beings, it is called “wondrous.” Therefore it is said: The pure sound awakens beings far and deep; subtle and wondrous, it is heard throughout the ten directions.

NOTE 16:

⁽¹⁾ “Beings” here refers to the myriad beings, namely, sentient beings.

⁽²⁾ “Central lands” here does not mean present-day China, but refers generally to centers of culture, in contrast with lowly border regions.

⁽³⁾ It is unclear which commentary this refers to. Master Tanluan calls it the Shih-lun, meaning “commentary.” In the Brief Treatise on the Meaning of the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss, he likewise says only, “As the Shih-lun states,” just as here, without specifying which commentary it is or who composed it. It is, however, commonly understood to be the Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom, Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s commentary on the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra.

AMITABHA, THE PERFECTLY ENLIGHTENED ONE, THE DHARMA KING, SKILLFULLY SUSTAINS THE LAND.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the lord. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in a land where a rakshasa ruled as king, he led the entire country to devour one another’s flesh, whereas when the jeweled wheel rested above the palace, the four quarters were freed from distress ⁽¹⁾.

Even a time of prosperity such as this could hardly be without its underlying causes ⁽²⁾. He therefore gave rise to the vow: “May my land always have a Dharma King, and through the wholesome power of the Dharma King may it be sustained and preserved ⁽³⁾.” “Sustaining and preserving” is like the yellow swan preserving Tzu-an, so that after a thousand years he came to life again ⁽⁴⁾, or like a mother fish caring for and preserving her young through the rising and receding waters ⁽⁵⁾, so that they are not harmed.

The Land of Peace and Bliss is naturally skillfully sustained by Perfect Enlightenment. How could anything contrary to Perfect Enlightenment occur in that land? Therefore it is said: Amitabha, the Perfectly Enlightened One, the Dharma King, skillfully sustains the land.

NOTE 17:

⁽¹⁾ This means that when a Wheel-Turning King appears, a jeweled wheel manifests in the sky above his palace and remains there. Whichever direction the wheel turns, the Wheel-Turning King sends forth his army in that direction, and every land there submits to him. When the wheel has traveled through all four directions and the king has brought all four quarters under his rule, the people of the world live and work in peace and happiness.

⁽²⁾ This means that a Wheel-Turning King does not appear constantly or easily. Human beings can enjoy an age of peace and happiness only when all the necessary causes and conditions are present. This is unlike the Land of Utmost Bliss, which Amitabha Buddha perpetually sustains and preserves.

⁽³⁾ “Sustaining and preserving” means keeping something peaceful, secure, stable, and enduring.

⁽⁴⁾ The original text reads, “After a thousand years, he arose again.” According to the Brief Treatise on the Meaning of the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss, Tzu-an and the yellow swan—or yellow crane—belong to a legend concerning immortals. Tzu-an had been dead for a thousand years, but when a yellow swan came to his grave and cried, “Tzu-an,” he returned to life. This perhaps means that Amitabha Buddha sustains and protects sentient beings until they attain unsurpassed bodhi, even though they may be submerged in afflictions and ignorance.

⁽⁵⁾ This means passing through the season of rising waters in summer and the season of receding waters in winter.

THE ASSEMBLY OF THE TATHAGATA’S PURE FLOWER IS BORN BY TRANSFORMATION FROM THE FLOWER OF PERFECT ENLIGHTENMENT.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the retinue. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in some lands bodies were formed from the blood of the womb, while in others birth originated from feces and urine.

Some were born into the exalted ranks of the sophora and thorn trees ⁽¹⁾, yet their children were vicious; others were lowly children of humble station ⁽²⁾, yet possessed exceptional ability. Ridicule caused them to harbor the fire of anger, and humiliation caused them to embrace the ice of resentment ⁽³⁾. He therefore vowed: “May all beings in my land be born within the Tathagata’s pure flower.

May the retinue be equal, with no occasion for either giving or taking away ⁽⁴⁾.” Therefore it is said: The assembly of the Tathagata’s pure flower is born by transformation from the flower of Perfect Enlightenment.

NOTE 18:

⁽¹⁾ “Sophora and thorn trees”: From the Zhou dynasty onward, official ranks at court were divided into the “Three Dukes” and the “Nine Ministers.” Three sophora trees were planted to designate the places of the Three Dukes, and nine thorn trees were planted to arrange the places of the Nine Ministers. Thus, in later generations, “sophora and thorn trees” referred to the “Three Dukes and Nine Ministers,” that is, the titled officials of the imperial court. The original phrase is “the lofty precincts of the sophora and thorn trees.” “Lofty precincts” refers to the noble imperial capital and the royal court.

⁽²⁾ The original phrase means the children of low-ranking officials and servants.

⁽³⁾ The original reads: “Because of ridicule, they harbor fire; because of humiliation, they embrace ice.” This refers to the afflictions of resentment and anger arising from interpersonal friction and relationships.

⁽⁴⁾ The original phrase means that there is no occasion for either affection or hatred. “Giving” symbolizes actions associated with affection, while “taking away” symbolizes actions associated with aversion. In the Land of Utmost Bliss, everyone belongs to a single retinue within a relationship of equal affinity, because all share the same essential nature of pure wisdom.

THEY DELIGHT IN THE FLAVOR OF THE BUDDHA-DHARMA, TAKING DHYANA AND SAMADHI AS THEIR FOOD.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of sustenance and enjoyment. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in some lands beings rummaged through nests and broke eggs ⁽¹⁾ to obtain a filling meal, or hung up sacks of sand ⁽²⁾ as a means of comforting one another, while the cries of their children were truly heartrending ⁽³⁾.

Therefore, he gave rise to a vow of great compassion, vowing that in his land beings would savor the Buddha-Dharma, take meditative concentration and samadhi as food, and no longer suffer the hardships caused by other kinds of food. To delight in the flavor of the Buddha-Dharma is like when the Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp-Radiance taught the Lotus Sutra for sixty minor kalpas. The assembled listeners at that time likewise remained seated in one place.

They regarded those sixty minor kalpas as no longer than the time required for a meal, and not one of them became weary in either body or mind ⁽⁴⁾. To take meditative concentration as food means that the great bodhisattvas constantly abide in samadhi ⁽⁵⁾ and partake of no other food. As for samadhi ⁽⁶⁾, when the humans and devas of that land wish to eat, delicacies of a hundred flavors appear and are arrayed before them.

Their eyes behold the forms, their noses smell the fragrances, and their bodies experience delight; naturally they become fully satisfied. When the meal is finished, the food disappears, and whenever it is needed, it appears again. These matters are all described in the sutras.

Therefore it is said: They delight in the flavor of the Buddha-Dharma and take meditation and samadhi as food.

NOTES 19:

⁽¹⁾ The original reads: “Rummaging through nests and breaking eggs,” referring to the harsh life of poverty and hunger in this realm, where beings must search for food and kill one another. It may describe the struggle for survival among animals, while also alluding to human beings.

⁽²⁾ “Hanging up sacks of sand” also refers to famine and hunger: people hang up sacks of sand and imagine that food is stored there in order to ease their hunger.

⁽³⁾ This, too, merely depicts the suffering of hunger and lack of food.

⁽⁴⁾ See the Lotus Sutra, Chapter One, “Introduction.” Regarding a minor kalpa, the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise differs from the Abhidharmakosa Treatise. Beginning with a human lifespan of ten years, the lifespan increases by one year every hundred years until it reaches eighty-four thousand years; this is called “one increase.” Conversely, beginning with a lifespan of eighty-four thousand years, it decreases by one year every hundred years until only ten years remain; this is called “one decrease.” The Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise holds that “one increase and one decrease” together constitute one minor kalpa, whereas the Abhidharmakosa regards either “one increase” or “one decrease” as one minor kalpa.

⁽⁵⁾ Samadhi, also transliterated as Sanmodi, means gathering together and concentrating in one place. From the Mahayana perspective, it is the entirety of what manifests before wisdom’s true realization and contemplation. Here, “the entirety” means the whole manifestation of karmic practice, encompassing both cause and result. Thus, it is a state through which the wisdom of true realization is developed. Understood in this way, samadhi includes both meanings of the Sanskrit ā-dhā: “to place down” and “to kindle.” Samadhi gathers all karmic practices together in one place to kindle the wisdom that realizes the true nature of all dharmas.

⁽⁶⁾ In the passage that follows, Master Tanluan appears to explain samadhi as a meritorious power possessed by the humans and devas of the Land of Utmost Bliss.

FOREVER FREED FROM AFFLICTIONS OF BODY AND MIND, THEY CONSTANTLY ENJOY UNCEASING BLISS.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of freedom from all calamities. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in some lands a person might enjoy the sovereign’s favor in the morning yet dread the axe and blade by evening; or dwell beneath a thatched roof in youth but rank among the honored in maturity ⁽¹⁾; or be born into a family of humble reed-pipe players and, after passing through many vicissitudes, ultimately be forced back to the former condition ⁽²⁾.

Seeing all such kinds of unexpected loss and reversal, he vowed: “May beings in my land enjoy peace and bliss continuously, without interruption until the very end.” Afflictions of the body include hunger, thirst, heat, cold, killing, and so forth. Afflictions of the mind include disputes over right and wrong, gain and loss, the three poisons ⁽³⁾, and the like. Therefore it is said: Forever freed from afflictions of body and mind, they constantly enjoy unceasing bliss.

NOTES 20:

⁽¹⁾ This means that one is accorded honor and respect.

⁽²⁾ The original reads, “After passing through many vicissitudes, one is driven back again,” meaning that after undergoing many trials, one is compelled by fate to return to one’s former condition. As for the expression “a family of reed-pipe players,” it perhaps refers to a class of ordinary musicians.

⁽³⁾ The three poisons are greed, anger, and delusion.

THE REALM OF MAHAYANA ROOTS OF GOODNESS, EQUAL AND FREE OF DISPARAGING NAMES; WOMEN, THOSE WITH IMPAIRED FACULTIES, AND BEINGS OF THE TWO VEHICLES ARE NOT BORN THERE.

These four lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the gateway of the great meaning. This gateway is the universal gateway to the great meaning. The great meaning is the foundation of the Mahayana.

It is like a person building a city: upon reaching the gate, one can enter. If anyone is born in the Land of Peace and Bliss, that person has attained the gateway of the Mahayana. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow?

He saw that although some lands had a Buddha-Tathagata and assemblies of sages and noble ones, because those lands were defiled, the One Vehicle was divided and spoken of as three ⁽¹⁾; some were reproached merely for raising their eyebrows, while others were censured for expressing themselves in speech ⁽²⁾. Therefore, he vowed: “May all beings in my land possess the single flavor of the Mahayana, the single flavor of equality.

Those whose roots and seeds are corrupted shall be unable to be born there. Even the terms ‘women’ and ‘those with impaired faculties’ shall not exist.” Therefore it is said: The realm of Mahayana roots of goodness, equal and free of disparaging names; women, those with impaired faculties, and beings of the Two Vehicles are not born there.

Question: According to the Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life taught at Rajagriha, among the forty-eight vows of Bodhisattva Dharmakara it is said: “If, when I attain Buddhahood, anyone should be able to calculate and know the number of shravakas in my land, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.” This is one piece of evidence that shravakas exist in that land. Furthermore, in the Treatise on the Ten Stages, Bodhisattva Nagarjuna composed a hymn praising Amitabha Buddha, which says: “Having transcended the prison of the three realms, his eyes are like lotus petals.

Because his assembly of shravakas is immeasurable, I bow my head in homage.” This is a second piece of evidence that shravakas exist in that land. Furthermore, the Mahayana Treatise says that Buddha-lands differ in various ways: in some Buddha-lands the Sangha consists solely of shravakas; in some it consists solely of bodhisattvas; and in some it consists jointly of bodhisattvas and shravakas—as in Amitabha Buddha’s Land of Peace and Bliss.

This is a third piece of evidence that shravakas exist there. Most sutras that speak of reaching the Land of Peace and Bliss state that shravakas are present; they do not say that there are no shravakas. Yet shravakas are precisely one of the Two Vehicles.

This treatise, however, says that not even the disparaging names of the Two Vehicles exist there. How is this to be understood?

Answer: Reasoning from principle, the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss cannot have the two vehicles. Why is this said? Where there is an illness, there must be medicine; this is a constant principle.

The Lotus Sutra says: Because Tathagata Shakyamuni appeared in the age of the five defilements, he divided the One Vehicle into three ⁽¹⁾. Since the Pure Land is not a realm of the five defilements, it is perfectly clear that there are no three vehicles there. The Lotus Sutra speaks of the shravakas: Through what did they attain liberation?

Merely through departing from falsehood, it is called liberation. In truth, these persons have not yet attained complete liberation in all respects, for they have not attained the unsurpassed path. Carefully considering this principle, since arhats have not yet attained complete liberation in all respects, they must necessarily undergo birth.

Yet they are no longer born within the three realms. Outside the three realms, apart from the Pure Land, there is no other place in which they may be born. Therefore, they can only be born in the Pure Land.

When shravakas are spoken of in that land, they are shravakas born there from other regions who retain their original designation and are therefore called shravakas. It is like when Shakra, Lord of the Devas ⁽³⁾, was born in the human realm and bore the family name Kaushika. Although he later became lord of the heavenly realm, the Buddha, wishing people to know his origins, still called him Kaushika when speaking with Shakra.

Those shravakas are likewise. Furthermore, this treatise merely says that the kinds belonging to the two vehicles do not arise there. Its meaning is that the land of Peace and Bliss does not produce the seeds of the two vehicles; but what hindrance could there be to followers of the two vehicles being born there?

It is like saying that orange trees do not grow north of the Yangtze, although oranges can still be found in the shops of Heluo. It is also like saying that parrots do not fly to Longxi, although parrots can still be found in the homes of dignitaries in Zhao and Wei. These two examples merely mean that their species do not naturally reach those places.

The presence of shravakas in that land is likewise. Understanding it in this way clarifies both sutra and treatise.

Question: Names are used to designate things; only when a thing exists is there a name for it. Since the land of Peace and Bliss has none of the things belonging to the two vehicles, women, or those with deficient faculties, why is it necessary to say that even these three kinds of names do not exist there?

Answer: A bodhisattva whose mind is weak ⁽⁴⁾ and lacks courageous strength may be disparagingly called a shravaka. A person who is devious or timid may be disparagingly called a woman. Again, although one’s eyes may see, if one fails to discern matters clearly, one may be disparagingly called blind. Although one’s ears may hear, if one hears the meaning but does not understand it, one may be disparagingly called deaf. Although one’s tongue can speak, if one hesitates and stammers, one may be disparagingly called mute. In all such cases, although the faculties are complete, these disparaging designations still exist. Therefore, it must be said that in that Pure Land not even such names exist. This makes clear that the Pure Land has none of these laudatory or disparaging designations.

Question: The original vows of Bodhisattva Dharmakara and the hymn of praise by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna both seem to regard the great multitude of shravakas in that land as something wondrous and extraordinary. What is the meaning of this?

Answer: Shravakas take the ultimate reality ⁽⁵⁾ as what they realize and are regarded as incapable of ever again producing the roots and sprouts of the Buddha-path. Yet through the inconceivable spiritual power of the Buddha’s original vows, they are gathered in and caused to be born in that land. Then, through that spiritual power, the mind directed toward the unsurpassed path will again arise in them.

It is like poisonous birds falling into water and causing all the fish and crabs to die, while the touch of a rhinoceros causes all those dead creatures to revive. Likewise, what was incapable of arising does arise; therefore, this is truly wondrous and extraordinary. Among the five kinds of inconceivability, however, the Buddhadharma is the foremost.

That the Buddha can cause shravakas once again to produce the mind directed toward the unsurpassed path is truly inconceivable.

NOTES 21:

⁽¹⁾ This is the teaching advocated by the Lotus Sutra. There is only one “vehicle” on the path, but because the capacities and dispositions of sentient beings differ, it must be divided into three “vehicles.”

⁽²⁾ The original text reads: “huo yi tuo mei zhi xiao, huo yuan zhi yu zhao ji.” It is unclear what “tuo mei” means. Might it refer to women? “Tuo mei” means raising or accentuating the eyebrows and may refer to women adorning themselves. “Zhi yu zhao ji,” meanwhile, appears to refer to persons with disabilities whose speech and actions are impaired and who are therefore ridiculed.

⁽³⁾ Shakra, Lord of the Devas, is the king of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. His full name is Shakradevanam-Indra. When he was still a human being cultivating merit together with thirty-two companions, his name was Kaushika. Later, he and all thirty-two companions were born on the summit of Mount Sumeru. Kaushika became the lord of this realm, while his thirty-two companions became his subordinate deities. Therefore, the Trayastrimsha Heaven is also called the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. (See the Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra, fascicle 56.)

⁽⁴⁾ A soft mind means a weak and feeble mind. Here, it means being unable to bear the great compassion and great wisdom of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

⁽⁵⁾ “Ultimate reality,” in the terminology of modern philosophy, is “reality itself.” Yet the reality of Buddhism is precisely the quiescent extinction of nirvana according to the Lesser Vehicle, or emptiness according to the Great Vehicle. This is because the foundation of existence is intrinsically without real being: there is no real self in sentient beings and no real dharmas in the world. The domain of truth—that is, ultimate reality—is solely quiescent extinction, or emptiness. “The path of language is cut off; the realm of mental activity ceases” is the most proper attitude for realizing this ultimate reality.

WHATEVER SENTIENT BEINGS ASPIRE TO, ALL IS COMPLETELY FULFILLED.

These two lines are called the accomplishment of the merit of the adornment that completely fulfills every aspiration. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this vow? He saw that in some lands, those of lofty renown and high rank had no means of withdrawing into seclusion ⁽¹⁾; ordinary people, being coarse in nature, rarely perfected the excellent path ⁽²⁾; and others, bound by karma, could not arrange matters according to their own wishes, as in the case of the seer Asita ⁽³⁾. In all such ways, they were blown about by the winds of karma and lacked freedom. Therefore, he vowed that in his land each person would have every aspiration fulfilled according to what they sought. Thus it is said: Whatever sentient beings aspire to, all is completely fulfilled.

NOTES 22:

⁽¹⁾ This means that one is bound by fame and wealth and cannot successfully cultivate in purity.

⁽²⁾ This refers to the pure path of liberation.

⁽³⁾ Asita: The seer who examined the newborn Buddha’s physical marks. At that time, he was already 120 years old. After examining the newborn Buddha’s marks, he became sorrowful and shed tears. The reason was that he would soon die and be born in the heaven of non-perception; consequently, he would not live at the same time as the Buddha and would not be able to hear the sutras and the Dharma. This was his great regret. (See the Taisho Tripitaka, volume 3, Sutra on Cause and Effect in the Past and Present, pp. 626–627.)

THEREFORE, I VOW TO BE BORN IN AMITABHA BUDDHA’S LAND.

These two lines conclude the contemplation above of the seventeen accomplishments of the adornments of the land; therefore, the aspiration to be born there is made. The explanation of the purity of the vessel-world is now complete. Next comes the contemplation of the purity of the world of sentient beings. This section is divided into two distinct parts. The first is the contemplation of the meritorious adornments of Amitabha Tathagata; the second is the contemplation of the merits of the bodhisattvas in that land. The contemplation of the Tathagata’s meritorious adornments comprises eight kinds, which will be enumerated in the text below.

Question: Some treatise masters, whenever explaining the name and meaning of “sentient beings,” take it to mean those who revolve through the three realms and undergo countless rounds of birth and death, and are therefore called sentient beings. Yet here Buddhas and bodhisattvas are also called sentient beings. How is this meaning to be understood?

Answer: The sutras state that one dharma has immeasurable names, and one name has immeasurable meanings. The explanation that they are called sentient beings because they undergo countless rounds of birth and death is the interpretation given by the schools of the Lesser Vehicle concerning the meaning of the term “sentient beings” within the three realms; it is not the meaning of the term “sentient beings” according to the schools of the Great Vehicle.

As for sentient beings according to the Great Vehicle, the Sutra of Neither Increase nor Decrease ⁽¹⁾ states that to speak of sentient beings is precisely to speak of neither arising nor cessation. Why is this so? If sentient beings arose, then, having already arisen, they would arise yet again, entailing the error of an infinite regress.

Because it would be erroneous for that which need not arise again nevertheless to arise, there is therefore no arising. Only if there were arising could there be cessation; since there is no arising, how could there be cessation? Thus, neither arising nor cessation is the meaning of sentient beings.

As the sutras say concerning the five appropriated skandhas, if one penetrates their emptiness and the utter nonexistence of anything whatsoever in the five skandhas, ⁽²⁾ this is the meaning of suffering. This likewise has the same meaning as the passage above.

ANNOTATION 23:

⁽¹⁾ Taishō Tripiṭaka, volume 16, page 466. The sutra states: “To speak of sentient beings is to speak of the unborn, the unceasing, the eternal, the cool, the unchanging, and the refuge. ‘Sentient beings’ is another name for the inconceivable, equal, and pure dharma-dhatu. Precisely because of this meaning, I—the Buddha—rely upon that dharma and speak of sentient beings.” (Cited work, page 467, lower section.)

According to the sutra, the meaning of sentient beings is the true meaning that encompasses both purity and impurity. The sutra says: “The ultimate truth is the realm of sentient beings; the realm of sentient beings is the Tathagata-garbha; the Tathagata-garbha is the Dharma-body.” (Cited work, page 467, upper section.)

⁽²⁾ “Nonexistence” means that there is nothing whatsoever; all things regarded as existent do not exist in the slightest.

IMMEASURABLE GREAT KINGS OF JEWELS, A PURE AND SUBTLE FLOWER-DAIS.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adorned seat. Why did the Buddha adorn this seat? He saw bodhisattvas, in their final body, ⁽¹⁾ spread grass and sit upon it in order to attain Anuttara-Samyak-Saṃbodhi. ⁽²⁾ When humans and devas beheld this, they nevertheless did not give rise to supreme faith, supreme reverence, supreme delight, or supreme practice.

He therefore vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may a pure and subtle flower-dais made of immeasurable kinds of great kingly jewels be the Buddha’s seat.” As stated in the Sutra of Contemplation on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life: Upon the ground made of the seven jewels is a great jeweled kingly lotus seat. Each petal of the lotus has the colors of a hundred jewels and eighty-four thousand veins, like paintings of the celestial realm; each vein emits eighty-four thousand rays of light.

Even the smallest petals are two hundred and fifty yojanas ⁽⁴⁾ in length and breadth. Such a flower has eighty-four thousand petals. Between every two petals are a hundred koṭis ⁽⁵⁾ of kingly maṇi jewels, gleaming as adornments.

Each maṇi emits a thousand rays of light. These lights are like canopies formed from the seven jewels, covering the ground. The Śakrābhilagna jewel ⁽⁶⁾ forms the dais.

This lotus dais is adorned with eighty thousand Kiṃśuka diamond jewels, ⁽⁷⁾ Brahma-maṇi jewels, ⁽⁸⁾ and nets of wondrous, genuine pearls. Upon the dais, jeweled banner-pillars ⁽⁹⁾ are naturally present. Each jeweled banner is like a hundred thousand myriads of koṭis of Mount Sumerus.

The canopy above each banner resembles the palace of the Yāma Heaven, ⁽¹⁰⁾ and is adorned with five hundred koṭis of subtle, wondrous jewels. Each jewel has eighty-four thousand rays of light. Each ray has eighty-four thousand distinct golden hues.

Each golden hue pervades the jeweled ground of the Land of Peace and Bliss, transforming everywhere, manifesting a different form in every place: some become diamond daises, some form pearl nets, and some become clouds of assorted flowers. Throughout the ten directions, they manifest freely according to intent and perform the Buddha’s work. All such things surpass calculation.

Therefore it is said: Immeasurable great kings of jewels, a pure and subtle flower-dais.

ANNOTATION 24:

⁽¹⁾ This means the “last body” or final body, namely, the final lifetime of a bodhisattva before attaining Buddhahood. In this final lifetime, the bodhisattva always assumes a human body, rather than that of a deva, nāga, or member of the eight classes of beings; a being in the three evil destinies; or an asura.

⁽²⁾ Anuttara-Samyak-Saṃbodhi is transliterated in Chinese as A Nậu Đa La Tam Miệu Tam Bồ Đề. Anuttara means unsurpassed, with nothing above it; samyak means right or true; saṃ is translated as “equal,” meaning the same from beginning to end; and bodhi means awakening. In full, it means “unsurpassed, right, and equal awakening.” This is the name for the awakening of a Buddha, intended to distinguish the Buddha’s awakening from every form of wisdom among devas and humans, and even from the wisdom of those of the Two Vehicles and bodhisattvas. It alone is the highest, truest, and completely perfect awakening.

⁽³⁾ “Supreme” corresponds to the Sanskrit word adhika, meaning still more, rising still higher, surpassing, or transcendent. Thus, this supremacy must be connected with the True Dharma and with a genuine good and wise spiritual friend, namely, the Buddha. When a person’s faith in Buddhism enters directly into and remains firmly established in the True Dharma and in the Buddha, it may be called supreme faith.

⁽⁴⁾ A yojana is approximately eleven kilometers.

⁽⁵⁾ One koṭi is one hundred thousand; one myriad is ten thousand, and ten myriads are one hundred thousand.

⁽⁶⁾ Śakrābhilagna-(maṇi)-ratna: The name of an extremely precious kind of jewel. Śakrā means mighty power and refers to Śakra; abhilagna means to carry or wear. Śakrābhilagna is translated into Chinese as “capable of surpassing,” meaning that it surpasses all other things in preciousness. Ratna means a treasure or jewel.

⁽⁷⁾ Kiṃśuka is translated into Chinese as “red jewel,” meaning a crimson treasure.

⁽⁸⁾ Brahma-maṇi is translated into Chinese as “pure jewel,” because brahma is generally understood to mean purity. It is also the wish-fulfilling jewel, or maṇi, of the Great Brahmā Heavenly King, namely Brahmā.

⁽⁹⁾ A banner may be either a cloth pennant or a stone pillar upon which sutras are engraved.

⁽¹⁰⁾ This is the palace of the third of the six heavens of the desire realm.

THE AUSPICIOUS MARKS SHINE FOR ONE FATHOM; HIS FORM AND APPEARANCE SURPASS ALL BEINGS.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of adorning bodily action. Why did the Buddha originally adorn bodily action in this way? Because he saw that some Buddhas had a bodily radiance of only one zhang.

Compared with the radiance of a human body, this was not sufficiently transcendent; and compared with the excellent marks of a wheel-turning king, it was also nearly the same. Devadatta lacked only two marks, yet this was still sufficient for him to delude King Ajātaśatru ⁽¹⁾. Saṃjayin and the others ⁽²⁾ dared to charge forward like mantises ⁽³⁾.

There were other such instances as well. Therefore, he adorned bodily action in this way. According to the system of measurement used in this land, six chi constitute one fathom.

Yet the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life says: “The body of Amitābha Tathagata is six hundred thousand kotis of nayutas of Ganges sands of yojanas in height ⁽⁴⁾. The Buddha’s circular halo ⁽⁵⁾ is as vast as a hundred kotis of three-thousand-great-thousand worlds ⁽⁶⁾.” How obscure it was for the translator ⁽⁷⁾ to use the word “fathom”! Rustic people, unable to relinquish notions of vertical and horizontal dimensions, length and shortness ⁽⁸⁾, all maintain that the span of two outstretched arms is one fathom.

If the translator perhaps employed that meaning as the standard for Amitābha Tathagata, intending to say that the span of his two outstretched arms should be called one fathom, then his circular halo would also have to extend six hundred thousand kotis of nayutas of Ganges sands of yojanas in breadth. Therefore, it is said: His excellent marks shine for a fathom; his form surpasses all beings.

Question: The Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life says: “The Buddhas, the Tathagatas, are bodies of the Dharma realm ⁽⁹⁾, entering into the contemplating minds of all sentient beings. Therefore, when you contemplate the Buddha, that very mind is the thirty-two marks and the eighty excellent characteristics of the body. This mind creates the Buddha; this mind is the Buddha. The ocean of the Buddhas’ correct and universal knowledge ⁽¹⁰⁾ arises from this contemplation.” What is the meaning of this?

Answer: “Body” means something formed through aggregation, while “realm” means that things are distinguished from one another. For example, the eye realm arises in dependence upon five causes and conditions—the faculty, form, space, light, and attention ⁽¹¹⁾—and is therefore called the eye realm. This eye functions only with its own conditions and does not function with other conditions, because it is distinct from those other conditioned things.

The ear, nose, tongue, and other realms are likewise. To say that the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, are bodies of the Dharma realm means that the Dharma realm is the mental dharma of sentient beings. Because the mind can produce all worldly and supramundane dharmas, the mind is called the Dharma realm.

The Dharma realm can produce the bodies and excellent marks of the Tathagatas, just as form and the other conditions can produce eye-consciousness; therefore, the Buddha’s body is called the body of the Dharma realm. This body does not function within other conditions; therefore, it enters into the contemplating minds of all sentient beings. As for the statement that, when the mind contemplates the Buddha, that very mind is the thirty-two excellent marks and the eighty excellent bodily characteristics: when a sentient being’s mind is contemplating the Buddha, the excellent marks of the Buddha’s body become manifest within the mind of that sentient being.

It is like forms appearing when water is clear: the water and the forms are neither one nor different. Therefore, it is said that the excellent marks of the Buddha’s body are precisely the contemplating mind. “This mind creates the Buddha” means that the mind can bring about Buddhahood.

“This mind is the Buddha” means that outside the mind there is no Buddha. It is like fire emerging from wood: fire cannot exist apart from the wood. Because it does not depart from the wood, it can burn the wood.

When the wood is consumed by the fire, the wood itself becomes fire. “The ocean of the Buddhas’ correct and universal knowledge arises from the contemplating mind” means this: correct and universal knowledge is knowing in accordance with the true nature of the Dharma realm. Because the Dharma realm is without marks, the Buddhas have no knowing; because they have no knowing, there is nothing they do not know.

Knowing through non-knowing is correct and universal knowledge. This knowledge is so profound and vast that it cannot be measured, and is therefore likened to an ocean.

NOTES 25:

⁽¹⁾ Ajātaśatru was originally the Crown Prince, the son of King Bimbisāra of Rājagṛha in the kingdom of Magadha. He revered Devadatta and felt antipathy toward the Buddha. At Devadatta’s instigation (see the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutra), he seized the throne and killed his father (see the introductory circumstances of the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life). Later, overcome with remorse, he went to the Buddha, took refuge, and repented of his offense (see the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutra, fascicles 19–20, page 474, Taishō Tripiṭaka, volume 12).

⁽²⁾ Saṃjayin in full is Saṃjayin-Vairaṭī-putra. He was one of the six non-Buddhist teachers contemporary with the Buddha. According to the Śramaṇaphala Sutra in the Dīrgha Āgama, he advocated the “doctrine of divergent views”; in the Sāmaññaphala Sutta of the Pāli Canon, it is called the “doctrine of equivocation” (vikkhepa).

The phrase “and the others” refers to the other five non-Buddhist teachers (see the Śramaṇaphala Sutra in the Dīrgha Āgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka, volume 1; and the Sāmaññaphala Sutta in the Dīgha Nikāya, Vietnamese translation by Venerable Minh Châu).

⁽³⁾ This means that the six non-Buddhist teachers were utterly insignificant compared with the Buddha, yet they were as aggressive as a mantis trying to fight a great chariot—that is, the Buddha.

⁽⁴⁾ Nayuta (niyuta or nayuta) means ten thousand or one million.

⁽⁵⁾ That is, the radiance issuing from the crown of the Buddha’s head and encircling it.

⁽⁶⁾ For “great-thousand world,” see note ⁽²⁾, number 7, page 12.

⁽⁷⁾ That is, Bodhiruci.

⁽⁸⁾ This means that people in this land remain accustomed to measuring length and shortness by numerical quantities.

⁽⁹⁾ Because the Dharma realm is taken as the body, it is called the body of the Dharma realm. Yet the true body itself is originally the Dharma realm; therefore, the body itself is precisely the body of the Dharma realm. “Dharmas” here means the entirety of the elements constituting the world and sentient beings. The true nature of dharmas is called the dharmadhatu. This true nature manifests in two aspects: essence and function. In terms of “essence,” all dharmas are EMPTY, without intrinsic nature, and are originally suchness and nirvana. In terms of “function,” all dharmas truly exist, are pure, and are replete with merit. The Dharma realm encompasses both aspects of dharmas, manifesting as both worldly and supramundane.

⁽¹⁰⁾ Correct and universal knowledge (Samyak-saṃbodhi) originally means “complete and perfect enlightenment.”

⁽¹¹⁾ The faculty is the eye; form is visible form; space is the appropriate distance required for seeing; light is illumination; and attention is the arising of the intention to discern.

THE TATHAGATA’S SUBTLE, WONDROUS VOICE, PURELY RESOUNDS THROUGHOUT THE TEN DIRECTIONS.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of adorning verbal action. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? Because he saw that some Tathagatas possessed names that seemed not especially honored. Even a lowly non-Buddhist cart-pusher bore the surname Gautama ⁽¹⁾. On the day the Buddha attained enlightenment, his voice reached only as far as the Brahmā Heaven ⁽²⁾. Therefore, he vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may my subtle and wondrous voice spread afar, and may those who hear it realize patience ⁽³⁾.” Therefore, it is said: The Tathagata’s subtle, wondrous voice purely resounds throughout the ten directions.

NOTES 26:

⁽¹⁾ Gautama is the surname of Śākyamuni Buddha. This means that even a lowly, foolish person bore the same surname as the Buddha.

⁽²⁾ The Brahmā Heaven is the first heaven of the first dhyāna in the form realm.

⁽³⁾ Patience (kṣānti) means the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas (anutpattika-dharma-kṣānti), namely, the wisdom corresponding to the quiescent, pure, and unborn nature of all dharmas.

LIKE EARTH, WATER, FIRE, WIND, AND SPACE, WITHOUT DISCRIMINATION.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of mind. Why did the Buddha originally bring forth this adornment? He saw that some Tathagatas expounded the Dharma by saying: this is white, this is black, and this is neither white nor black ⁽¹⁾; and then there were inferior Dharma, middling Dharma, superior Dharma, and supremely superior Dharma.

The Dharma was taught with innumerable distinctions of this kind, as though there were discriminations among dharmas. He therefore vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may my mind be like the earth, which bears all things without regard to whether they are heavy or light; like water, which abundantly irrigates without distinguishing between bad and good grasses; like fire, which cooks without separating the fragrant from the foul; like the wind, which arises without concern for whether beings are awake or asleep ⁽²⁾; and like space, which encompasses all without regard for openness or obstruction.

When this is attained within, things will be at peace without; the provisional will return to the real, and thereby come to an end ⁽³⁾.” Therefore it is said: Like earth, water, fire, wind, and space, without discrimination.

ANNOTATION 27:

⁽¹⁾ Śākyamuni Buddha divided the Dharma into white dharmas, symbolizing wholesome dharmas, and black dharmas, symbolizing unwholesome dharmas.

⁽²⁾ This probably means that the wind blows regardless of whether a person is asleep or awake—that is, whether one needs it or is wholly unaware of it.

⁽³⁾ “Come to an end” here means that the false and unreal no longer remain.

THE ASSEMBLIES OF HUMANS AND DEVAS, IMMOVABLE, ARE BORN FROM THE OCEAN OF PURE WISDOM.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the great assembly. Why did the Buddha originally bring forth this adornment? He saw that, under the Dharma wheel taught by some Tathagatas, the members of their assemblies possessed faculties and inclinations of many different kinds.

In cultivating the Buddha’s wisdom, some regressed and some sank into attachment; because their faculties were unequal, the assemblies were not entirely pure. He therefore brought forth the vow: “When I attain Buddhahood, may all humans and devas in my land be born from the ocean of pure wisdom.” “Ocean” signifies that the wisdom which knows all modes ⁽¹⁾ is profound, vast, and boundless, and does not contain the corpses of the mixed, inferior, and middling virtues of the Two Vehicles; it is therefore likened to the ocean.

Thus it is said: The assemblies of humans and devas, immovable, are born from the ocean of pure wisdom. “Immovable” means that these humans and devas have perfected the faculties of the Mahayana to such an extent that they cannot be shaken.

ANNOTATION 28:

⁽¹⁾ The wisdom of all modes (Sarvākāra-jñatā) is commonly distinguished from “omniscience” (sarvajñatā). Omniscience means the wisdom that knows all. Here, knowing all means knowing the fundamental and universal characteristic common to all dharmas, called the “general characteristic” (sāmānyalakṣaṇa).

This wisdom is shared by the Buddha, śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas. Śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, however, know only this and go no further. Only a Buddha knows the “particular characteristics” (svalakṣaṇa) of dharmas. The Mahayana therefore distinguishes the Buddha’s wisdom that knows these “particular characteristics” as the “wisdom of all modes.” A particular characteristic is precisely a mode of activity (ākāra), because the particular characteristic consists of the cause and effect of each individual dharma, and the progression from cause to effect is the mode of activity of each individual dharma.

Thus, the “wisdom of all modes” is the wisdom that knows the causes, effects, and modes of activity of each individual dharma. For details, see the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, fascicle 27.

LIKE SUMERU, KING OF MOUNTAINS, SUPREME AND SUBLIME, WITH NOTHING SURPASSING IT.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the foremost leader ⁽¹⁾. Why did the Buddha originally bring forth this vow? He saw that, in the assemblies of some Tathagatas, there were obstinate persons, such as Devadatta; or kings who ruled alongside the Buddha and did not know how greatly they should humble themselves before him; or those who invited the Buddha but then neglected him because of other circumstances.

There were all manner of such occurrences, as though the authority of the foremost leader had not been fulfilled ⁽²⁾. He therefore vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may no one in the entire great assembly dare give rise to a mind that considers itself my equal. May there be only one Dharma King, with no worldly king besides.” Therefore it is said: Like Sumeru, king of mountains, supreme and sublime, with nothing surpassing it.

ANNOTATION 29:

⁽¹⁾ “Foremost leader” means the one who stands at the head and leads.

⁽²⁾ According to Master Tanluan, the “foremost leader” here refers to the Buddha. According to Master Yinshun, however, it refers to the great bodhisattvas. Ordinarily, the term “foremost leaders” refers to the great bodhisattvas who lead the assembly of bodhisattvas; therefore, it is perhaps more accurate to understand the term here as referring to the great bodhisattvas.

THE ASSEMBLY OF MEN AMONG HUMANS AND DEVAS GAZES UP IN REVERENCE AND RESPECTFULLY SURROUNDS HIM.

These two lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of the lord. Why did the Buddha originally bring forth this adornment? He saw that although some Buddha-Tathagatas had great assemblies, there were still persons within those assemblies who did not greatly revere the Buddha.

For example, a bhikṣu said to Śākyamuni Buddha, “If you do not explain the fourteen difficult questions to me, I shall go and study another path” ⁽¹⁾. Likewise, Kokālika slandered Śāriputra; although the Buddha admonished him three times, on all three occasions he refused to listen. Again, groups of non-Buddhists feigned entry into the Buddha’s assembly and constantly sought out the Buddha’s faults.

Likewise, the Māra king of the sixth heaven ⁽²⁾ frequently came to the Buddha’s dwelling to create obstacles. Seeing all such signs of irreverence, he therefore vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may the assemblies of humans and devas revere me without weariness.” Only humans and devas are mentioned because the Pure Land contains neither women nor the eight classes of spirits and supernatural beings ⁽³⁾. Therefore it is said: The assembly of men among humans and devas gazes up in reverence and respectfully surrounds him.

ANNOTATION 30:

⁽¹⁾ In the Discourse on the Parable of the Arrow in the Madhyama Āgama, Māluṅkyaputta demanded that the Buddha give him definitive answers to the questions troubling him; otherwise, he would abandon the Buddha and depart. Master Tanluan listed fourteen difficult questions, but both the Shorter Discourse on the Parable and the Pali Māluṅkya Sutta contain only the following ten difficult questions:

1- Is the world eternal?

2- Is the world non-eternal?

3- Is the world finite?

4- Is the world infinite?

5- Are the life principle and the body the same?

6- Is the life principle one thing and the body another?

7- Does the Tathagata cease to exist after death?

8- Does the Tathagata not cease to exist after death?

9- Does the Tathagata both cease and not cease to exist after death?

10-Does the Tathagata neither cease nor not cease to exist after death?

(Taishō Tripiṭaka, volume 1, page 804. Compare the Pali Shorter Discourse to Māluṅkya, Vietnamese translation by Thích Minh Châu, Middle Length Discourses, volume 2, page 428.)

⁽²⁾ This is Pāpīyas, the celestial Māra, who dwells in the sixth of the six heavens of the desire realm, the Heaven of Freely Enjoying the Creations of Others. This celestial Māra continually harassed the Buddha to obstruct his attainment of bodhi and also sought to prevent the Buddha from teaching the Dharma after he had realized bodhi.

⁽³⁾ This refers to the Eight Classes of Devas, Nāgas, and other beings. Excluding the devas, they comprise nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, kiṃnaras, mahoragas, and nonhuman beings.

CONTEMPLATE THE POWER OF THE BUDDHA’S ORIGINAL VOWS: NONE WHO ENCOUNTER IT PASS BY IN VAIN; IT ENABLES THEM SWIFTLY TO PERFECT THE GREAT OCEAN OF PRECIOUS MERIT.

These four lines are called the fulfillment of the merit of the adornment of unerring sustenance. Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? He saw that there were Tathagatas whose Sanghas consisted only of shravakas, with no one seeking the Buddha Way.

Or there were those who, though encountering a Buddha, did not escape the three evil destinies ⁽¹⁾: Sunaksatra ⁽²⁾, Devadatta, and Kokalika were such persons. Again, there were people who, upon hearing the Buddha’s name, awakened the unsurpassed aspiration, but then, upon encountering adverse causes and conditions, regressed again to the stage of shravakas and pratyekabuddhas ⁽³⁾. Seeing that there were those who, after encountering a Buddha, thus let the opportunity pass in vain or fell back, he therefore vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may all who encounter me swiftly attain the fullness of the great unsurpassed treasure” ⁽⁴⁾.

Therefore it is said:

The meaning of “sustenance” is as explained above. The contemplation of the eight kinds of the Buddha’s adorned merits is now complete.

NOTES 31:

⁽¹⁾ Namely, hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals.

⁽²⁾ Sunaksatra was originally a son of the Buddha from the time when the Buddha was still a prince. Later, he renounced the household life under the Buddha, recited the twelve divisions of scripture, and attained the fourth dhyana, which he took to be ultimate nirvana. Later still, through associating with an evil spiritual friend, he lost his meditative attainment, gave rise to pernicious wrong views, and repudiated the Buddha, the Dharma, and nirvana; consequently, he fell into the Avici Hell. (See the “Mahaparinirvana Sutra,” fascicle 81, Taisho Tripitaka, volume 12, page 806.)

Regarding the bhikshu Sunaksatra, the Mahaparinirvana Sutra confirms that he was a son of the Buddha. However, the Dirgha Agama and the A Yi Di Sutra—the Pali equivalent of which is the Pātikasuttanta of the Digha Nikaya—render his name as Shanzu (Sunaksatra; in Pali, Sunakkhattha), and contain no confirmation whatsoever of any relationship between Sunaksatra and the Buddha.

⁽³⁾ Shravakas (Śrāvaka) and pratyekabuddhas (Pratyekabuddha) are collectively called the Two Vehicles. Śrāvaka is derived from the verbal root Śru, meaning “to hear” or “to listen” (rendered in Chinese by the character wen, “hearing”). A śrāvaka is one who listens, meaning a student or disciple who listens to the teacher’s words. The Chinese translation is “Hearer,” meaning one who hears the sound—that is, the words—of the teacher.

Thus, “shravaka” refers to the monastic disciples who remained close to and followed the Buddha in order to hear the Dharma. Because the noble disciples attained the four fruits, from stream-enterer through arhatship, by hearing the Dharma, they too are called shravakas. In “pratyekabuddha,” pratyeka is transliterated into Chinese as bizhi and means individual, separate, or solitary; it is therefore translated into Chinese as “solitary awakened one,” meaning one who awakens alone without needing a teacher from whom to hear the Dharma.

Because such awakening occurs through wisdom that accords with causes and conditions, such a person is also called one “awakened through conditions.” Since these two kinds of noble beings do not arouse the mind of great compassion, they do not set out toward the unsurpassed bodhi of the Buddhas; therefore, they do not belong among the Mahayana saints of the bodhisattva path.

⁽⁴⁾ Here this refers to the adorned merits of the Pure Land. These merits are precisely the wondrous functioning of great compassion and a skillful means for delivering sentient beings.

Next comes the contemplation of the fulfillment of the four kinds of adorned merits of the great bodhisattvas in the Land of Peace and Bliss.

Question: Is there some deficiency in contemplating the adorned merits of the Tathagata, such that one must also contemplate the merits of the bodhisattvas?

Answer: Where there is an enlightened sovereign, there must also be worthy ministers. Yao and Shun were praised for governing through nonaction ⁽¹⁾, and this was evident through comparison with their ministers. If there were only the Tathagata, the Dharma King, but no great bodhisattvas as ministers of the Dharma, how could the assistance that supports the Way ⁽²⁾ be called complete?

It is also like a small pile of firewood, which cannot produce a great fire. As a sutra states, in the land of Amitabha Buddha there are immeasurable and boundless great bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta, all of whom, after one more lifetime, will succeed Buddhas in other regions ⁽³⁾. If anyone invokes their names and keeps them in mind, takes refuge in them, or contemplates them, then, as stated in the Universal Gate chapter of the Lotus Sutra, no aspiration will remain unfulfilled.

Nevertheless, bodhisattvas cherish merit as the ocean receives all rivers, never feeling that they have enough or should cease ⁽⁴⁾. It is also like the occasion when Shakyamuni Tathagata heard a blind bhikshu lament: “Whoever delights in merit, please thread this needle for me.” The Tathagata then arose from meditation, went to that bhikshu, and said, “I delight in merit,” whereupon he threaded the needle for him. When the blind bhikshu recognized the Buddha’s voice, he was at once joyful and awestruck, and addressed the Buddha: “Blessed One!

Are the Blessed One’s merits still not complete?” The Buddha replied: “My merits are complete; I have no further need of anything. Yet this body of mine was born from merit, and because I recognize my indebtedness to merit, I therefore say that I delight in it.” As for the question concerning contemplation of the Buddha’s merits, in truth there is no aspiration that it cannot fulfill. Nevertheless, the merits of the bodhisattvas are contemplated as well for the reasons just explained.

NOTES 32:

⁽¹⁾ “Nonaction” literally means “doing nothing.” Chinese Daoism uses it to designate the most authentic attitude of sages and worthies, because nonaction accords with the natural Way of heaven and earth. Shun was not Yao’s son, but because his virtuous character accorded with the Way of nonaction, Yao transmitted the throne to Shun.

⁽²⁾ The original expression is “the Way of winged assistance,” referring to the supporting and harmonizing aid provided by the “ministers” surrounding the sovereign.

⁽³⁾ The original reads, “In other regions, they will succeed to the positions of Buddhas.” In the Land of Ultimate Bliss, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara will succeed Amitabha Buddha; accordingly, those great bodhisattvas will become Buddhas and take the places of other Buddhas in other regions.

⁽⁴⁾ This means that the bodhisattva’s resolve to cultivate merit is like the great ocean, while merits are like the rivers. No matter how much merit bodhisattvas cultivate, they never consider it sufficient, just as the ocean never ceases to receive however many rivers flow into it.

THE PURE LAND OF PEACE AND BLISS CONSTANTLY TURNS THE UNTAINTED WHEEL; TRANSFORMATION BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS ARE LIKE SUNS, SUSTAINED LIKE MOUNT SUMERU.

Why did the Buddha originally give rise to this adornment? He saw that there were Buddha lands whose assemblies consisted only of lesser bodhisattvas, unable extensively to perform Buddha-work throughout the worlds of the ten directions; or they consisted only of shravakas, humans, and devas, whose beneficial activity was narrow and limited. Therefore he gave rise to a vow: “May there be immeasurable assemblies of great bodhisattvas in my land who, without moving from their original abode, reach throughout the ten directions, manifesting responsive transformation-bodies of every kind, cultivating in accordance with reality, and constantly performing Buddha-work.” They are like the sun in the sky, whose reflections appear in a hundred rivers.

Does the sun actually travel to all those rivers? Yet can it be said that it does not reach them at all? As stated in the Mahasamnipata Sutra, it is like a person skilled in constructing embankments, who correctly determines how the embankments should be built.

When the water is released into them, no further effort is required. Bodhisattvas are likewise: they must first complete the construction of all the various embankments by making offerings to all Buddhas and teaching and transforming sentient beings ⁽¹⁾. Then, when they enter samadhi, their bodies and minds remain unmoving, yet they cultivate in accordance with reality and constantly perform Buddha-work.

To cultivate in accordance with reality means that, although they constantly cultivate, there is nothing whatsoever that is cultivated ⁽²⁾. Therefore it is said:

NOTES 33:

⁽¹⁾ The meaning of this sentence is: “They must make offerings to the Buddhas and teach and transform sentient beings.”

⁽²⁾ The bodhisattva’s cultivation here is the spontaneous activity of the practice of vows (effortless practice) once the bodhisattva’s wisdom penetrates the true nature of all dharmas; this is here called entering samadhi.

WITH UNDEFILED, MAGNIFICENT LIGHT, IN EVERY THOUGHT-MOMENT AND AT EVERY TIME, THEY ILLUMINATE ALL ASSEMBLIES OF BUDDHAS THROUGHOUT, BENEFITING ALL SENTIENT BEINGS.

Why did the Buddha establish this adornment? He saw that some members of the Tathagata’s retinue wished to make offerings to innumerable Buddhas in other directions, or wished to teach and transform innumerable sentient beings, yet when they disappeared here they appeared there ⁽¹⁾, first in the south and afterward in the north. They could not, within a single thought-moment and at one and the same time, emit light illuminating everywhere, reaching all worlds throughout the ten directions and teaching and transforming sentient beings.

Thus there appeared such characteristics as appearing and disappearing, being before and being after. Therefore, he gave rise to the vow that the great bodhisattvas in his Buddha-land would, within the span of a single thought-moment, reach throughout the ten directions and perform every kind of Buddha-work. Hence it is said: With undefiled, magnificent light, in every thought-moment and at every time, they illuminate all assemblies of Buddhas throughout, benefiting all sentient beings.

Question: The preceding passage states that without moving their bodies they reach throughout the ten directions. Does reaching without moving not itself signify simultaneity? Is there perhaps any difference between that meaning and the meaning here?

Answer: The preceding passage merely states that they reach places without moving, so one might suppose that there is a before and an after. Here it is said that there is neither before nor after; this is the distinction. At the same time, this also establishes the preceding meaning of nonmovement. If it were not simultaneous, there would necessarily be coming and going; if there were coming and going, it could no longer be nonmovement. Therefore, to establish the preceding meaning of nonmovement, one must contemplate simultaneity.

ANNOTATION 34:

⁽¹⁾ This means that to appear there, one would have to be absent from here.

⁽²⁾ Here, Great Master Tanluan discusses the nonmovement of the great bodhisattvas in the Land of Ultimate Bliss: it is because they appear simultaneously in all places everywhere. If they appeared here first and there afterward, there would then be movement and coming and going. Such nonmovement means that the bodhisattva is in essence the characteristic of prajna-wisdom, or the characteristic of unobstructed light (the characteristic of wisdom). This light is devoid of self-nature and abides nowhere; in accordance with conditions, it manifests throughout all time and space. Thus the Land of Ultimate Bliss is precisely a realm devoid of self-nature and abiding nowhere, manifesting throughout all time and space without the slightest obstruction.

THEY RAIN DOWN CELESTIAL MUSIC, FLOWERS, GARMENTS, AND SUBLIME FRAGRANCES AS OFFERINGS; THEY PRAISE THE MERITS OF THE BUDDHAS WITHOUT A DISCRIMINATING MIND.

Why did the Buddha originally establish this adornment? He saw that in some Buddha-lands, the aspirations of bodhisattvas, humans, and devas were not broad. They could not journey throughout the infinite worlds of the ten directions to make offerings to the assemblies of the Buddha-Tathagatas.

Some, because their own lands were defiled and turbid, did not dare approach pure realms; others, because their dwelling places were pure, looked disdainfully upon defiled lands. Because of such manifold limitations, they could not journey everywhere to make offerings wherever the Buddha-Tathagatas dwelt and thereby give rise to vast roots of goodness. Therefore, he vowed: “When I attain Buddhahood, may all the bodhisattvas, sravakas, humans, and devas in my land journey throughout all the great assemblies of the Buddhas in the ten directions, and there rain down celestial music, celestial flowers, celestial garments, and celestial fragrances, using exquisite eloquence to make offerings and praise the merits of the Buddhas.

Although they praise the humility, patient endurance, and great compassion of a Tathagata in a defiled land, they do not perceive that Buddha-land as bearing the characteristics of impurity and defilement. Although they praise the immeasurable adornments of a Tathagata in a pure land, they do not perceive that Buddha-land as bearing the characteristics of purity.” Why is this? Because all dharmas are equal and all Tathagatas are equal; therefore, the Buddha-Tathagatas are called the Equally Enlightened Ones ⁽¹⁾.

If one gives rise to a mind that regards some Buddha-lands as superior and others as inferior, then even if one makes offerings to a Tathagata, such offerings are contrary to the Dharma. Hence it is said: They rain down celestial music, flowers, garments, and sublime fragrances as offerings; they praise the merits of the Buddhas without a discriminating mind.

ANNOTATION 35:

⁽¹⁾ Great Master Tanluan understands “Equal Enlightenment” here to mean that all Buddhas—that is, all Awakened Ones—are equal. According to the Mahayana, this “equality” means equality in both principle and phenomena. If both principle and phenomena are equal, then all Buddhas and their lands, whether pure or defiled, must perfectly interpenetrate without obstruction: one is all, and all is one.

IN WHATEVER WORLDS THE MERITS OF THE BUDDHA AND THE TREASURE OF THE DHARMA ARE ABSENT, I VOW TO BE BORN IN THEM ALL AND TO MANIFEST THE BUDDHA AND THE DHARMA AS WOULD A BUDDHA.

Why did the Buddha originally establish this vow? He saw that some bodhisattvas were weak and yielding in mind, delighting only in practicing in lands where a Buddha was present and lacking a steadfast mind of compassion. Therefore, he gave rise to the vow: “When I attain Buddhahood, may the bodhisattvas of my land all possess courageous and steadfast vows of compassion.

May they be able to leave the pure land and journey to places in other directions where the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are absent, there maintaining and adorning the Treasures of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, manifesting as though a Buddha were present, so that the seed of Buddhahood may everywhere remain unbroken.” Hence it is said: In whatever worlds the merits of the Buddha and the treasure of the Dharma are absent, I vow to be born in them all and to manifest the Buddha and the Dharma as would a Buddha.

The contemplation of the fulfillment of the bodhisattvas’ four kinds of meritorious adornments has now been explained.

The following four lines constitute the gate of dedication of merit.

I HAVE COMPOSED THIS TREATISE AND SPOKEN THESE VERSES, VOWING TO BEHOLD AMITABHA BUDDHA AND, TOGETHER WITH ALL SENTIENT BEINGS EVERYWHERE, TO ATTAIN REBIRTH IN THE LAND OF PEACE AND BLISS.

These four lines constitute the treatise master’s gate of dedication of merit. Dedication means turning over one’s own merits and universally bestowing them upon sentient beings, so that together they may behold Amitabha Tathagata and together attain rebirth in the Land of Peace and Bliss.

I HAVE NOW COMPLETELY EXPOUNDED IN VERSE ALL THE CHAPTERS AND PASSAGES OF THE SUTRA OF IMMEASURABLE LIFE.

Question: In the chapter on dedication of merit, Bodhisattva Vasubandhu says, “Together with all sentient beings everywhere, to attain rebirth in the Land of Peace and Bliss.” To which sentient beings does “together with” refer?

Answer: According to the Infinite Life Sutra preached at the city of Rajagriha, the Buddha told Ananda that all the Buddha-Tathagatas, as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, throughout the ten directions unanimously praise the inconceivable majestic power and virtues of the Buddha Infinite Life. If any beings hear his name, believe in it, and rejoice, and even for a single thought sincerely dedicate their merits and aspire to be born in that land, they immediately attain rebirth there and abide in the stage of non-retrogression.

Excluded only are those who commit the five heinous offenses ⁽¹⁾ and slander the true Dharma. Examined in light of this, all ordinary beings outside the Path ⁽²⁾ may attain rebirth there. Moreover, the Sutra of Contemplation of the Buddha Infinite Life describes nine grades of rebirth.

Among them, those born in the lowest grade of the lowest rank may be beings who have committed unwholesome karma, the five heinous offenses, the ten evils ⁽³⁾, and every kind of unwholesome deed. Because of their evil karma, such foolish persons deserve to fall into the evil destinies ⁽⁴⁾, where for many kalpas they would undergo suffering without end. When such a foolish person approaches death, however, he encounters a good spiritual friend who consoles him in various ways, expounds the wondrous Dharma for his sake, and instructs him to recollect the Buddha.

Tormented by suffering, this person is unable to compose himself sufficiently to recollect the Buddha. The good friend then says: “If you cannot recollect the Buddha, you should invoke the name of the Buddha Infinite Life.” Thus, with complete sincerity and without allowing his voice to cease, he fully completes ten recitations of “Namo Amitabha Buddha.” Because he invokes the Buddha’s name, with each recitation he extinguishes the offenses that would bind him to birth and death for eighty kotis of kalpas.

When his life ends, he sees a golden lotus flower resembling the disk of the sun standing directly before him. In a single instant, he attains rebirth in the Land of Utmost Bliss. He remains within the lotus flower for twelve great kalpas, after which the lotus opens.

At that time, Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta, with voices of great compassion, extensively expound for him the true aspect ⁽⁵⁾ of all dharmas, whereby his offenses are extinguished. Having heard this, he rejoices and, because the time is right, immediately gives rise to the bodhicitta. This is called birth in the lowest grade of the lowest rank.

Taking this sutra as testimony, it becomes clear that even ordinary beings of the lowest grade, provided only that they do not slander the true Dharma and possess the causes and conditions associated with the Buddha’s adornments, may all attain rebirth there.

Question: The Infinite Life Sutra says that all who aspire to be reborn there will attain rebirth, excluding only those who commit the five heinous offenses and slander the true Dharma. Yet the Sutra of Contemplation of the Buddha Infinite Life says that even those who have committed the five heinous offenses, the ten evils, and every kind of unwholesome deed may attain rebirth. How are these two sutras to be understood?

Answer: One sutra speaks of those who possess both kinds of grave offense: first, the five heinous offenses, and second, slander of the true Dharma. Because they possess both offenses, they cannot attain rebirth. The other sutra speaks only of those who have committed the ten evils, the five heinous offenses, and other offenses, but does not say that they have slandered the true Dharma. Because they have not slandered the true Dharma, they may attain rebirth.

Question: Suppose a person has committed all five heinous offenses but has not slandered the true Dharma; the sutra permits him to attain rebirth. Suppose, however, that another person has merely slandered the true Dharma but has not committed the five heinous offenses. If he aspires to be reborn there, can he attain rebirth or not?

Answer: Merely by slandering the true Dharma, even if he has committed no other offense whatsoever, he will still be unable to attain rebirth. On what basis is this said? The sutra states that a person who commits the five heinous offenses falls into the great Avici hell ⁽⁶⁾ and undergoes the full retribution for these grave offenses for one kalpa.

A person who slanders the true Dharma, however, falls into the great Avici hell; when his retribution there in that kalpa has ended, he is transferred to a great Avici hell in another direction. In this way he revolves through hundreds of thousands of great Avici hells, and the Buddha does not confirm when he will be released. This is because slandering the true Dharma is an offense of extreme gravity.

Moreover, the true Dharma is precisely the Buddha-Dharma. Since that foolish person has already given rise to slander, how could he possibly aspire to be born in a Buddha-land? Even if he were to aspire to birth there merely out of craving for that land’s pleasures, it would be like seeking ice that is not made of water or seeking fire without smoke.

How could such a thing be possible?

Question: What are the characteristics of slandering the true Dharma?

Answer: To say that there is no Buddha, no Dharma of the Buddha, no bodhisattvas, and no Dharma of the bodhisattvas ⁽⁷⁾—views such as these, whether conceived by one’s own mind or adopted from others, once firmly determined in the mind, are all called slander of the true Dharma.

Question: Such thoughts are merely one’s own private affair. Since they cause no suffering or affliction to other beings, how could they be graver even than the five heinous offenses?

Answer: If there were no Buddhas and bodhisattvas to teach the wholesome paths of the worldly and supramundane realms and thereby guide beings, how could benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness ⁽⁸⁾ be known? Thus, all the wholesome dharmas of the world would be cut off, and all supramundane dharmas would be extinguished. You know only that the five heinous offenses are grave, but you do not understand that the five heinous offenses arise because the true Dharma is absent. Therefore, the offense of one who slanders the true Dharma is the gravest of all.

Question: The Sutra on the Paths of Karma says: “The paths of karma ⁽⁹⁾ are like a scale; the heavier one draws one onward first” ⁽¹⁰⁾. As the Infinite Life Sutra says, a person may have committed the five heinous offenses, the ten evils, and every kind of unwholesome deed, and thus deserve to fall into the evil destinies and undergo immeasurable suffering for many kalpas. Yet at the very moment of death, he encounters a good spiritual friend who instructs him to invoke “Namo Amitabha Buddha.” With complete sincerity, he keeps his voice from ceasing and fully completes ten recitations.

He then immediately attains rebirth in the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss, enters the Mahayana group of those established in right concentration ⁽¹¹⁾, ultimately never retrogresses, and forever leaves far behind the sufferings of the three evil destinies. If so, how should the meaning of “draws one onward first” in the Sutra on the Paths of Karma be understood according to reason? Moreover, throughout countless kalpas until now, he has performed all manner of conditioned actions ⁽¹²⁾ tainted by outflows, which bind him to the three realms.

Yet merely by recollecting Amitabha Buddha in ten thoughts, he immediately escapes the three realms. How, then, is the principle that karma binds beings to be understood?

Answer: You regard the various karmic bonds of the five heinous offenses, the ten evil deeds, and so forth as heavy, and the ten recollections of a person in the lowest grade of the lowest rank as light; therefore, that person ought to be dragged away by his offenses, first falling into hell and remaining bound within the three realms. Now, however, let us weigh the matter according to its meaning: whether something is heavy or light depends upon the mind, the conditions, and decisiveness, not upon whether the duration is long or short, or the quantity great or small.

What does it mean to depend upon the mind? The person who commits offenses produces them by relying upon his own inverted and deluded views. The ten recollections arise through the consoling skillful means ⁽¹³⁾ of a good spiritual friend and through hearing the Dharma of true reality.

One is true and the other false; how could they be compared? It is like a room that has been dark for a thousand years: as soon as light enters, even briefly, the room immediately becomes bright. Could the darkness say that, because it had remained in the room for a thousand years, it would not depart?

This is called heaviness or lightness with respect to the mind. What does it mean to depend upon conditions? The person who commits offenses produces them by relying upon a deluded mind and upon the false karmic retributions ⁽¹⁴⁾ of beings' afflictions.

These ten recollections, however, arise by relying upon the mind of unsurpassed faith and upon the name of Amitabha Tathagata, which is the skillfully adorned, true, pure, and immeasurable store of merit ⁽¹⁵⁾. It is like a person struck by a poisoned arrow, with sinews severed and bones broken: if he hears the beat of the poison-dispelling drum ⁽¹⁶⁾, the arrow comes out of itself and the poison is eliminated. Could one say that because the arrow has penetrated deeply and the poison is severe, hearing the drum sound could neither extract the arrow nor eliminate the poison?

This is called heaviness or lightness with respect to conditions. What does it mean to depend upon decisiveness? The person who commits offenses does so by relying upon a mind that still has subsequent thoughts ⁽¹⁷⁾, a mind subject to interruption ⁽¹⁸⁾.

These ten recollections, however, arise by relying upon a mind with no subsequent thought and a mind without interruption. This is called heaviness or lightness with respect to decisiveness. Comparing these three meanings makes it clear that the ten recollections are heavy.

Since what is heavy pulls first, they enable one to escape the three realms of existence. Thus, the two sutras above have the same meaning.

Question: How much time is called one recollection?

Answer: One hundred and one arisings and ceasings are called one kshana, and sixty kshanas are called one recollection. The word “recollection” in “ten recollections” here is not based upon a measure of time. It means only to recollect and remain mindful of Amitabha Buddha, whether through his general characteristics or his particular characteristics ⁽¹⁹⁾, continuously taking these as the object of contemplation while the mind thinks of nothing else. Ten such uninterrupted recollections are called the ten recollections. If one merely recites the Name, the meaning is likewise the same.

Question: If the mind turns toward some other object, one gathers it in and draws it back; in this way, one can know how many recollections have been completed ⁽²⁰⁾. Yet if one is aware of how many recollections there have been, then the recollections are no longer uninterrupted. If one stills the mind and ceases discursive thought, then by what means can one remember how many recollections have already been completed?

Answer: When the sutra speaks of ten recollections, it indicates that the karmic act has been accomplished; there is no need to know any particular number ⁽²¹⁾. As it is said, how could a cicada know spring and autumn, and how could that insect know the season of summer? That the karmic act of the ten recollections has been accomplished is also something spoken of for those possessing supernormal knowledge. It is enough simply to maintain continuous recollection without turning toward any other matter; how could one have leisure to keep track of the number of recollections? If it is necessary to know, there is also a skillful method, but it must be transmitted orally and cannot be recorded in writing.

NOTES 36:

⁽¹⁾ The five heinous offenses are: 1/ Killing one's father. 2/ Killing one's mother. 3/ Killing an arhat. 4/ Causing the body of a Buddha to bleed. 5/ Creating a schism in the harmonious Sangha.

⁽²⁾ This means followers of non-Buddhist paths and ordinary beings.

⁽³⁾ The ten evil deeds are the ten unwholesome acts, the opposites of the ten wholesome acts. They comprise: 1/ Killing living beings. 2/ Stealing. 3/ Sexual misconduct. 4/ False speech. 5/ Enticing speech (that is, embellished and deceptive speech; in Chinese, “ornate speech”). 6/ Divisive speech (that is, double-tongued speech). 7/ Harsh and malicious speech. 8/ Greed. 9/ Anger. 10/ Wrong views.

⁽⁴⁾ The evil destinies are the three evil paths: hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals.

⁽⁵⁾ True reality here is understood according to the Mahayana as emptiness, devoid of intrinsic nature.

⁽⁶⁾ Avici is a Sanskrit term and is also transliterated as A-tỳ-chỉ. Both the Mahaparinirvana Sutra and the Abhidharmakosha explain Avici as meaning “uninterrupted”—without interruption or cessation. This is the hell in which the gravest karmic retribution is undergone, because its torments continue ceaselessly without pause.

⁽⁷⁾ The Dharma of the bodhisattvas, namely the bodhisattva path, is the path that leads sentient beings from samsara and afflictions to the Buddha-fruit of perfect enlightenment. Thus, it means the Mahayana Dharma.

⁽⁸⁾ Here, Master Tanluan shows that all wholesome dharmas, whether worldly or supramundane, originate from the Buddhas and bodhisattvas—that is, from the Mahayana Dharma. This is a distinctive view and faith of Mahayana Buddhists. According to this view, every saint may be recognized as a bodhisattva, and every wholesome deed, however small, as a manifestation of Buddha-nature. Whether or not a Buddha appears in the world, all wholesome dharmas and all saints in the world must rely upon Buddha-nature in order to manifest. It is only that such saints lack the wisdom to perceive their own Buddha-nature clearly; therefore, from the Buddhist standpoint, they are still regarded as followers of non-Buddhist paths.

⁽⁹⁾ That is, the rationale or principle of karma.

⁽¹⁰⁾ This means that heavy karma, like the heavier pan of a balance, draws light karma, like the lighter pan, over to its own side.

⁽¹¹⁾ “Collection” means gathering, accumulating, bringing together in one place, or storing in one place. Because Mahayana right concentration has many classes and varieties, when they are all grouped together, the word “collection” is commonly used to designate them. The same applies to other dharmas; for example, the Mahayana precepts are called the three collections of pure precepts.

⁽¹²⁾ “Formation” translates the Sanskrit term Saṃskāra. The ordinary meanings of this Sanskrit word include “preparation,” “refinement,” and “adornment.” Skāra derives from the verbal root kṛ, meaning to do, make, or form; saṃ is a prefix suggesting “together” or “as one.” Saṃskāra conveys the sense of “nothing but activity”: from beginning to end it is activity, belongs to activity, and does not depart from activity. Buddhism sees each and every phenomenon as the result, presently functioning here and now, of karmic formations regarded as causes.

Buddhism does not see any fixed self that governs the actions presently manifesting as these results; therefore, the formations here are not the actions of any individual “I.” On the contrary, formations are primary, and it is precisely because formations exist that the imagined “I” comes to be established. The nature of formations is to produce, sustain, transform, and destroy; therefore, formations are always the basis of conditioned and contaminated dharmas—that is, dharmas subject to arising and ceasing.

⁽¹³⁾ Except when used as a specialized technical term, the expression “skillful means” in Buddhism simply means employing an appropriate method to accomplish a task.

⁽¹⁴⁾ This passage affirms that all karmic retributions are false and illusory. This Mahayana perspective is extremely important in making the great compassionate vow that belongs to bodhicitta.

⁽¹⁵⁾ This passage affirms that the world of samsara and afflictions is unreal, while only the Land of Ultimate Bliss is true and real.

⁽¹⁶⁾ This analogy may have been borrowed from the analogy of the “poisoned drum” in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. The Buddha said that when he proclaimed “the Buddha-nature permanently abides,” sentient beings who heard these four words would have all their afflictions and unwholesome dharmas slain and would enter the Buddha Way, just as a drum is smeared with a compound poison and then struck so that its sound rings out: whoever hears it is harmed by the poison.

⁽¹⁷⁾ A mind with a subsequent result (a consequential mind) means a mental activity that still brings about a result, rather than the mind of the Path that has brought all formations to an end.

⁽¹⁸⁾ An interrupted mind is also a mental activity; however, when viewed in terms of cause and effect, there is an interval between the cause and the result, and it is therefore called an interrupted mind.

⁽¹⁹⁾ The general characteristic is the overall characteristic, while the particular characteristics are the details described in the Contemplation Sutra of the Buddha of Infinite Life.

⁽²⁰⁾ Here, the method of Buddha-recollection by means of numbers is taught—that is, reciting while counting. This method helps practitioners concentrate on the recitation and immediately recognize whenever their thoughts have wandered elsewhere, because at that point the mind will cease counting. Yet if one must count, the recitation and the numbers necessarily alternate, which means that there is already an interruption. This is the meaning of the sentence that follows.

⁽²¹⁾ This means that continuity without interruption for only ten recitations is sufficient to establish the karmic cause for rebirth in the Pure Land; the emphasis is not on counting numbers.

Commentary on the Verses of Aspiration for Rebirth from the Upadesa on the Sutra of the Buddha of Infinite Life

End of the First Fascicle