華嚴經傳記

1- CLASSIFICATION (Classification of the Avatamsaka Sutra)

This sutra was spoken by the Buddha Vairocana’s Dharma-realm Body-Cloud^[8], from within the Ocean-Seal Samadhi in the Ocean of Worlds known as the Adorned Treasury of Lotus Blossoms, for Great Bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra^[10] and others in the ocean-wide assembly of the sacred congregation. Every word, every meaning, every chapter, and every assembly pervades the Dharma realm throughout the empty space of the ten directions, extending even to each and every land as minute as a mote of dust upon the tip of a hair.

Moreover, it is spoken eternally and universally, without ever ceasing, throughout the utterly subtle, multilayered, and endlessly interpenetrating worlds; it extends through the oceans of all kalpas—past, present, and future—and even through the boundless kalpas contained within each single thought. Thus, only through the power of dharani^[11] can this sutra be received and retained; no pen or ink could ever record it in full.

It is precisely the verbal teaching of the perfect Dharma wheel that accords with the Dharma realm.

Yet because the Fundamental does not depart from its Manifestation^[12], the places^[13] where the sutra was spoken were represented by realms of gods and humans, while the period during which it was spoken extended over fourteen days^[14]. Because the Manifestation does not depart from the Fundamental, the nine assemblies^[15] pervade the ten directions^[16], and the fourteen days encompass the ten times^[17]. Moreover, because the Fundamental and the Manifestation are nondual, the limitless is precisely the limited, and the limited is precisely the limitless.

As stated in this sutra concerning the Universal Eye Sutra received and retained by Bhiksu Sagaramegha^[18], even if writing brushes were piled as high as Mount Sumeru^[19] and ink were as abundant as the waters of the great ocean, they still could not transcribe a single chapter in full.

Tripitaka Master Paramartha^[20] (499–569) said that the Records of the Western Regions recount how Bodhisattva Nagarjuna descended to the dragon palace and saw that this Avatamsaka Sutra of Great Inconceivable Liberation had three versions:

– The Upper Version contained as many verses as there are minute dust motes in ten trichiliocosms, and as many chapters as there are minute dust motes in the four continents.

– The Middle Version contained 498,800 verses and 1,200 chapters.

– The Lower Version contained 100,000 verses and 48 chapters.

The Upper and Middle Versions, as well as the Universal Eye Sutra, could not be received and retained by ordinary beings; therefore, they remained hidden and were not circulated. The Lower Version, however, was transmitted in India.

Because beings’ capacities for comprehension are not the same, the teachings they hear also differ. Thus, Bodhisattvas Manjusri and Samantabhadra personally received the teaching in its entirety, whereas Vasubandhu and Nagarjuna saw only the portion of the teaching preserved in the world. Furthermore, the sravakas seated in the same assembly neither heard nor understood it, while Great Bodhisattvas dwelling elsewhere awakened to it before them. From this, it may be determined that whether the sacred teaching remains hidden or becomes manifest depends upon whether beings’ capacities are superior or inferior.

Living beings today are far removed in time from the Buddha; their merit is meager, and both their physical strength and wisdom have diminished. They are unable even to receive the Lower Version in full. Therefore, portions were transcribed and retained according to their abilities and inclinations.

Consequently, there was a version containing the complete 100,000 verses, such as the Great Version that still existed at the time; a version of 36,000 verses translated during the Jin dynasty; a version of more than 40,000 verses translated during the Zhou dynasty; and versions formed by extracting particular chapters or assemblies from the sutra and establishing them as separate works for circulation, as explained below in the section on Branch Texts.

Some portions among these gradually disappeared from transmission, until even their titles were no longer heard. All of this arose from the capacities of living beings.

It is like the majestic sun in the open sky, which radiates its light equally upon all: those with clear sight see it brightly; those with impaired vision see it somewhat dimly; and those who are blind see only darkness. How could the sun itself possess brightness or darkness? So it is here as well: whether the text is complete or abridged depends entirely upon the capacities of living beings; the scriptural Dharma itself neither increases nor decreases.

2- CONCEALMENT AND MANIFESTATION (Versions of the Avatamsaka Sutra That Were and Were Not Transmitted):

According to the Sutra of Manjusri’s Parinirvana: “Four hundred and fifty years after the Buddha entered nirvana, Bodhisattva Manjusri still remained in the world.” According to the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom: “Most of the Mahayana sutras, including this sutra, were compiled by Bodhisattva Manjusri.”

Soon after the Buddha entered nirvana, the sages and saints likewise passed into nirvana. Consequently, non-Buddhist teachings proliferated, while there were few people possessing the Mahayana capacity required to receive and retain this sutra. The sutra was therefore concealed in the dragon palace for more than six hundred years and was not circulated in the world.

When Bodhisattva Nagarjuna descended to the dragon palace, he encountered this sutra there. He therefore memorized and recited it inwardly, then brought it back into the world and transmitted it, after which the sutra circulated widely.

The Kaihuang Record of the Three Treasures^[21] states: In ancient times, there was a kingdom called Garjupan, located more than 2,000 li^[22] southeast of Khotan. The king of that country was named Liye, and he revered the Mahayana. Eminent monks arriving there from various places were all examined. Those who followed the Hinayana were invited to depart and were not retained, whereas those who followed the Mahayana were invited to remain and were provided with offerings.

Within the royal palace were preserved such scriptures as the Avatamsaka, Mahaprajnaparamita, and Mahasamnipata Sutras, each containing 100,000 verses. The king personally received and retained these scriptures and himself kept the key to the scripture repository. Whenever he wished to read and recite them, he opened the doors and made offerings of incense and flowers. Within that sanctuary, the king arranged every form of adornment, furnished it fully with precious objects, hung banners and canopies, and offered flowers and fruit. He also encouraged the lesser kings to enter the scripture repository and pay homage.

Furthermore, more than twenty li southeast of that country stood an extremely precipitous mountain. There, twelve collections of scriptures were enshrined, including the Avatamsaka, Mahasamnipata, Vaipulya, Ratnakuta, Lankavatara, and Fangguang Sutras; the Sariputra Dharani, Flower-Gathering Dharani, Dusaluo Treasury, Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, Great Cloud Sutra, and others, each containing 100,000 verses. According to the laws of that country, successive generations of kings protected and preserved them.

At that time, there was a sramana of the Eastern Jin dynasty named Zhi Faling^[23]. His virtue was lofty, his aspirations vast, and his devotion to the Mahayana so profound that he forgot food and sleep. Taking provisions, he set out without regard for his own life and traveled to Khotan, single-mindedly seeking the Dharma. There he obtained the first portion of the Avatamsaka Sutra, consisting of 36,000 verses, and brought it back to China. This was the version translated during the Jin dynasty.

The present scripture of our Great Zhou dynasty^[24] was offered by the kingdom of Khotan and contains more than 40,000 verses. The Old Translation—the version translated during the Jin dynasty—lacked the section on the Flower-Treasury World in the first assembly, and thus provided no basis for exposition. The present version contains it in full, making clear comprehension possible. As for the Assembly of the Ten Samadhis, the Old Translation contained only the questions and not the answers, whereas the present version contains both in full. Therefore, the old version had seven locations and eight assemblies, while the present version has seven locations and nine assemblies. Compared with the version of 100,000 verses, the present version is incomplete, yet its principles are not deficient.

Moreover, Nagarjuna memorized and recited the complete version and brought it into the world, whereas Sramana Zhi Faling obtained only half and carried it to China. Although one was an ordinary being and the other a saint, their work of propagating the Dharma was no different. It was only because some lands were central and others peripheral, and because understanding varied in depth, that across a distance of tens of thousands of li there were differences in what was received, resulting in the loss of more than half the text. This is truly regrettable!

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: The Inconceivable Sutra contains 100,000 verses. The Compendium of the Mahayana states: Because this sutra contains 100,000 verses, it is called the Hundred-Thousand-Verse Sutra. The Commentary on the Compendium of the Mahayana states: The Avatamsaka Sutra contains 100,000 verses; therefore, it is called the Hundred-Thousand-Verse Sutra.

Furthermore, the Nirvana Sutra calls this sutra the Miscellaneous Flowers Sutra. However, the name Hundred Thousand is based on the number of verses, while the name Miscellaneous Flowers is based on its characteristics. Naming it according to its number loses sight of its origin, while naming it according to its characteristics loses sight of the sutra’s principal teaching.

The name Inconceivable expresses its central tenet, leading directly to the stage of Buddhahood. The name Buddha Avatamsaka identifies the Dharma through the person and clearly reveals the essential purport of the sutra. Thus, among these four names, the last two are the most accurate.

3- TRANSLATION (The monks who translated the Avatamsaka Sutra):

3.1- Buddhabhadra at Daochang Monastery^[25] in the capital, during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420):

Buddhabhadra (359–429), whose name was translated into Chinese as Juexian, “Enlightened Worthy,” bore the surname Shakya and was a native of Kapilavastu. He was a descendant of King Amritodana. His grandfather was named Dharmadeva, translated into Chinese as Fatian, “Dharma Deva.” He had once traveled to northern India for trade and subsequently settled there. The Master’s father was Dharmasuryayasas, translated into Chinese as Fari, “Dharma Sun.”

When the Master was three years old, his father died; at the age of eight^[26], he also lost his mother and was therefore raised by his maternal relatives. His uncle, Kumarajiva, hearing that the Master was intelligent and also pitying him for having been orphaned at an early age, took him in and ordained him as a novice monk.

At the age of seventeen, the Master and several fellow students devoted themselves to recitation as their principal undertaking. What others required a month to learn, the Master alone learned in a single day. His teacher praised him, saying, “Juexian’s capacity for learning equals that of thirty men.”

After receiving full ordination^[27], the Master practiced with even greater diligence and mastered the scriptures. From his youth, he was renowned for meditation and Vinaya and often traveled to study in Kashmir with his fellow student Sanghadatta, with whom he lived for many years. Although Datta admired the Master’s ability and virtue, he had not yet fathomed their depth. Once, while meditating in a secluded chamber, Datta suddenly saw the Master enter and asked in astonishment:

– Where have you come from?

The Master replied:

– I have just ascended to the Tusita Heaven^[28], paid homage to Bodhisattva Maitreya, and returned here.

Having spoken, the Master disappeared. Only then did Datta realize that the Master was a holy being. Thereafter, Datta saw the Master manifest miraculous transformations many times. Upon earnestly questioning him, he learned that the Master had attained the fruit of non-returning^[29].

The Master always delighted in traveling from place to place to propagate the teachings and observe the customs of various regions. At that time, the Chinese sramana Zhiyan traveled to Kashmir and asked the Sangha there:

– Who is capable of propagating the Dharma in the Eastern Land?

The members of the Sangha all said:

– There is the sramana Buddhabhadra, originally from the city of Nagarahara in India. His family belongs to the Brahmin lineage and has followed the Buddha for many generations. He is intelligent and broadly learned, and his spiritual attainment and virtue are difficult to fathom. Having left the household life in his youth, he has mastered the sutras and treatises and has also studied under the meditation master Buddhasena^[30].

At that time, the meditation master Buddhasena was also residing in Kashmir. When he heard that Master Zhiyan had come seeking someone, he told Master Zhiyan:

– The one capable of putting the Sangha in good order and transmitting the meditation teachings is none other than Buddhabhadra!

Because Zhiyan entreated him wholeheartedly, the Master silently consented.

Thus, the Master bade farewell to his teacher, took provisions, and set out for China. He journeyed arduously for three years and endured every kind of hardship: lofty mountains rising precipitously, clouds shrouding the paths beneath his feet, and ice and snow covering a thousand miles. At dawn, he traversed treacherous mountains; at night, he slept upon the ice and snow.

On narrow steps and precarious stone bridges, he had to edge forward sideways, clinging to ropes and hanging cords; when he raised his head, the clouds touched it. In addition to the bitter cold of ice and snow and the hardships of the journey over ten thousand miles, his provisions were exhausted midway, and every grain had to be apportioned for eating. At that time, only through the protection of holy beings was he able to pass through.

After crossing the Pamir Mountains and traveling through six kingdoms, the rulers of those lands, moved by compassion for the Master’s distant journey to teach and transform beings, all rejoiced and wholeheartedly made offerings to him.

Upon reaching Jiaozhi, he boarded a ship and traveled along the coast. As they passed an island, the Master pointed toward a mountain and said:

– We should put in here.

The shipmaster said:

– On a long voyage, time must be treasured, and favorable winds are difficult to encounter. We cannot stop.

Having said this, the shipmaster ordered the ship to continue. After traveling more than 200 li, they suddenly encountered a wind that changed direction and drove the ship back to the former island. Only then did everyone aboard recognize the Master’s divine power of foresight. They all honored him as their teacher and obeyed his instructions. Later, when a favorable wind arose, all the ships traveling with them set sail. The Master said:

– We should not depart.

The shipmaster therefore remained. Before long, all the ships that had gone ahead sank.

One night, the Master suddenly instructed all the ships to set sail, but no one heeded him. The Master himself raised anchor, and only his ship left the harbor. Shortly afterward, pirates arrived, and all the ships that remained behind came to harm.

Before long, the ship reached Donglai Commandery in Qingzhou. Hearing that Venerable Kumarajiva^[31] was residing in Chang’an, the Master joyfully traveled there, arriving in the fourth month of the tenth year of the Hongshi era ⁽⁴⁰⁸⁾ under the Later Qin dynasty of the Yao clan^[32]. Upon meeting the Master, Venerable Kumarajiva was greatly delighted. He often discussed the characteristics of dharmas with the Master, elucidating their profound meanings and gaining many realizations. On one occasion, the Master asked Venerable Kumarajiva:

– Your understanding is also quite ordinary; why, then, has your fame spread so widely?

Venerable Kumarajiva replied:

– It is only because I am advanced in years that I have attained such renown; I am not necessarily worthy of the praise.

Whenever questions arose concerning doctrinal teachings, Venerable Kumarajiva would often discuss them with the Master and reach a determination. Six hundred sramanas, including Daocai, Yunchang, Seng Rui, Huiguan, and others, all followed the Master to study the teachings of meditation. Everything the Master transmitted was of true and essential purport.

Since its transmission into China, the teaching had expanded and developed for more than four hundred years, yet it had never flourished as greatly as it did at this time. When the Master expounded doctrine and discussed phenomenal characteristics, he invariably sought to reach their central point. He did not casually seek to please others, nor did he wish to surpass them.

What he understood, he explained exhaustively; what he did not know, he always left open to question.

One day, Crown Prince Hong of the Later Qin wished to hear the Master teach the Dharma and therefore invited the Sangha into the Eastern Palace for a doctrinal debate. At that time, Venerable Kumarajiva and the Master engaged in several rounds of debate.

Yao Xing, ruler of the Qin state, was wholeheartedly devoted to the Buddha Dharma. He permitted more than 3,000 monks to enter and leave the imperial precincts regularly and also made abundant offerings of many kinds. The Master alone remained serene and detached, unlike the other monks.

On one occasion, the Master told his disciples, “Last night, I dreamed that five ships had departed from India.” About a year later, ships from foreign lands arrived. The Master went to inquire and learned that these were precisely the five ships from India that he had previously seen. When people throughout the region heard of this, they all came to bow in homage to the Master. Whenever any among them made offerings, the Master declined them all. He merely carried his alms bowl and went begging for food, without distinction between wealthy and poor households.

One day, the Master and his disciple Hui Guan went on their alms round in due order and came to the home of Yuan Bao in Chen Commandery. Yuan Bao had never revered or believed in the Buddhadharma, and so he received the Master very poorly. Consequently, before he had eaten his fill, the Master took his leave. Yuan Bao said:

– It seems that you have not yet eaten your fill. Please remain a little longer.

The Master said:

– The donor’s resolve to give has its limits, causing the provisions offered as alms to be exhausted.

Yuan Bao immediately ordered a servant to bring more rice, but indeed there was none left. Deeply ashamed, Yuan Bao asked Hui Guan:

– What kind of person is that śramaṇa?

Hui Guan replied:

– His virtue is exceedingly lofty and cannot be fathomed by ordinary people.

From then on, Yuan Bao greatly admired and revered the Master.

The Master’s dignified bearing and observance of the monastic regulations were utterly pure and unaffected, unlike those of worldly people. His aspirations were also noble, and his intentions profound and far-reaching. Dharma Master Seng Bi (365–442) and the śramaṇa Bao Lin wrote letters praising him:

– Dhyāna Master Dao Chang possesses a vast mind, and his talent and virtue rank foremost among those of India. How could he be an ordinary person?

In the fourteenth year of the Yixi era ⁽⁴¹⁸⁾, Meng Kai, the Administrator of Wu Commandery, and Chu Shudu, General of the Right Guard, invited the Master to translate the Avataṃsaka Sutra. Holding the Sanskrit manuscript, the Master worked together with more than one hundred śramaṇas, including Fa Ye and Hui Yan, to translate this sutra at Dao Chang Monastery. They then reviewed its wording and meaning, rendered it into Chinese literary form, and thoroughly conveyed the essential purport of the sutra.

For this reason, Dao Chang Monastery also had an Avataṃsaka Hall. The transmission of the Buddha’s teaching was due to the Master’s efforts. When the translation of the sutra began, two youths dressed in blue often emerged from the pond before the Avataṃsaka Hall and presented offerings of incense and flowers. Everyone saw them. There were also earth deities guarding the surrounding area.

In the sixth year of the Yuanjia era ⁽⁴²⁹⁾, the Master entered final nirvana at the age of seventy-one. At the time of his passing, he bent three fingers, thereby attesting that he had attained the fruit of an anāgāmin.

3.2—Divākara at Wei State Western Monastery^[33], who lived during the Tang dynasty (618–907):

Tripiṭaka Dharma Master Divākara (613–687), whose name was translated into Chinese during the Tang as Rizhao, “Sunlight,” was a native of Central India and belonged to the Brahmin caste.

The Master entered monastic life at an early age and formerly resided at Mahābodhi Monastery and Nālandā Monastery. Gentle in demeanor and refined by nature, he followed his teachers in studying the Way. After many years of learning, he became a worthy vessel of the Dharma, with exceptional talent and erudition. When the śramaṇa Xuanzang returned to his country after propagating the teaching, the Master, who cherished the Mahayana and had long turned his attention toward China, conceived the intention of traveling eastward to China.

Later, having learned of the dynasty of our sagely sovereign, the Master journeyed to China to expound the teaching of the Supreme Vehicle and assist the emperor in governing and transforming the realm. In the first year of the Yonglong era ⁽⁶⁸⁰⁾, the Master arrived in the capital. At that time, Emperor Gaozong (650–683), carrying out the final injunction of the former emperor, was propagating the Buddhadharma. He therefore invited ten eminent monks^[34], including Vinaya Master Dao Cheng and Dharma Master Bo Chen, all of whom were great Dharma luminaries^[35] in the capital, to translate sutras and treatises successively at Wei State Western Monastery.

At that time, Dharma Master Xianshou^[36], who had previously devoted himself to the Avataṃsaka Sutra, often lamented that this sutra was incomplete, and so he came to inquire. The Master replied, “I have brought here the scriptural text from the eighth assembly.”

Dharma Master Xianshou and the Master then compared the texts and found the passage in which “the youth Sudhana sought instruction from more than ten spiritual friends, including the youth Deva-Prabha.” The emperor therefore invited the Master to translate this portion of the Avataṃsaka Sutra into Chinese to supplement what was missing from the old translation. At that time, the śramaṇa Fu Li served as scribe, and the śramaṇa Hui Zhi interpreted the text. The Master also translated more than ten other sutras and treatises, including the Ghanavyūha Sutra, totaling twenty-four fascicles. The Empress Dowager personally composed a preface for each work, highly praising the Master’s skill in translation. These scriptures are still in circulation today.

When the Master left his homeland, his mother was still alive. He never forgot the profound kindness with which she had raised him and always thought of repaying it. Therefore, after arriving in the capital, he repeatedly submitted memorials to the court requesting permission to return to his homeland. At first, the emperor refused, but after the Master entreated him two or three times, he finally gave his consent. The eminent monks of the capital sewed a silk kāṣāya adorned with jewels and made an image of the Buddha seated beneath the Bodhi tree to present to the Master. The emperor also bestowed upon him a precious bell and had additional banners, images, and offerings prepared before sending him on his journey.

On the twenty-seventh day of the twelfth month in the third year of the Chuigong era ⁽⁶⁸⁷⁾, while still in good health, the Master told his disciples, “I am about to depart.” Having said this, he lay down on his right side and, though free of illness, passed away at Wei State Eastern Monastery^[37] in the capital.

On that day, several hundred thousand people attended the funeral. When Empress Wu heard the news, she was overcome with grief and offered one thousand bolts of silk for the enshrouding of his body. Monastics and laypeople alike mourned as though they had lost their own parents. By imperial decree, incense, flowers, and carriages were bestowed for the funeral procession, which accompanied the Master to his burial place on the left bank of the Yi River, south of Longmen Mountain. His disciples restored his funerary stupa, added several tiers of pavilions, and, on this occasion, built a monastery beside the stupa for its maintenance and for making offerings.

Later, following a memorial submitted by the Prince of Liang, Empress Wu ordered a monastery to be constructed. The imperial edict named it Xiangshan Monastery. The monastery had lofty towers rising steeply into the clouds, seven niches enshrining stone images, and an octagonal stupa. Every emperor who visited the site composed poems in its praise.

3.3—Śikṣānanda at Fo Shou Ji Monastery in the capital, who lived during the Great Zhou dynasty (690–705):

The śramaṇa Śikṣānanda (652–710), whose name was translated into Chinese as Xijue, “Joyful Awakening,” was a native of Khotan, present-day Hotan in Xinjiang. The Master possessed exalted wisdom and devoted himself wholeheartedly to benefiting sentient beings. He was well versed in both the Mahayana and the Hinayana and was also thoroughly acquainted with the doctrines of non-Buddhist schools.

At that time, Empress Wu was propagating the Buddhadharma and revered the Mahayana. Because the divisions and assemblies in the old translation of the Avataṃsaka Sutra were incomplete, and because she had heard from afar that the kingdom of Khotan possessed a Sanskrit manuscript of the Avataṃsaka Sutra, Empress Wu dispatched envoys to request it and also invited Śikṣānanda to return with them to the capital.

In the Yihai year, the first year of the Zhengsheng era ⁽⁶⁹⁵⁾, the Master translated the Avataṃsaka Sutra at Biankong Monastery within the imperial compound of the Eastern Capital. Empress Wu personally came to the Dharma seat and, filled with inspiration, composed a preface and took up the brush herself to inscribe the titles of the chapters. At that time, the śramaṇa Bodhiruci of South India and the śramaṇa Yijing together read aloud the Sanskrit text. It was then handed to the śramaṇas Fu Li, Fazang, and others, who verified its meaning^[38] and polished the wording. In the Jihai year, the second year of the Shengli era ⁽⁶⁹⁹⁾, the translation of the Avataṃsaka Sutra was completed at Fo Shou Ji Monastery. This was the eighty-fascicle edition of the Avataṃsaka Sutra.

Thereafter, in the Gengzi year, the first year of the Jiushi era ⁽⁷⁰⁰⁾, the Master translated the Mahayana Laṅkāvatāra Sutra at Sanyang Palace, and translated the Mañjuśrī Prophecy Sutra and other works at Qingchan Monastery in the Western Capital and Fo Shou Ji Monastery in the Eastern Capital. Altogether, he translated nineteen works in 107 fascicles. The śramaṇas Bolun, Xuangui, and others recorded the translations; the śramaṇa Fu Li polished the wording; and the śramaṇas Fabao, Hengjing, and others verified the meaning. Jia Yingfu, Palace Attendant to the Crown Prince^[39], supervised the work.

In the fourth year of the Chang’an era ⁽⁷⁰⁴⁾, because his mother was elderly and frail, the Master submitted a memorial requesting permission to return to his native country to care for her. Only after his second request did the emperor grant permission and order the Censor Cui Siguang to escort the Master back to the kingdom of Khotan.

Later, when the Tang dynasty flourished and sought to revive the Buddhadharma, the emperor issued an edict inviting the Master to return. In the second year of Jinglong ⁽⁷⁰⁸⁾, the Master arrived at the capital, and the emperor humbled himself and personally welcomed him outside the Kaiyuan Gate. The Sangha of the capital came to receive him carrying banners and pennants, and they adorned a magnificent elephant for the Master to ride into the city. By imperial decree, the Master was lodged at the Great Jianfu Monastery^[40]. Regrettably, before he could begin translating the scriptures, the Master fell ill.

On the twelfth day of the tenth month in the first year of Jingyun ⁽⁷¹⁰⁾, the Master lay down in the auspicious posture^[41] and passed away at the Great Jianfu Monastery at the age of fifty-nine. The monks and nuns grieved, choking with sorrow, lamenting that this vessel of the Dharma^[42] had departed so soon. The people cried out in anguish, mourning that sentient beings had lost the teacher who showed them the way.

At that time, the emperor issued an edict permitting the Master to be interred according to the customs of Khotan. On the twelfth day of the eleventh month, the Master's body was cremated at the ancient Lamp-Lighting Terrace outside the Kaiyuan Gate. When the firewood was consumed and the flames had died out, his tongue remained intact. This was an auspicious sign of his propagation of the Dharma.

On the thirteenth day of the twelfth month, the Master's disciple Bei Zhi and others, together with the Tang envoy Geshu Daoyuan, conveyed his sacred remains and tongue back to Khotan, where they erected a stupa as an offering. Later generations also built a seven-story stupa at the cremation site and called it the Avatamsaka Tripitaka Master's Stupa.

4- SEPARATELY CIRCULATING TEXTS (Sections and assemblies extracted from the Avatamsaka Sutra and circulated independently):

] The Dousha Sutra, 1 fascicle (the Names Chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra), translated during the Later Han dynasty (that is, the Eastern Han, 25-220) by the monk Lokaksema (147-?), a native of the Yuezhi kingdom.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Fundamental Practices, 1 fascicle (also called the Sutra of the Pure Conduct Chapter; the Pure Conduct Chapter), translated during the Wu dynasty (222-280) by the monk^[43] Zhi Qian, a native of the Yuezhi kingdom.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattvas Seeking the Buddha's Fundamental Practices, 1 fascicle (also the Pure Conduct Chapter); and the Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Original Vows and Practices Chapter, 1 fascicle (also the Pure Conduct Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the layman Nie Daozhen.

The three sutras above were all extracted from the second assembly of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Ten Abodes, 1 fascicle (the Ten Abodes Chapter), translated during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420) by the Indian monk Gitamitra (rendered in Chinese phonetics as Hezhi).

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Ten Abodes, 1 fascicle (the Ten Abodes Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the monk Dharmaraksa.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Ten Paths and Grounds, 1 fascicle (corresponding to the Ten Abodes Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the layman Nie Daozhen.

] The Sutra of the Ten Abodes and the Severance of Bonds, 10 fascicles (neither the Ten Abodes Chapter nor the Ten Grounds Chapter), translated during the Later Qin dynasty (384-417) by the monk Zhu Fonian of Liangzhou.

The four sutras above were all extracted from the third assembly of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

] The Sutra of the Ten Grounds and the Severance of Bonds, 10 fascicles (the Ten Grounds Chapter), translated during the Later Qin dynasty (384-417) by the monk Zhu Fonian of Liangzhou.

] The Sutra of the Ten Abodes, 12 fascicles (the Ten Grounds Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the layman Nie Daozhen.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Ten Grounds, 1 fascicle (corresponding to the Ten Grounds and Ten Abodes chapters), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the monk Dharmaraksa.

] The Sutra of the Great and Vast Ten Grounds, 1 fascicle (corresponding to the Ten Grounds and Ten Abodes chapters), translated during the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534) by the Indian monk Gitaya.

] The Sutra of the Ten Grounds, 1 fascicle (corresponding to the Ten Grounds and Ten Abodes chapters), translated during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420) by the Indian monk Gitamitra (rendered in Chinese phonetics as Hezhi).

] The Sutra of the Ten Abodes, 4 fascicles (actually the Ten Grounds Chapter), translated during the Later Qin dynasty (384-417) by the monk Kumarajiva (344-413), a native of Kucha, and the Tripitaka Master Buddhayasas^[44] (translated into Chinese as Jue Ming), a native of Kashmir.

] The Sutra of the Gradual Perfection of the Virtues of Omniscience, 5 fascicles (actually the Ten Grounds Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the monk Dharmaraksa, a native of the Yuezhi kingdom.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's First Ground, 1 fascicle (corresponding to the section on the First Ground), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the layman Nie Daozhen.

The eight sutras above were all extracted from the sixth assembly of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva Samantanetra, 2 fascicles (the Ten Samadhis Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the monk Dharmaraksa.

] The Sutra Revealing the Merit and Virtue of the Boundless Buddha Lands, 1 fascicle (the Lifespan Chapter), translated during the Tang dynasty (618-907) by Tripitaka Dharma Master Xuanzang (602-664).

] The Sutra of the Tathagata's Arising and Manifestation, 4 fascicles (the prose section of the Nature's Arising Chapter, with the Ten Patiences Chapter appended afterward, though without its title being recorded), translated by the monk Dharmaraksa during the Yuankang era (291-299) of the Western Jin dynasty (265-317).

] The Sutra of the Tathagata's Arising and Manifestation, 1 fascicle (the chapter title is the same as in Venerable Dharmaraksa's translation, but the versions differ in their degree of detail and abbreviation), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the monk Bai Fazu.

] The Sutra of the Great and Vast Arising of the Tathagata's Nature, 2 fascicles (the introductory section is the Names Chapter, while the main discourse is the Nature's Arising Chapter); the translator's name has been lost.

] The Sutra of the Great and Vast Secret Treasury of the Arising of the Tathagata's Nature, 2 fascicles (corresponding to the preceding version but translated by a different person), translated during the Yuankang era (291-299) of the Western Jin dynasty (265-317); the translator is unknown.

The six sutras above were all extracted from the seventh assembly of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

] The Sutra of Deliverance from the World, 6 fascicles (the Transcending the World Chapter), translated during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317) by the monk Dharmaraksa.

] The Sutra of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra's Answers to Two Thousand Questions (the Transcending the World Chapter), translated during the Wu dynasty (222-280); the translator's name has been lost.

The two sutras above were both extracted from the eighth assembly of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

] The Ramaka Sutra, 3 fascicles (the Entering the Dharma Realm Chapter, though the text is incomplete), translated during the Western Qin dynasty (385-431) by the monk Shengjian (also called Master Jian). There is also a three-fascicle translation by the monk An Faxian from the Wei dynasty (220-265), and a one-fascicle translation by the monk Dharmaksema (385-433) from the Northern Liang dynasty (397-439).

The three translations above were all extracted from the ninth assembly of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

] The Sutra of Entering the Tathagata's Inconceivable Realm of the Great and Vast Avatamsaka, 2 fascicles (or with the three characters meaning “Great and Vast” omitted), translated during the Sui dynasty (581-618) by Tripitaka Master Jnanagupta (523-600) (translated into Chinese as Zhide), a native of northern India [or, according to another account, translated together with Venerable Dharmagupta (?-619)].

] The Sutra of the Wisdom Adornment of the Realms of All Buddhas, 1 fascicle, translated during the Liang dynasty (502-557) by the monk Sanghabhara (460-524) (translated into Chinese as Sengyang or Sengkai), a native of Funan.

] The Sutra of the Adornment by the Light of Wisdom of the Realms of All Buddhas, 1 fascicle; the translator's name has been lost.

] The Sutra of the Great and Vast Entry into the Tathagata's Inconceivable Realm, 2 fascicles, translated during the Great Zhou dynasty (690-705) by the monk Siksananda (652-710), a native of Khotan.

The four sutras above are versions of the same text translated by different persons, and were all taught by the Buddha in the Universal Radiance Dharma Hall.

Although the two Sutras of the Inconceivable Realm above are absent from the present version of the Avatamsaka Sutra, they are both complete in the Sanskrit text. They must therefore be chapters or assemblies of the Avatamsaka Sutra that circulated independently. Because the Sanskrit text does not record the sequence or titles of the chapters, they were not incorporated into the Great Avatamsaka collection.

] The Buddha-Realm Section of the Great and Vast Buddha Avatamsaka Sutra, 1 fascicle, translated in the Zaichu year ⁽⁶⁹⁰⁾ of the Great Zhou dynasty (690-705) by Tripitaka Master Devaprajna, a native of Khotan.

] The Sutra of the Great and Vast Buddha Realm, 1 fascicle, translated during the Great Zhou dynasty (690-705) by the monk Siksananda (652-710), a native of Khotan.

The two scriptures above are versions of the same text translated by different translators; they were spoken by the Buddha beneath the Bodhi tree.

] The Sutra of the Great and Vast Teaching Spoken by Samantabhadra, 1 fascicle (concerning the ineffable worlds within the Buddha’s body), translated during the Great Zhou dynasty (690–705) by the monk Śikṣānanda (652–710), a native of Khotan.

] The Cultivation of Loving-Kindness Section of the Great and Vast Buddha Avatamsaka Sutra, 1 fascicle, translated in the first year of Zai Chu ⁽⁶⁹⁰⁾ during the Great Zhou dynasty (690–705) by Tripitaka Master Devaprajñā, a native of Khotan.

] The Sutra of the Dharma Gate of Entering the Seal through the Power of Faith, 5 fascicles, translated during the Yuan Wei dynasty (also called the Northern Wei or Later Wei, 386–534) by Tripitaka Master Dharmaruci (whose name in Chinese means “Delight in the Dharma”), a native of southern India.

The ancient worthies traditionally held that this scripture was a separate chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra. Yet upon close examination of its wording and passages, nothing from beginning to end appears in any text belonging to the Avatamsaka corpus. More recently, examination of the Sanskrit manuscript likewise revealed no such chapter. It is hoped that later scholars will investigate this matter thoroughly.

] Extracts from the Avatamsaka Sutra, 15 fascicles^[45], compiled by Xiao Ziliang, Prince Wenxuan of Jingling, who held the office of Minister of Education during the Southern Qi dynasty (479–502).

The Prince of Jingling was endowed with innate gifts and devoted his mind to the realm of purity. His renown would endure for hundreds of millions of kalpas, and his virtue would tower supreme for a thousand years. The Prince held that the propagation of the scriptural teachings and the expansion of meritorious works both originate in the mind and are manifested through the body.

In the eighth year of Yongming ⁽⁴⁹⁰⁾, the Prince one day dreamed that Tathagata Devarāja^[46] came from the east and silently instructed him, whereupon the Prince composed the Dharma of Pure Abiding. The following day, the Prince again dreamed of a monk who called himself Wisdom Supreme. The monk led him before the Buddha and taught him to read and recite the scriptures; on this basis, the Method of Eulogistic Recitation was transmitted.

The Prince encouraged the worthy and talented members of the court to open the field of merit of the Three Assemblies beneath the Dragon-Flower Tree^[47], and exhorted scholars and common people to receive and uphold the bodhisattva’s threefold collection of pure precepts^[48]. Auspicious signs appeared in every case and were truly difficult to express in words. Moreover, when the Prince read the Avatamsaka Sutra, he recognized that it could assist emperors in governing and transforming the realm and could preserve the lifeblood of the Buddha-Dharma.

He had more than 300 fascicles of scriptures copied and composed more than 100 fascicles of treatises and commentaries for the universal benefit of all. The Prince personally copied more than seventy fascicles. Among these were the Avatamsaka Jeweled Garland Sutra, in 2 fascicles, which expounded the method of transcending the world, and the Avatamsaka Record of Qi, in 1 fascicle, which expounded the essential purport of the Dharma assembly. All these works could illuminate the path for later generations and prevent the sacred teaching from falling into oblivion.

] The Avatamsaka Sutra of the Ten Evils, 1 fascicle, was classified under the category of spurious works in the Record of the Three Jewels by the scholar Fei Changfang of the Sui dynasty. Fearing that later generations might mistakenly accept it as authentic, it is mentioned here.

5—EXEGETICAL TREATISES (Treatises on the Avatamsaka Sutra):

] Tripitaka Master Paramārtha said: According to a tradition in India, after Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna brought the Avatamsaka Sutra back from the Dragon Palace, he composed the Treatise on the Great Inconceivable, likewise comprising 100,000 verses, to explain it. Yet because the faculties of beings from earlier ages had not developed, they were unable to comprehend the treatise’s essential purport.

] The Treatise on the Ten Abodes: Vibhāṣā, 16 fascicles^[49], explaining the general meaning of the Chapter on the Ten Grounds, composed by Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna and translated during the Later Qin dynasty (384–417) by Dharma Master Kumārajīva (344–413), with Tripitaka Master Yaśas reciting the text. While this treatise was being translated, when they had proceeded slightly beyond the midpoint of the second ground, the Stainless Ground, Master Yaśas ceased reciting, and therefore the latter portion is missing. According to tradition, this treatise formed one part of the Treatise on the Great Inconceivable.

] The Treatise on the Ten Abodes, 10 fascicles, composed by Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna and translated by Dharma Master Kumārajīva (344–413) during the Hongshi era (399–415) of the Later Qin dynasty (384–417).

] The Treatise on the Ten Grounds, 12 fascicles, composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu (whose name in Chinese means “Kinsman of the Gods”). While dwelling in the mountains, the Master wrote a commentary on the Chapter on the Ten Grounds. The treatise was composed by recording each passage of the scripture and then explaining the passages in sequence. Just as he completed this treatise, the Master saw brilliant rays of light issue from the scripture, and the earth and mountains trembled. The king, ministers, and people of that country all came to congratulate him, praising it as an unprecedented auspicious sign, as recorded in full in his biography.

During the Later Wei dynasty (also called the Northern Wei, 386–584), Tripitaka Master Bodhiruci (whose name in Chinese means “Delight in Enlightenment”), a native of northern India, came to China and translated the Treatise on the Ten Grounds. On the first day that the Master translated the scripture, Emperor Xuanwu (500–516) personally came to record the translation.

It is further recorded: Tripitaka Master Ratnamati (whose name in Chinese means “Jewel-Mind”), a native of central India, came to China and, together with Master Bodhiruci, each translated a version of the Treatise on the Ten Grounds, one to the south and the other to the north of the Luo River (in Shaanxi Province, China). Subsequently, Huiguang (468–537), the Director of the Sangha, invited the two masters to collate the texts and compare the similarities and differences between the two translations, after which they combined them into a single version.

A separate biography records: Master Vasubandhu composed a Treatise on the Avatamsaka Sutra. However, no complete version existed in China. Perhaps this Treatise on the Ten Grounds was precisely the portion of that treatise obtained in the land of China, and therefore it was translated.

It is further recorded: Bodhisattva Asaṅga traveled to and from Tuṣita Heaven, where Bodhisattva Maitreya taught him the Avatamsaka Sutra and other scriptures. The subsequent widespread transmission of the scripture was also due to the Master’s efforts.

Recently, when Indian Tripitaka masters were asked about this Treatise on the Ten Grounds, they all said: Bodhisattva Vajrasena composed the Exegetical Treatise on the Ten Grounds, comprising 12,000 verses and amounting in translation to more than thirty fascicles. Bodhisattva Sāramati also composed an abridged commentary. Neither of these two texts has yet been transmitted to China. Manuscripts of them presently exist in the kingdom of Khotan. On the day Master Śikṣānanda returned, the emperor dispatched a messenger with a letter seeking them; if they were found, it was also intended that they be translated.

Moreover, the Chapter on the Abodes in the Bodhisattva-bhūmi section of the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise records in full the text of the Chapter on the Ten Grounds from the Avatamsaka Sutra and explains it sequentially. Because the teachings on the Three Worthies^[50] and Ten Sages^[51] in this scripture are exceedingly extensive, the treatises often cite and compare them; therefore, many authors composed commentaries upon them.

] The Treatise on the Avatamsaka, 600 fascicles, composed by Liu Qianzhi.

Long ago, in the first year of Taining^{[52] (561)} during the Northern Qi dynasty (550–577), the third prince of Emperor Wucheng (Gao Zhan, 561–565) immolated himself as an offering on Mount Qingliang^[53], praying for the empowering aid of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. The prince’s eunuch, named Liu Qianzhi, had often lamented that he was a useless man. When he saw the prince immolate himself in quest of the Dharma, he petitioned the emperor for permission to enter the mountains and cultivate the Way. The emperor issued an edict granting his request.

At that time, he brought with him a copy of the Avatamsaka Sutra. Day and night, he practiced diligently, performing prostrations of repentance and reading and reciting the scripture, single-mindedly and earnestly beseeching Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī for unseen protection. After twenty-one days in this manner, although his body had become thin and weak, his spirit remained lucid.

Suddenly, he saw that the hair at his temples had grown back fully, and he regained the features of a complete man. His mind became extraordinarily clear, and he penetrated the scripture’s profound and wondrous essential purport. From then on, he studied it meticulously and composed the Treatise on the Avatamsaka in a clearly organized system.

Later, when this matter was reported to the emperor, Gaozu (Emperor Wenxuan, Gao Yang, 550–560) became even more devout. From that time onward, the Avatamsaka Sutra circulated widely.

] Dharma Master Huiyuan (523–592) of Jingying Monastery^[54], during the Sui dynasty (581–618), did not begin composing the Commentary on the Avatamsaka Sutra until his later years. When he reached the Dedication of Merit Chapter, he suddenly felt a stabbing pain in his heart. Looking at his chest, the Master saw blood flowing from the pores over his heart. One day, he dreamed that he was holding a sickle and climbing a high mountain, cutting the grass in succession. When he had cut half of it, his strength failed, and he could no longer stand. Upon awakening, the Master told his disciples: “Last night, I saw an inauspicious omen. I fear that this Commentary on the Avatamsaka Sutra cannot be completed.” Therefore, he stopped at this chapter.

Dharma Master Xiu of Xiangzhou had listened to lectures on the Avatamsaka Sutra more than fifty times. Yet the more he read, recited, and pondered its meaning and principles, the more obscure they became. The Master then reflected: These are fundamentally the most profound and earnest teachings of the supremely holy ones; how could ordinary beings fathom them?

Clearly, these two worthies were learned men of profound and extensive knowledge, renowned both in ancient times and in their own day, with few who could equal them. They exerted themselves in studying the Avatamsaka Sutra, yet could not completely penetrate it. Liu Qianzhi, however, had read it for no more than a few weeks before he was able to annotate the Avatamsaka Treatise. How extraordinarily gifted he was! This must indeed have been a secret transmission from the Buddhas. Is it not wondrous?

The Bodhisattvas’ Dwelling Places Chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra states: “In the northeast is Mount Qingliang, a dwelling place of bodhisattvas, where Bodhisattva Manjushri^[55] constantly abides and expounds the Dharma to ten thousand bodhisattvas.” Thus, today, at the foot of this mountain is Qingliang Cave. On the small peak to the south of Mount Qingliang stands Qingliang Monastery^[56].

Mount Qingliang is also called Mount Wutai, the Five Terraces, because its five peaks soar aloft, while their summits are devoid of forests and resemble raised earthen terraces; hence the name Wutai. The mountain’s circumference exceeds four hundred li. To the east, it adjoins Mount Heng^[57].

On the Central Terrace is the Great Flower Pond. Its waters are clear and still, and the vapors rising from it manifest many miraculous signs. There are also a monastery and a stone stupa there.

On the Northern Terrace are two jeweled stupas enshrining relics of the Buddha and an image of Bodhisattva Manjushri. More than thirty li southeast of the Central Terrace stands Dafu Monastery^[58], founded by Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty (58–76)^[59]. After many years, the monastery fell into ruin, and only the foundations of the entire complex remained.

Within it, however, the Eastern Hall, the Western Hall^[60], and sacred images still survive. In front of the monastery is a flower garden covering about two or three qing^[61]. Blossoms of every hue intermingle there—hundreds of varieties with thousands of names—brilliant as embroidered brocade and crimson as the evening clouds, magnificent beyond measure.

Some are rare and marvelous flowers seldom heard of in the world. On the full-moon day of the seventh month, they vie with one another in bursting into bloom, displaying myriad colors and forms. About eight or nine li north of Mount Wutai is the place where, in former times, a prince relinquished his body in quest of the Dharma; a stupa still stands there today.

During the Northern Qi dynasty (550–577), a great many monasteries were constructed. There were more than two hundred monasteries on Mount Wutai, and the imperial court allocated tax revenues from eight prefectures, including Hengzhou and Dingzhou, to provide the Sangha with the four requisites, such as robes and medicine. This Buddhist holy site remains to the present day.

The Separate Account records: Because Bodhisattva Manjushri constantly expounded the Avatamsaka Sutra here, from ancient times through the Tang dynasty, Indian monks, undeterred by journeys of ten thousand li, came here on pilgrimage. Chinese monastics and laypeople likewise arrived in great numbers. At times, they encountered divine monks and assemblies of holy beings; at other times, they saw celestial pavilions and jeweled terraces, radiant lights, and fragrant aromas filling the air. Sometimes they heard bells ringing; at other times, verses echoed from afar. The melodies rose and fell, undergoing countless transformations in but an instant. These matters are recorded in full in the Record of Mount Qingliang.

Mount Wutai lies within Daizhou, approximately 1,600 li from the capital. It is a frontier region and exceedingly cold. Thus, from the eighth month until the third month of the following year, ice and snow lie frozen solid, covering everything in a blanket of white. Unless it is the middle of summer, one cannot set foot there.

O you who earnestly cherish the Way, how could you not journey there at least once?

] The Avatamsaka Treatise in one hundred fascicles was composed by the shramana Shi Lingbian during the Later Wei dynasty (386–534) in China.

The Master was a native of Jinyang in Taiyuan. He had planted wholesome causes in previous lives and had long cultivated roots of virtue. Thus, while still young, he entered the path early; upon growing older, he resolved to leave the mundane world. He constantly read and recited the Mahayana scriptures and devoted his attention to the bodhisattva practices. When he came to read the Avatamsaka Sutra, his reverence and admiration increased all the more. He therefore placed the sutra upon his head and journeyed to Qingliang Monastery on Mount Qingliang, praying that Bodhisattva Manjushri would compassionately receive and guide him and reveal the meaning and principles of the scripture. From then on, the Master carried the sutra upon his head while practicing walking meditation.

After a year, the soles of his feet became gravely injured and streamed with blood. Gradually, all the flesh wore away, exposing the bones. The Master then had to walk upon his knees while earnestly imploring Bodhisattva Manjushri for a hidden response. At that time, he heard someone say: “You should cease walking meditation and instead concentrate your mind upon contemplating this sutra.” The Master then opened the sutra and read it, whereupon his mind immediately became radiant with understanding.

In the first year of Xiping ⁽⁵¹⁶⁾ under the Later Wei dynasty, also called the Northern Wei (386–534), in the first month of the Bingshen year, the Master began composing the Avatamsaka Treatise at Qingliang Monastery, explaining the meaning of its passages and thoroughly penetrating its profound and subtle depths. At the beginning of the second year of Xiping ⁽⁵¹⁷⁾, he went to reside at Songyan Monastery on Mount Xuandui and continued annotating the scripture as before.

At that time, Empress Dowager Ling of the Hu clan, during the reign of Emperor Xiaoming (516–528), greatly honored the Way and respected the Sangha, and therefore invited the Master into the palace. Pleading illness, he declined. Since she had not yet been able to meet him, at the beginning of summer the Empress Dowager again issued an edict earnestly inviting him.

This time, the Master could not refuse. On the sixteenth day, he arrived at the Eastern Bai Hall. Before long, he moved to the Shiqian Hall, and afterward resided in the Huiyin Hall, where he composed the treatise without rest.

In the summer of the first year of Shengui ⁽⁵¹⁸⁾, the emperor issued an edict: “The propagation of the True Dharma awaits a worthy person. Dharma Master Lingbian, who is now composing a treatise in the Huiyin Hall, is a man of lofty virtue and profound, extensive understanding, whose fame has long spread throughout the realm. Dharma Master Lingbian should therefore be invited to the Xuanguang Hall to lecture on the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra.” At that time, the fourfold assembly^[62] rejoiced, and people from the ten directions welcomed him.

When the lectures were concluded, the emperor ordered the Palace Attendant, Grand Preceptor, and Prince of Qinghe, Yuan Yi, to escort the Master back to the Shiqian Hall, where he continued composing the treatise as before. In summer, he lectured on the Avatamsaka Sutra; in winter, he lectured on the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra. During the remaining time, the Master and his disciple Lingyuan devoted themselves to composing the treatise, to the point of forgetting food and sleep.

In the ninth month, in the autumn of the third year of Shengui ⁽⁵²⁰⁾, the composition was completed, comprising one hundred fascicles in ten cases. Later, it was compiled and revised many times. The Master’s voice of Dharma was thereafter no longer heard, for he ceased lecturing on the scriptures, withdrew into seclusion, and concentrated upon cultivation and contemplation.

On the eighth day of the first month in the third year of Zhengguang ⁽⁵²²⁾, the Master entered nirvana at Rongjue Monastery, having lived for forty-six years. At that time, Emperor Xiaoming (516–528) decreed: “This Avatamsaka Treatise was composed by a bodhisattva of China. It should therefore be incorporated into the Canon of All Scriptures, the Tripitaka, entered into its catalogue, and circulated widely.”

The Master’s disciples—Daochang, Lingyuan, Tanxian, and others—lamented that their teacher had departed so soon and grieved that this precious work might be lost. Together with accomplished lay devotees, they reverently prepared a clean copy so that it might be transmitted everywhere.

Although this treatise flourished in the region of Fen and Jin^[63], it had not yet been transmitted to the capital. Therefore, the eminent and virtuous masters of Chang’an often longed to obtain it.

In the second year of Yongchun ⁽⁶⁸³⁾, the śramaṇa Shi Tongxian of Zhixiang Monastery^[64] and a lay practitioner residing in the Xuanshuang quarters of Xuande Monastery were both studying the Avatamsaka Sutra and revered it wholeheartedly. They therefore became companions and journeyed together to Mount Qingliang to pay homage to Bodhisattva Manjusri. On that occasion, when they reached Tongzi Monastery^[65] in Bingzhou, they encountered this treatise. After earnestly imploring that it be bestowed upon them, they received its transmission. As soon as they brought it back to the capital, the sovereign and officials were all astonished, and immediately ordered copies to be made for its dissemination.

Notes:

^[8] Cloud body: A metaphor for the Buddha’s body pervading immeasurable, innumerable, and boundless reaches; or a metaphor for manifesting various skandha-bodies as numerous as clouds to shelter sentient beings. It also symbolizes the honored ones, who are as numerous as clouds. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5152).

^[9] Vairocana Buddha: The chapter “Locana Buddha” in fascicle 2 of the Avatamsaka Sutra (old translation) states that Vairocana Buddha cultivated merit for immeasurable kalpas before attaining Perfect Enlightenment. Dwelling in the Lotus Treasury World, he emits brilliant light that illuminates the ten directions. From his pores appear clouds of transformation bodies that expound immeasurable and boundless sutras. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4402).

^[10] Samantabhadra: The Avatamsaka Sutra groups Manjusri and Samantabhadra together with Vairocana Buddha as the Three Sages of the Avatamsaka. Vairocana Buddha, complete in both Principle and Wisdom, occupies the central position; Bodhisattva Manjusri, representing Wisdom, stands to the left; and Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, representing Principle, stands to the right. According to Chengguan’s Contemplative Gateway of the Perfect Interfusion of the Three Sages, among these three sages, the two sages standing on either side represent the Cause, while the Buddha in the center represents the Fruit.

Yet the merits of this Cause and Fruit transcend language and thought. One must therefore awaken to them through the two causes of Principle and Wisdom. If one realizes the profound meaning of these two causes, one will understand the profundity of the Buddha-fruit. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol.

II, pp. 1852–1853, entry “The Three Sages of the Avatamsaka”).

^[11] Dharani: The power of wisdom that gathers and retains the immeasurable Buddha-Dharma, preventing it from being forgotten or lost. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1194).

^[12] Original and Trace: According to the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Original is the fundamental essence, while the Trace is the expedient manifestation. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 299).

^[13] Place: The place where the Buddha expounded the Avatamsaka doctrine was beneath the Bodhi tree in the Lotus Treasury Ocean-World, adorned with the seven precious substances; it therefore encompasses all places. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1853, entry “The Ten Distinctions of the Avatamsaka”).

^[14] Fourteen days: The Avatamsaka doctrine was taught by the World-Honored One during fourteen days in the initial period, just as, when the sun first rises, its light initially shines upon the lofty mountains. Moreover, this initial period encompasses all periods, without distinctions of before, middle, or after. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1853, entry “The Ten Distinctions of the Avatamsaka”).

^[15] Nine assemblies: The nine Dharma assemblies, referring to the assemblies at which the Buddha expounded the Avatamsaka Sutra. The Avatamsaka Sutra (new translation) collectively calls them the Seven Places and Nine Assemblies, while the old translation calls them the Seven Places and Eight Assemblies. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 824).

^[16] Ten directions: East, west, south, north, southeast, southwest, northeast, northwest, above, and below. Buddhism teaches that the ten directions contain innumerable worlds and pure lands, called the worlds of the ten directions, the Dharma-realms of the ten directions, the pure lands of the ten directions, and the realms of the ten directions. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5297).

^[17] Ten times: Each of the three times—past, present, and future—contains three times, making nine times in all. These nine times interpenetrate as a single time, together constituting the ten times. The first fascicle of Questions and Answers on the Avatamsaka Sutra, based on the continuity of a single lifetime, teaches the ten times, as when one was an animal in the past, is a human being in the present, and will become a Buddha in the future… (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5316).

^[18] Bhiksu Sagaramegha: The second of the fifty-three spiritual friends whom the youth Sudhana visited and questioned, as recorded in the “Entry into the Dharma Realm” chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra. This bhiksu dwelt in the land of Sagara-mukha and often went to the seashore to contemplate the dependent origination of the great ocean and the Dharma of the Supreme Person, which adorned and spread throughout that ocean like clouds. He was therefore named Sagaramegha, “Ocean Cloud,” based on the object of his contemplation. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1756).

^[19] Mount Sumeru: Originally a mountain in Indian mythology, it was adopted into Buddhism and regarded as a lofty mountain towering at the very center of a small world-system. Centered upon this mountain, eight ranges of mountains and eight oceans surround it, forming a world—the Sumeru world. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4614).

^[20] Tripitaka Master: Also called a Dharma Master of the Tripitaka, a Dharma Master thoroughly versed in the three baskets of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4170).

^[21] Kaihuang Record of the Three Treasures: Also called the Record of the Three Treasures Throughout Successive Dynasties, the Kaihuang Record, the Record of the Three Treasures, or the Changfang Record. Comprising fifteen fascicles, it was compiled by Fei Changfang in 597 during the Sui dynasty in China and is included in volume 49 of the Taisho Tripitaka. Its contents describe the propagation of the Dharma from the introduction of Buddhism into China through the Sui dynasty and provide a catalogue of scriptures translated into Chinese. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2429).

^[22] Li: 500 meters.

^[23] Zhi Faling: An eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty and was a disciple of Master Huiyuan of Mount Lu. In 392, he and Master Fajing traveled to the Western Regions in search of the Dharma. Upon reaching the kingdom of Khotan, the two obtained 36,000 verses of the Avatamsaka Sutra… The Avatamsaka Sutra that he brought back was translated by Buddhabhadra in 418 at Daochang Monastery in Yangzhou. This is the sixty-fascicle Avatamsaka Sutra (old translation) known today. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 898).

^[24] In 690, Empress Wu (Wu Zetian) proclaimed herself emperor and changed the name of the state to Zhou.

^[25] Daochang Monastery: Located in Jiankang, China—present-day Nanjing—it was founded in 323 by the Minister of Works Xie Shi. By the end of the Eastern Jin dynasty, this monastery and Mount Lu were both centers of Buddhism in southern China. Between 405 and 419, many eminent monks came to this monastery to translate scriptures. Buddhabhadra translated the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Mahavaipulya Tathagatagarbha Sutra, the Mahasamghika Bhiksu Pratimoksa, and the Sutra of Manjusri’s Vow. More than one hundred śramaṇas, including Faye and Huiyan, also participated in the translation of the Avatamsaka Sutra. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1439).

^[26] Fascicle 2 of the Biographies of Eminent Monks records the age as five.

^[27] Full Ordination Precepts: The complete precepts that bhikshus and bhikshunis must receive and uphold. According to the prescribed disciplinary code, one who receives and upholds the Full Ordination Precepts formally attains the status of a bhikshu or bhikshuni. The bhikshu precepts number 250, while the bhikshuni precepts number 348...

The Full Ordination Precepts set forth only the principal rules of discipline, enabling those who uphold them to thereby distance themselves from wrongdoing and perfect their wisdom and virtue. If considered in terms of the actual number of precepts, however, they are truly immeasurable and boundless; one must diligently cultivate and uphold them under all circumstances, maintaining what is wholesome and abandoning what is unwholesome. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol.

I, p. 780).

^[28] Tushita: The fourth of the six heavens of the Desire Realm, measuring eighty thousand yojanas across. It is situated between the Yama Heaven and the Heaven of Delight in Transformation, sixteen thousand yojanas from the Yama Heaven... This heaven has two courts: 1. The Inner Court of Tushita: The dwelling place of the bodhisattva destined to become the next Buddha (the bodhisattva in the position of succession); it is now the Pure Land of Bodhisattva Maitreya; 2. The Outer Court of Tushita: Part of the Desire Realm, it is inhabited by heavenly beings who enjoy abundant sensual pleasures but seldom hear the Dharma. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, pp. 1474–1475).

^[29] Non-returner: Also called an anagamin or one who does not return, the third noble fruition among the four fruits of the shravaka path. Such a person has completely eliminated the nine grades of the delusions of thought in the Desire Realm and will no longer be reborn there. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 46, entry “Anagamin”).

^[30] Buddha the Great Sage: An eminent monk from Kashmir in northern India who lived in the fifth century. He was a master of the Sarvastivada school and later became a transmitter and custodian of the meditation teachings... When young, Buddhabhadra studied under this master. During his studies in India, the Chinese monk Zhiyan also traveled to Kashmir and entered the Mathyantara Monastery to study meditation under him. Three years later, after completing his studies, Zhiyan returned to China together with Buddhabhadra... (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3606).

^[31] Kumarajiva (344–413): An eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty, a native of Kucha, and one of the four great translators of Buddhist scriptures. His parents were virtuous people who both later renounced the household life to follow Buddhism. Intelligent from childhood, at the age of seven he asked his mother for permission to enter the Buddhist path.

He later traveled to India and studied extensively under renowned masters. Erudite and possessed of a prodigious memory, his excellent reputation spread throughout the five regions of India. Upon returning to his homeland, he was honored by the king as his teacher...

In 401, after Emperor Yao Xing defeated the Lü clan, Kumarajiva was brought to Chang’an. Emperor Yao Xing honored him as National Preceptor and had him reside in Xiaoyao Garden, where he devoted himself to translating scriptures with the assistance of Sengzhao and Sengyan. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, pp. 804–805).

^[32] Yao Qin: Also called the Later Qin (384–417).

^[33] Weiguo Western Monastery: A monastery in Chang’an, Shaanxi Province, China. Initially, an emperor of the Tang dynasty constructed five monasteries in Yangzhou, Jingnan, Taiyuan, the Western Capital, and the Eastern Capital to commemorate and repay the places where the dynasty had first arisen, naming all five monasteries after the Taiyuan reign title. In 670, the Taiyuan Monastery in the Western Capital was converted from a former residence by Palace Attendant Yang Gongren, Duke of Guan, a relative on the maternal side of Empress Wu Zetian.

After several renovations, it was renamed Weiguo Western Monastery. In 690, it was renamed Chongfu Monastery. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5033, entry “Taiyuan Monastery”; vol.

IV, p. 3995, entry “Chongfu Monastery”).

^[34] Great Virtuous One: A term of reverence in India for a Buddha, bodhisattva, or eminent monk. In China, the term “Great Virtuous One” was used respectfully to address eminent monks. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, however, those engaged in translation work were particularly designated Great Virtuous Ones. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 2141).

^[35] Dragon-elephant: Originally referring to the mightiest elephants among all elephants, this term is used metaphorically for a person of great ability and power. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2489).

^[36] Dharma Master Xianshou (643–712): Namely, Fazang. An eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Tang dynasty, he was the third patriarch of the Huayan school. His style name was Xianshou, and his title was Dharma Master Guoyi; he was also known as Great Master Xiangxiang and National Preceptor Kangzang. His family name was Kang, and his ancestors were from Kangju. By his grandfather’s generation, the entire family had moved to Chang’an. In his youth, he attended upon Zhiyan, heard lectures on the Avatamsaka Sutra, and deeply penetrated its subtle and profound tenets... According to him, the Huayan teaching was supreme, and Huayan philosophy realized an ideal world within the actual world itself. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, pp. 3543–3544).

^[37] Weiguo Eastern Monastery: At the beginning of the Tang dynasty, Taiyuan monasteries were established in Chang’an, Luoyang, Taiyuan, Jingzhou, and Yangzhou. The Taiyuan Monastery in Luoyang, the Eastern Capital, was successively renamed Weiguo Eastern Monastery and Great Zhou Eastern Monastery, and was later called Great Fuxian Monastery... Within the monastery stood the Stele of the Sacred Teaching of Fuxian Monastery, whose inscription was composed by Empress Wu. Later, because the Luo River overflowed, the monastery had to be moved northward. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5033).

^[38] Verifier of Meaning: An office responsible for reviewing the wording and meaning of Sanskrit texts in a translation bureau. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 1014).

^[39] Zhongshe: The name of an official post. According to the Third Collection of Rongzhai Essays, before the system for appointing officials was changed, a newly appointed court official who had passed the civil service examinations was called a Crown Prince’s Zhongyun, while one who had not passed them was called a Crown Prince’s Zhongshe; both are now collectively called Zhilang. Later, Confucian scholars perhaps failed to understand this distinction clearly and referred to a Secretariat Drafter as a Zhongshe. (According to Ciyuan).

^[40] Great Jianfu Monastery: A monastery south of the city of Xi’an, in Chang’an County, Shaanxi Province, China. It was constructed by imperial decree of Wu Zetian in 684 to pray for blessings for Emperor Gaozong. It was initially named Great Xianfu Monastery. In 690, it was renovated and renamed as it is known today. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1317).

^[41] Lying in the auspicious posture: Lying on the right side, with the right foot placed atop the left.

^[42] Dharma vessel: A person capable of cultivating the Buddha’s path.

^[43] The original text reads “shramana and pure-faith layman”: Here, only the word “shramana” has been retained. According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 896, Zhi Qian was a renowned Chinese monk, a native of the Yuezhi region, who traveled to China and translated scriptures; he lived toward the end of the third century during the Three Kingdoms period...

^[44] Tripitaka Master Buddhayashas was the teacher of Kumarajiva. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3604).

^[45] The Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3921, records fourteen fascicles.

^[46] Tathagata Heavenly King: The title that the bhikshu Devadatta will bear when he attains enlightenment in a future age. Alternatively, it is the name of Buddhas who appeared in worldly forms in past ages. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5506).

^[47] The Three Dragon Flower Assemblies: The three Dharma assemblies at which Buddha Maitreya will teach beneath the Dragon Flower tree. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2476).

^[48] The Bodhisattva’s Three Collections of Precepts: The three collections of precepts of a Mahayana bodhisattva. “Collection” means category or class. Because these three collections of precepts are undefiled and pure, encompass all Mahayana precepts, and are perfectly integrated and unobstructed, they are called the Three Collections of Pure Precepts or the Three Collections of Perfect Precepts. The Three Collections of Pure Precepts comprise: the collection of precepts that embraces moral discipline, the collection of precepts that embraces wholesome dharmas, and the collection of precepts that embraces sentient beings. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. V, pp. 4182–4183).

^[49] The Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. VI, p. 5330, records seventeen fascicles.

^[50] The Three Worthies: Bodhisattvas at the stages of the Ten Abodes, Ten Practices, and Ten Dedications of Merit. They have severed only the delusions of views and the delusions of thought, while the delusions as numerous as dust and sand and the delusions of ignorance still remain. They have not yet entered the sacred stages of the Ten Bhūmis, and therefore are called only the Three Worthies, or bodhisattvas prior to the bhūmis.

a- The Ten Abodes: The second group of ten stages among the fifty-two stages of a bodhisattva’s cultivation. Because their faith has become firm, bodhisattvas can abide in the state of Buddhahood. Moreover, because they arouse the great mind and advance toward the wondrous path, these are also called the Ten Arousals of Progress. The Ten Abodes comprise: the Abode of Arousing the Mind, the Abode of Cultivating the Ground, the Abode of Cultivation, the Abode of Noble Birth, the Abode of Perfect Skillful Means, the Abode of the Right Mind, the Abode of Non-Retrogression, the Abode of the True Youth, the Abode of the Dharma Prince, and the Abode of Consecration.

b- The Ten Practices: The third group of ten stages among the fifty-two stages of a bodhisattva’s cultivation. Having passed through the Ten Faiths and Ten Abodes, bodhisattvas have become children of the Buddha and have perfected the benefit of self; they must then nurture and develop practices that benefit others. Therefore, these stages are called the Ten Practices, also known as the Ten Nurturing Stages. The Ten Practices comprise: the Practice of Joy, the Practice of Benefiting, the Practice Free from Anger and Resentment, the Inexhaustible Practice, the Practice Free from Delusion and Confusion, the Practice of Skillful Manifestation, the Practice of Non-Attachment, the Practice of Reverence, the Practice of Wholesome Dharma, and the Practice of Truthfulness.

(The Ten Faiths: The first ten stages among the fifty-two stages of a bodhisattva’s cultivation. Because those who enter the ocean of the Buddha-Dharma and cultivate immeasurable Dharma gates must take faith as foremost, the Ten Faiths are: the Mind of Faith, the Mind of Mindfulness, the Mind of Diligence, the Mind of Wisdom, the Mind of Samadhi, the Mind of Non-Retrogression, the Mind of Protecting the Dharma, the Mind of Dedication, the Mind of Precepts, and the Mind of Vows.)

c- The Ten Dedications of Merit: The fourth group of ten stages among the fifty-two stages of a bodhisattva’s cultivation. Because bodhisattvas employ the mind of great compassion to rescue and protect all sentient beings, these stages are called Dedications of Merit. During the preceding stages of the Ten Abodes and Ten Practices, the mind intent on transcending the mundane is abundant, while the mind of great compassion is less developed.

Upon reaching these stages, bodhisattvas use the power of vows born of great compassion to rescue and protect beings, remain in the mundane world to benefit sentient beings, and dedicate these wholesome practices to the myriad kinds of beings. The Ten Dedications of Merit comprise: the Dedication of Rescuing and Protecting All Sentient Beings While Transcending the Characteristics of Sentient Beings, the Indestructible Dedication, the Dedication Equal to All Buddhas, the Dedication Reaching All Places, the Dedication of the Treasury of Inexhaustible Merit, the Dedication Conforming to Equal Roots of Goodness, the Dedication Conforming to the Impartial Contemplation of All Sentient Beings, the Dedication with the Characteristic of Suchness,

the Dedication of Unbound and Unattached Liberation, and the Immeasurable Dedication Equal to the Dharma Realm.

(According to Commonly Encountered Buddhist Terms 佛學常見詞彙, 2001, pp. 43–45, 66–67).

^[51] The Ten Sages: Mahayana bodhisattvas from the First Bhūmi through the Tenth Bhūmi, also called bodhisattvas who have entered the bhūmis. The Ten Bhūmis constitute the fifth group of ten stages among the fifty-two stages of a bodhisattva’s cultivation. At these stages, bodhisattvas gradually open the Buddha-eye and attain omniscience concerning all particular aspects. The Ten Bhūmis comprise: the Bhūmi of Joy, the Bhūmi Free from Defilement, the Luminous Bhūmi, the Bhūmi of Blazing Wisdom, the Bhūmi Difficult to Conquer, the Bhūmi of Manifest Presence, the Far-Going Bhūmi, the Immovable Bhūmi, the Bhūmi of Excellent Wisdom, and the Dharma-Cloud Bhūmi. (According to Commonly Encountered Buddhist Terms, pp. 43, 45).

^[52] The original text reads Taihe 大和. However, an examination of historical works shows that during the Northern Qi dynasty (550–577), only the Taining 太寧 era name ⁽⁵⁶¹⁾ is found; there was no Taihe era.

^[53] Mount Qingliang: Another name for Mount Wutai in Shanxi Province, China. This mountain remains frozen throughout the year, with snow falling even in summer. Because its climate is not hot, it is called Qingliang, “Clear and Cool.” (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. VI, p. 5062).

^[54] Jingying Monastery: A monastery in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China, founded by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty (Yang Jian, 581–605). After the Sui dynasty unified the country, it accorded Buddhism special veneration. At that time, Master Huiyuan guided more than two hundred student monks in propagating the Buddha-Dharma at Daxingshan Monastery in Chang’an.

Because Daxingshan Monastery was small and confined, Jingying Monastery had to be built in addition ⁽⁵⁸⁷⁾. Master Huiyuan resided there, lecturing on the Nirvana Sutra and the Treatise on the Ten Bhūmis, and his teaching activity flourished greatly. He also received an imperial command to participate in translation and to review and correct the wording and meaning of translated texts.

He later passed away at this monastery. To distinguish him from Huiyuan of Mount Lu, people called him Huiyuan of Jingying. Subsequently, the monastery became a residence for student monks belonging to the Nirvana doctrinal tradition who were disciples of Master Huiyuan.

During the Tang dynasty, Master Amoghavajra returned to China from Sri Lanka, resided at this monastery, and translated sutras. The monastery now lies in ruins. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. V, pp. 4491–4492).

^[55] Mañjuśrī: A bodhisattva who represents wisdom and one of the most important bodhisattvas in Buddhism. According to the Chinese Buddhist tradition, Mañjuśrī was personally entrusted by Śākyamuni Buddha with the propagation of the Buddha-Dharma on Mount Wutai. (According to Chân Nguyên and Nguyễn Tường Bách, Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, Thuận Hóa Publishing House, 1999, p. 482).

^[56] Qingliang Monastery: Located within Qingliang Cave on the Central Terrace of Mount Wutai, Shanxi Province, China, it was founded by Emperor Xiaowen (471–499) during the Northern Wei dynasty.... The Record of a Pilgrimage to the Tang in Search of the Dharma states that Qingliang Monastery was the first monastery built on Mount Wutai. Ordinarily, however, Dafu Monastery on the Central Terrace is regarded as the first monastery constructed there. Qingliang Monastery now lies in ruins; only Qingliang Rock and the Thousand-Buddha Stupa remain. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. VI, p. 5062).

^[57] Mount Heng: One of the Five Sacred Peaks: the Eastern Peak, Mount Tai (Tai’an, Shandong); the Southern Peak, Mount Heng (Hengshan, Hunan); the Western Peak, Mount Hua (Huayin, Shaanxi); the Northern Peak, Mount Heng (Datong, Shanxi); and the Central Peak, Mount Song (Dengfeng, Henan). During the reign of Emperor Yao, there were only the Four Sacred Peaks. Later, the Central Peak was added, forming the Five Sacred Peaks. From ancient times to the present, the Five Sacred Peaks have been among the earliest dwelling places of Buddhist monks and Daoist practitioners. For example, during the Former Qin dynasty, Master Dao’an entered Mount Heng and established monasteries and stupas there.... (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. III, p. 2985).

^[58] Dafu Monastery: See the note on “Qingliang Monastery.”

^[59] The Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. III, p. 2949, contains the following passage: After Emperor Wen of the Northern Wei dynasty in China toured Cuiyan Peak, he founded the Great Stupa Vulture Peak Monastery.

^[60] Eastern Hall and Western Hall: The former abbot of a monastery is called the Eastern Hall or Eastern Hermitage. An abbot from another monastery who comes to reside at the monastery in question is called the Western Hall or Western Hermitage. Thus, the Eastern Hall refers to the residence of the former abbot, while the Western Hall refers to the residence of an abbot who has come from another monastery. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, vol. II, p. 1571; vol. V, p. 4363).

^[61] Qing: A field measuring one hundred Chinese mu, approximately 6.667 hectares.

^[62] The four assemblies: bhikshus, bhikshunis, upasakas, and upasikas.

^[63] Fen of Jin: The Fen River in Shanxi Province, China.

^[64] Zhixiang Monastery on Mount Zhongnan in Chang’an, Shaanxi, China, was founded by Master Qingyuan at the beginning of the Sui dynasty… Later, Master Zhiyan came to this monastery to study the Avatamsaka Sutra under Masters Falin and Zhizheng, and became the Second Patriarch of the Huayan school in China. He was known to the world as Great Master Zhixiang. As a result, this monastery became renowned. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 904).

^[65] Tongzi Monastery is situated on Mount Longshan, twenty li from Taiyuan, Shanxi, China. It was built by Chan Master Hongli in 556. According to tradition, two young boys saw that a rock on this mountain resembled the Buddha, so they carved it into a fifty-seven-meter-high image; hence the name Tongzi… The monastery was destroyed by warfare in 1117. It was restored in 1522, but the buildings within it and the stone-carved Buddha image had been lost. In front of the monastery stands a stone lamp tower, hexagonal in shape, with five stories and a height of more than four meters. This is the oldest surviving lamp tower in China. (According to the Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, pp. 1597–1598).