大般若波羅蜜多經

02

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are the images appearing in a mirror truly existent, such that, relying upon them, one could create karma and either fall into the hells, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Exercise Power over the Creations of Others in the Desire Realm, be born among the gods of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Heaven of Ultimate Form in the Form Realm, or be born in the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the Formless Realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! The images appearing in a mirror are utterly devoid of true existence and merely bewilder naive children. How could anyone rely upon them to create various kinds of karma and then, through the karma created, either fall into an evil destiny or be born among gods or humans?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Do those images truly cultivate the path and, by relying upon that cultivation of the path, become free from defilement and attain purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, the images in a mirror are utterly devoid of true existence. They are neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity by relying upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are there any dharmas—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that are not like images appearing in a mirror?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no dharma—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that is not like an image appearing in a mirror.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are the echoes arising from a deep valley truly existent, such that, relying upon them, one could create karma and then, through the karma created, either fall into the hells, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Exercise Power over the Creations of Others in the Desire Realm; be born among the gods of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Heaven of Ultimate Form in the Form Realm; or be born in the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the Formless Realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! The echoes arising from a deep valley are utterly devoid of true existence and merely bewilder those who are hard of hearing. How could anyone rely upon them to create various kinds of karma and then, through the karma created, either fall into an evil destiny or be born among gods or humans?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Do those echoes truly cultivate the path and then, by relying upon that cultivation of the path, become free from defilement and attain purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, the echoes in a deep valley are utterly devoid of true existence. They are neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity by relying upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are there any dharmas—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that are not like echoes arising from a deep valley?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no dharma—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that is not like an echo arising from a deep valley.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Is the appearance of water seen in a mirage truly existent, such that, relying upon it, one could create karma and, through the karma created, either fall into the hells, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Exercise Power over the Creations of Others in the Desire Realm, be born among the gods of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Heaven of Ultimate Form in the Form Realm, or be born in the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the Formless Realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! The water appearing in a mirage is utterly devoid of true existence and merely bewilders those with dim vision. How could anyone rely upon it to create various kinds of karma and then, through the karma created, either fall into an evil destiny or be born among gods or humans?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Does the water in a mirage truly cultivate the path and then, by relying upon that cultivation of the path, become free from defilement and attain purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, the water in a mirage is utterly devoid of true existence. It is neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity by relying upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are there any dharmas—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that are not like water appearing in a mirage?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no dharma—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that is not like water appearing in a mirage.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are the forms appearing amid light and shadow truly existent, such that, relying upon them, one could create karma and then, through the karma created, either fall into the hells, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Exercise Power over the Creations of Others in the Desire Realm, be born among the gods of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Heaven of Ultimate Form in the Form Realm, or be born in the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the Formless Realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! The forms appearing in light and shadow are utterly devoid of true existence and merely bewilder the blind. How could anyone rely upon them to create various kinds of karma and then, through the karma created, either fall into an evil destiny or be born among humans or gods?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Do the forms amid light and shadow truly cultivate the path and then, by relying upon that cultivation of the path, become free from defilement and attain purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, the forms amid light and shadow are utterly devoid of true existence. They are neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity by relying upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are there any dharmas—whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned—that are not like forms appearing amid light and shadow?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no phenomenon, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that is not like an image appearing in a luminous reflection.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? A magician conjures the four divisions of an army—elephants, cavalry, chariots, and infantry—and other kinds of illusions. Do these illusory elephants and the like truly exist, such that they can serve as a basis for creating karma and, through the karma thus created, fall into hell, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods from the Heaven of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Enjoy Others’ Creations in the desire realm, be born among the gods from the Heaven of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Akanishtha Heaven in the form realm, or be born among the gods from the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the formless realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Those illusory elephants, horses, and the like have no real existence whatsoever. They merely deceive foolish children; how could they serve as a basis for creating karma and, through the karma thus created, cause one either to fall into an evil realm or to be born among gods or humans?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Is there any genuine cultivation of the path within an illusion, and, through reliance upon that cultivation of the path, any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, those illusory elephants, horses, and the like have no real existence whatsoever. They are neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity through reliance upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Is there any phenomenon, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that is not like the elephants and the like in an illusion?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no phenomenon, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that is not like the elephants and the like in an illusion.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? The Buddha has manifested magically created bodies. Do these magically created bodies truly exist, such that they can serve as a basis for creating karma and, through the karma thus created, fall into hell, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods from the Heaven of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Enjoy Others’ Creations in the desire realm, be born among the gods from the Heaven of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Akanishtha Heaven in the form realm, or be born among the gods from the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the formless realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Magically created bodies have no real existence whatsoever. How, then, could they serve as a basis for creating various kinds of karma and, through the karma thus created, either fall into an evil realm or be born among gods or humans?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Is there genuine cultivation of the path by a magically created body, and, through reliance upon that cultivation of the path, any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, magically created bodies have no real existence whatsoever. They are neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity through reliance upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Is there any phenomenon, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that is not like a magically created body?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no phenomenon, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that is not like a magically created body.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Do the various things appearing within a phantom city truly exist, such that they can serve as a basis for creating karma and, through the karma thus created, fall into hell, fall into the animal realm, fall into the realm of hungry ghosts, be born in the human realm, be born among the gods from the Heaven of the Four Great Kings up to the Heaven of Those Who Enjoy Others’ Creations in the desire realm, be born among the gods from the Heaven of Brahma’s Assembly up to the Akanishtha Heaven in the form realm, or be born among the gods from the Sphere of Infinite Space up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception in the formless realm?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! The various things appearing within a phantom city have no real existence whatsoever. How, then, could they serve as a basis for creating various kinds of karma and, through the karma thus created, either fall into an evil realm or be born among gods or humans?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Is there genuine cultivation of the path by the various things within a phantom city, and, through reliance upon that cultivation of the path, any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Why is this? World-Honored One, the various things appearing within a phantom city have no real existence whatsoever. They are neither that which designates nor that which is designated. Even the cultivation of the path does not exist, much less any freedom from defilement and attainment of purity through reliance upon such cultivation of the path.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Are there any phenomena, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that are not like the various things appearing within a phantom city?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! There is certainly no phenomenon, whether mundane or supramundane, contaminated or uncontaminated, conditioned or unconditioned, that is not like the various things appearing within a phantom city.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, what do you think? Do defilement and purity truly exist?

Subhuti replied:

– No, World-Honored One! No, Well-Gone One! Within these, defilement and purity have no real existence whatsoever.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti, just as defilement and purity truly have no existence, so too the causes and conditions of defilement and purity do not truly exist. Why is this? Subhuti, because various kinds of sentient beings abide in attachment to self and what belongs to self, they falsely discriminate defilement and purity. It is not that those who see reality truly perceive defilement and purity; those who see reality know that defilement and purity do not exist. Thus, there is neither defilement nor purity.

LXXV. CHAPTER ON THE YOGA OF ULTIMATE TRUTH

01

At that time, the Venerable Subhuti said to the Buddha:

– World-Honored One, those who see reality are neither defiled nor purified, and those who do not see reality are likewise neither defiled nor purified. Why is this? Because all phenomena take the absence of intrinsic nature as their intrinsic nature.

World-Honored One, phenomena without intrinsic nature are neither defiled nor purified; phenomena possessing intrinsic nature are also neither defiled nor purified. Phenomena both without and possessing intrinsic nature are likewise neither defiled nor purified.

World-Honored One, phenomena without self-nature are neither defiled nor purified; phenomena possessing self-nature are also neither defiled nor purified; and phenomena both without and possessing self-nature are likewise neither defiled nor purified. This is because all phenomena take the absence of intrinsic nature as their intrinsic nature.

“Blessed One! If that is so, why does the Buddha sometimes speak of purified dharmas?”

The Buddha said:

– “Subhuti! I teach that the equality-nature of all dharmas is the purified Dharma.”

– “Blessed One! What is the equality-nature of all dharmas?”

– “Subhuti! The suchness of all dharmas, the dharma realm, dharma-nature, the nature free from falsity, the unchanging nature, the equality-nature, the nature free from arising, the fixed order of dharmas, the abiding order of dharmas, the ultimate reality, the realm of space, and the inconceivable realm—whether a Tathagata appears in the world or does not appear in the world, the nature and characteristics of these ever abide. This is called the equality-nature of all dharmas. This equality-nature is called the purified Dharma. Yet it is only conventionally that it is spoken of as purified; this is not said from the standpoint of ultimate truth. Why? Because within ultimate truth there is no discrimination and no conceptual proliferation; all paths of sounds, names, and words are utterly cut off.”

The Venerable Subhuti addressed the Buddha:

– “Blessed One! If all dharmas are like things seen in a dream, like reflected images, echoes, mirages, shadows cast by light, magical illusions, magically created bodies, and cities of the gandharvas—appearing as though they existed while not truly existing—why does a great bodhisattva, relying upon such unreal dharmas, generate the aspiration to seek unsurpassed perfect awakening and make this vow: ‘I shall perfect the paramita of generosity; I shall perfect the paramitas of pure ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, prajnaparamita, skillful means, sublime vows, power, and wisdom. I shall perfect the four meditative absorptions; I shall perfect the four immeasurables and the four formless attainments. I shall perfect the four foundations of mindfulness; I shall perfect the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the Noble Eightfold Path. I shall perfect the liberation gateway of emptiness; I shall perfect the liberation gateways of signlessness and wishlessness. I shall perfect the eight liberations; I shall perfect the eight spheres of mastery, the nine successive meditative attainments, and the ten totalities. I shall perfect internal emptiness; I shall perfect external emptiness, internal-and-external emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, the emptiness of ultimate truth, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of the unchanging, the emptiness of intrinsic nature, the emptiness of individual characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unapprehensible, the emptiness of nonexistence, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the self-nature of nonexistence. I shall perfect suchness; I shall perfect the dharma realm, dharma-nature, the nature free from falsity, the unchanging nature, the equality-nature, the nature free from arising, the fixed order of dharmas, the abiding order of dharmas, the ultimate reality, the realm of space, and the inconceivable realm. I shall perfect the Noble Truth of suffering; I shall perfect the Noble Truths of the origin of suffering, cessation, and the path. I shall perfect all dharani gateways; I shall perfect all samadhi gateways. I shall perfect the Stage of Great Joy; I shall perfect the Stage of Stainlessness, the Stage of Luminousness, the Stage of Radiant Wisdom, the Stage Difficult to Conquer, the Stage of Manifest Presence, the Stage of Far-Reaching, the Stage of Immovability, the Stage of Excellent Wisdom, and the Stage of the Dharma Cloud. I shall perfect the five kinds of eyes; I shall perfect the six superknowledges. I shall perfect the ten powers of a Buddha; I shall perfect the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed understandings, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great sympathetic joy, great equanimity, and the eighteen distinctive qualities of a Buddha. I shall perfect the dharani of eloquence. I shall perfect the Dharma of never forgetting; I shall perfect the nature of perpetual equanimity. I shall perfect the wisdom of all things; I shall perfect the wisdom of the aspects of the path and the wisdom of all aspects. I shall perfect the thirty-two marks of a Great Being; I shall perfect the eighty subsidiary characteristics. I shall emit immeasurable light that universally illuminates boundless worlds throughout the ten directions. I shall produce a single kind of sublime sound that pervades boundless worlds throughout the ten directions and, in accordance with the differing minds, mental factors, and inclinations of sentient beings, teach them various sublime Dharma gateways, causing them to cultivate and train diligently and attain supreme benefit and happiness’?”

The Buddha said:

– “Subhuti! What do you think? Are not all the things of which you have spoken like things seen in a dream, like reflected images, echoes, mirages, shadows cast by light, magical illusions, magically created bodies, and cities of the gandharvas?”

Subhuti replied:

– “So it is, Blessed One! So it is, Sugata! Blessed One! If all dharmas are like things seen in a dream and, as extensively stated above, up to and including cities of the gandharvas, and none truly exists, why does a great bodhisattva, while practicing prajnaparamita, make this firm declaration: ‘I shall perfect all qualities of merit that bring benefit and happiness to immeasurable sentient beings’?

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream, up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice the paramitas of generosity, pure ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, prajnaparamita, skillful means, sublime vows, power, and wisdom, much less perfect them. All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream, up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice the four meditative absorptions, the four immeasurables, and the four formless attainments, much less perfect them. All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream ... up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the Noble Eightfold Path, much less perfect them. All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream ... up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice the liberation gateways of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness, much less perfect them. All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream ... up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice the eight liberations, the eight spheres of mastery, the nine successive meditative attainments, and the ten totalities, much less perfect them. All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream ... up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice internal emptiness, external emptiness, internal-and-external emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, the emptiness of ultimate truth, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of the unchanging, the emptiness of intrinsic nature, the emptiness of individual characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unapprehensible, the emptiness of nonexistence, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the self-nature of nonexistence, much less perfect them.

All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.

“Blessed One! Things seen in a dream ... up to and including the various things appearing within a city of the gandharvas, cannot practice suchness, the dharma realm, dharma-nature, the nature free from falsity, the unchanging nature, the equality-nature, the nature free from arising, the fixed order of dharmas, the abiding order of dharmas, the ultimate reality, the realm of space, and the inconceivable realm, much less perfect them. All other dharmas are likewise; none is real.”

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the noble truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate all dharani gateways and all samadhi gateways, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the Ground of Extreme Joy, the Ground Free from Defilement, the Luminous Ground, the Ground of Blazing Wisdom, the Ground Difficult to Conquer, the Ground of Direct Presence, the Far-Going Ground, the Immovable Ground, the Ground of Excellent Wisdom, and the Ground of the Dharma Cloud, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the five kinds of eyes and the six superknowledges, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the ten powers of a Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed understandings, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great sympathetic joy, great equanimity, and the eighteen unique qualities of a Buddha, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the dharani of eloquence, much less bring it to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the Dharma of non-forgetfulness and the nature of perpetual relinquishment, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the knowledge of all things, the knowledge of the aspects of the paths, and the knowledge of all aspects, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot cultivate the thirty-two marks of a Great Being and the eighty subsidiary characteristics, much less bring them to perfection. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

Blessed One! Things seen in dreams ... up to and including the various objects appearing in an illusory city cannot accomplish all deeds in accordance with one's aspirations. All other dharmas are likewise and are not real.

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti! So it is! So it is! It is exactly as you have said. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the paramitas of generosity, pure morality, patient acceptance, diligence, meditation, prajnaparamita, skillful means, sublime aspiration, power, and knowledge, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the four meditative absorptions, the four immeasurables, and the four formless attainments, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the Noble Eightfold Path, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the gateways to liberation of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the eight liberations, the eight spheres of mastery, the nine successive attainments, and the ten totalities, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, emptiness of ultimate meaning, emptiness of the conditioned, emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, boundless emptiness, emptiness of dispersion, emptiness of non-change, emptiness of intrinsic nature, emptiness of individual characteristics, emptiness of common characteristics, emptiness of all dharmas, emptiness of the ungraspable, emptiness of nonexistence, emptiness of self-nature, and emptiness of the self-nature of nonexistence, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate suchness, the dharma-dhatu, the nature of dharmas, the nature free from falsity, the unchanging nature, the nature of equality, the nature of freedom from arising, the certainty of Dharma, the abiding of Dharma, the true limit, the realm of space, and the inconceivable realm, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the noble truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate all dharani gateways and all samadhi gateways, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the Ground of Extreme Joy, the Ground Free from Defilement, the Luminous Ground, the Ground of Blazing Wisdom, the Ground Difficult to Conquer, the Ground of Direct Presence, the Far-Going Ground, the Immovable Ground, the Ground of Excellent Wisdom, and the Ground of the Dharma Cloud, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the five kinds of eyes and the six superknowledges, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the ten powers of a Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed understandings, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great sympathetic joy, great equanimity, and the eighteen unique qualities of a Buddha, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the dharani of eloquence, much less bring it to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the Dharma of non-forgetfulness and the nature of perpetual relinquishment, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the knowledge of all things, the knowledge of the aspects of the paths, and the knowledge of all aspects, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot even cultivate the thirty-two marks of a Great Being and the eighty subsidiary characteristics, much less bring them to perfection. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot accomplish deeds in accordance with one's aspirations. Dharmas that are not truly existent cannot realize the sought-after fruit of unsurpassed awakening.

Furthermore, Subhuti! Because the perfection of generosity, pure morality, patient endurance, diligence, meditative concentration, prajna, skillful means, sublime vows, powers, and wisdom have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the four foundations of mindfulness, four right efforts, four bases of supernatural power, five faculties, five powers, seven factors of awakening, and Noble Eightfold Path have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained.

Because inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of nonchange, the emptiness of intrinsic nature, the emptiness of individual characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unapprehensible, the emptiness of nonexistence, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the nonexistence of self-nature have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained.

Because the Noble Truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the four meditative absorptions, four immeasurables, and four formless attainments have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the eight liberations, eight spheres of mastery, nine successive meditative attainments, and ten spheres of totality have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained.

Because all dharani gateways and all samadhi gateways have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the gateways to liberation of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the Ground of Great Joy, Ground Free from Defilement, Luminous Ground, Ground of Blazing Wisdom, Ground Most Difficult to Conquer, Ground of Direct Presence, Far-Going Ground, Immovable Ground, Ground of Excellent Wisdom, and Ground of the Dharma Cloud have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained.

Because the five kinds of eyes and six superknowledges have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the ten powers of a Buddha, four fearlessnesses, four unobstructed knowledges, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great sympathetic joy, great equanimity, and eighteen distinctive qualities of a Buddha have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained.

Because the Dharma of nonforgetfulness and the nature of perpetual equanimity have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained. Because the knowledge of all things, knowledge of the aspects of the paths, and knowledge of all aspects have no true existence, the supreme awakening that is sought cannot be attained.

Subhuti! All such dharmas are constructions of thought, and no dharma constructed by thought can attain the knowledge of all-knowing wisdom.

Furthermore, Subhuti! Although such dharmas can lead one toward the path of awakening, they cannot contribute to its fruition. Because these dharmas are unborn, unarisen, and devoid of any true characteristic, great bodhisattvas, from the moment they first arouse the aspiration for awakening, may perform wholesome actions of body, speech, and mind: they may cultivate the perfections of generosity, pure morality, patient endurance, diligence, meditative concentration, and prajna; they may cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness, four right efforts, four bases of supernatural power, five faculties, five powers, seven factors of awakening, and Noble Eightfold Path;

they may abide in inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of nonchange, the emptiness of intrinsic nature, the emptiness of individual characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unapprehensible, the emptiness of nonexistence, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the nonexistence of self-nature; they may abide in the Noble Truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path;

they may cultivate the four meditative absorptions, four immeasurables, and four formless attainments; they may cultivate the eight liberations, eight spheres of mastery, nine successive meditative attainments, and ten spheres of totality; they may cultivate all dharani gateways and samadhi gateways; they may cultivate the gateways to liberation of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness; they may cultivate the Ground of Great Joy, Ground Free from Defilement, Luminous Ground, Ground of Blazing Wisdom, Ground Most Difficult to Conquer, Ground of Direct Presence, Far-Going Ground, Immovable Ground, Ground of Excellent Wisdom, and Ground of the Dharma Cloud; they may cultivate the five kinds of eyes and six superknowledges;

they may cultivate the ten powers of a Buddha, four fearlessnesses, four unobstructed knowledges, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great sympathetic joy, great equanimity, and eighteen distinctive qualities of a Buddha; they may cultivate the Dharma of nonforgetfulness and the nature of perpetual equanimity; or they may cultivate the knowledge of all things, knowledge of the aspects of the paths, and knowledge of all aspects.

Yet they know that all these are like things seen in a dream, like reflections, echoes, mirages, images of light, magical illusions, magically created bodies, and illusory cities, and that none of them truly exist.

Furthermore, Subhuti! Although such dharmas do not truly exist, if they are not perfected, one will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. If great bodhisattvas do not perfect the prajnaparamitas of generosity, pure ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of supernatural power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, absolute emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of nonchange, the emptiness of essential nature, the emptiness of intrinsic characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unobtainable, the emptiness of nonbeing, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the self-nature of nonbeing, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect the Noble Truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment; if they do not perfect the four meditative absorptions, the four immeasurables, and the four formless attainments, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment; if they do not perfect the eight liberations, the eight spheres of mastery, the nine successive attainments, and the ten spheres of totality, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect all dharani gateways and all samadhi gateways, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment; if they do not perfect the gateways to liberation of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect the Ground of Great Joy, the Ground of Stainlessness, the Ground of Radiance, the Ground of Blazing Wisdom, the Ground Difficult to Conquer, the Ground of Manifest Presence, the Far-Going Ground, the Immovable Ground, the Ground of Excellent Wisdom, and the Ground of the Dharma Cloud, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment; if they do not perfect the five kinds of eyes and the six superknowledges, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect the ten powers of a Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great sympathetic joy, great equanimity, and the eighteen unique qualities of a Buddha, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment; if they do not perfect the thirty-two marks of a Great Being and the eighty subsidiary characteristics, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment;

if they do not perfect the Dharma of never forgetting and the nature of constant equanimity, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment; if they do not perfect the knowledge of all things, the knowledge of the aspects of the paths, and the knowledge of all aspects, they will certainly be unable to mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, or attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment.

Furthermore, Subhuti! When that great bodhisattva practices prajnaparamita, whatever wholesome dharmas they cultivate, they know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream, like reflected images, like echoes, like a mirage, like shadows cast by light, like illusions, like magically created bodies, and like illusory cities. That is, if they cultivate the prajnaparamitas of generosity, pure ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities;

if they cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of supernatural power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities;

if they abide in inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, absolute emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of nonchange, the emptiness of essential nature, the emptiness of intrinsic characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unobtainable, the emptiness of nonbeing, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the self-nature of nonbeing, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities;

if they abide in the Noble Truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate the four meditative absorptions, the four immeasurables, and the four formless attainments, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate the eight liberations, the eight spheres of mastery, the nine successive attainments, and the ten spheres of totality, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate all dharani gateways and all samadhi gateways, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities;

if they cultivate the gateways to liberation of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate the Ground of Great Joy, the Ground of Stainlessness, the Ground of Radiance, the Ground of Blazing Wisdom, the Ground Difficult to Conquer, the Ground of Manifest Presence, the Far-Going Ground, the Immovable Ground, the Ground of Excellent Wisdom, and the Ground of the Dharma Cloud, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate the five kinds of eyes and the six superknowledges, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities;

if they cultivate the ten powers of a Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, and the eighteen unique qualities of a Buddha, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate the thirty-two marks of a Great Being and the eighty subsidiary characteristics, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they cultivate the Dharma of never forgetting and the nature of constant equanimity, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities;

if they cultivate the knowledge of all things, the knowledge of the aspects of the paths, and the knowledge of all aspects, they can know them as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities; if they mature sentient beings, purify Buddha-fields, and seek to attain unsurpassed perfect enlightenment, they can know these as they truly are: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities.

They also know, as they truly are, the differing mental activities of the various kinds of sentient beings: like things seen in a dream ... up to like illusory cities.

Furthermore, Subhuti! When that great bodhisattva practices prajnaparamita, with regard to all dharmas he does not apprehend them as existent, nor does he apprehend them as nonexistent. If, through such apprehension, he attains the knowledge of all aspects, he also knows that those dharmas are like things seen in a dream, like images, like echoes, like mirages, like reflections of light, like illusions, like magically transformed bodies, and like illusory cities; he does not apprehend them as existent, nor does he apprehend them as nonexistent.

Why? Because the perfection of generosity cannot be apprehended, and the perfections of ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and prajnaparamita likewise cannot be apprehended; because the four foundations of mindfulness cannot be apprehended, and the four right efforts, four bases of miraculous power, five faculties, five powers, seven factors of awakening, and eightfold noble path likewise cannot be apprehended;

because internal emptiness cannot be apprehended, and external emptiness, internal-and-external emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, absolute emptiness, boundless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersion, the emptiness of nonchange, the emptiness of intrinsic nature, the emptiness of individual characteristics, the emptiness of common characteristics, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unapprehensible, the emptiness of nonbeing, the emptiness of self-nature, and the emptiness of the self-nature of nonbeing likewise cannot be apprehended;

because the noble truth of suffering cannot be apprehended, and the noble truths of the origin, cessation, and path cannot be apprehended; because the four meditative concentrations cannot be apprehended, and the four immeasurables and four formless absorptions cannot be apprehended; because the eight liberations cannot be apprehended, and the eight spheres of mastery, nine successive absorptions, and ten totalities likewise cannot be apprehended; because all dharani gateways cannot be apprehended, and all samadhi gateways cannot be apprehended; because the gateway of liberation through emptiness cannot be apprehended, and the gateways of liberation through signlessness and wishlessness likewise cannot be apprehended;

because the Ground of Supreme Joy cannot be apprehended, and the Grounds of Stainlessness, Luminosity, Blazing Wisdom, Utterly Difficult to Conquer, Manifest Presence, Far-Reaching, Immovability, Excellent Wisdom, and Dharma Cloud likewise cannot be apprehended; because the five kinds of eyes cannot be apprehended, and the six superknowledges likewise cannot be apprehended; because the ten powers of a Buddha cannot be apprehended, and the four fearlessnesses, four unobstructed understandings, great loving-kindness, great compassion, great empathetic joy, great equanimity, and eighteen distinctive qualities of a Buddha likewise cannot be apprehended; because the quality of never forgetting cannot be apprehended, and the nature of perpetual equanimity likewise cannot be apprehended;

because the knowledge of all things cannot be apprehended, and the knowledge of the aspects of the path and the knowledge of all aspects likewise cannot be apprehended; because worldly dharmas cannot be apprehended, and supramundane dharmas likewise cannot be apprehended; because contaminated dharmas cannot be apprehended, and uncontaminated dharmas likewise cannot be apprehended; because conditioned dharmas cannot be apprehended, and unconditioned dharmas likewise cannot be apprehended.

Having known that all dharmas cannot be apprehended, that great bodhisattva seeks unsurpassed perfect awakening. Why? Because all dharmas are entirely unapprehensible and utterly devoid of reality, like things seen in a dream, like images, like echoes, like mirages, like reflections of light, like illusions, like magically transformed bodies, and like illusory cities.

They are unapprehensible dharmas, and no unapprehensible dharma can be attained; yet sentient beings neither know nor see dharmas in this way. In order to liberate sentient beings, that great bodhisattva therefore seeks unsurpassed perfect awakening.

Furthermore, Subhuti! From the time that great bodhisattva first arouses the aspiration, he practices the perfection of generosity for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose; he practices the perfection of ethical discipline for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose; he practices the perfection of patience for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose; he practices the perfection of diligence for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose; he practices the perfection of meditative concentration for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose;

he practices prajnaparamita for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose; and he seeks unsurpassed perfect awakening for the welfare and benefit of sentient beings, not for himself and not for any other purpose.

Furthermore, Subhuti! When that great bodhisattva practices prajnaparamita, he sees foolish ordinary beings conceiving a self where there is no self; and where there is no sentient being, life continuum, living principle, nurtured being, growing being, transmigrating entity, mind-born being, youth, agent, one who causes action, creator of karma, one who causes karma to be created, experiencer of karmic results, one who causes karmic results to be experienced, knower, one who causes knowing, seer, or one who causes seeing, they conceive and cling to a sentient being and so forth, up to one who causes seeing.

Having seen this, that great bodhisattva feels immense compassion and, through skillful means, teaches and transforms them, causing them to abandon inverted views, deluded conceptions, and attachments, and establishes them in the signless realm of the deathless. Abiding in that realm, they no longer give rise to the conception of a self, up to the conception of one who causes seeing. At that time, all restlessness, distraction, conceptual proliferation, and discrimination cease to operate, and their minds dwell for the most part in a tranquil realm, serene and free from conceptual proliferation.

Subhuti! By these skillful means, that great bodhisattva practices prajnaparamita, himself remaining unattached to all dharmas and also being able to teach others to remain unattached to all dharmas. This is stated in reliance upon conventional truth, not with reference to ultimate truth.

At that time, the Venerable Subhuti said to the Buddha:

– Blessed One! When the Buddha attained unsurpassed perfect awakening, was it in reliance upon conventional truth or in reliance upon ultimate truth that the Buddha was said to have attained the Buddha-dharmas?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti! When the Buddha attained unsurpassed perfect awakening, it was in reliance upon conventional truth that he was said to have attained the Buddha-dharmas, not in reliance upon ultimate truth. If there were attainment with reference to ultimate truth, then that which was attained would be utterly unapprehensible. Why? Subhuti! If it is said that this person attains such a dharma, there is something attained. Where there is something attained, there is adherence to duality; where there is adherence to duality, no fruition can be attained, nor can there be direct realization.

The Venerable Subhuti again said to the Buddha:

– Blessed One! If those who adhere to duality cannot attain fruition and cannot have direct realization, can those who do not adhere to duality attain fruition and have direct realization?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti! Those who adhere to duality cannot attain fruition and cannot have direct realization, but adherence to nonduality is likewise the same. When there is neither duality nor nonduality, that is called attaining fruition and is also called direct realization. Why? Subhuti! Because adherence to that through which fruition can be attained and direct realization can occur, and adherence to that through which fruition cannot be attained and direct realization cannot occur, are both conceptual proliferations. Within the equality of all dharmas, there is no such conceptual proliferation. Only freedom from conceptual proliferation can be called the equality of dharmas.

The Venerable Subhuti again said to the Buddha:

– Blessed One! If all dharmas take the absence of intrinsic nature as their own nature, then what therein is called the equality of dharmas?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti! If in that state there is absolutely no nature, nor any absence of nature, and it cannot be said to be equality of nature, then it is called the equality of the nature of dharmas.

Subhuti! You should know that the equality of the nature of dharmas is inexpressible and unknowable. Apart from equality of nature, no dharma can be apprehended; apart from all dharmas, there is no equality of nature.

Subhuti! You should know that neither ordinary beings nor noble ones can practice the equality of nature, because it is not within their sphere.

The Venerable Subhuti again addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One! Is the equality of the nature of dharmas then not within the sphere of practice of a Buddha either?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti! The equality of the nature of dharmas is not within the sphere of practice of any noble sage. Whether one who practices in accordance with faith, one who practices in accordance with the Dharma, one at the eighth stage, a stream-enterer, a once-returner, a non-returner, an arhat, a pratyekabuddha, a great bodhisattva, or any Tathagata, Arhat, Perfectly and Fully Awakened One—none can take the equality of the nature of dharmas as a sphere of practice.

The Venerable Subhuti again addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One! All Tathagatas, Arhats, Perfectly and Fully Awakened Ones have mastery over all dharmas. How, then, can it be said that the equality of the nature of dharmas is not within the sphere of practice of the Buddhas either?

The Buddha said:

– Subhuti! Although all Tathagatas, Arhats, Perfectly and Fully Awakened Ones have mastery over all dharmas, if equality of nature were different from a Buddha, it could be said to be within a Buddha’s sphere of practice. But equality of nature is not different from a Buddha; how, then, could it be said that a Buddha practices within that sphere?

Subhuti! You should know that whether it is the equality of the nature of dharmas of ordinary beings, the equality of the nature of dharmas of those who practice in accordance with faith, the equality of the nature of dharmas of those who practice in accordance with the Dharma, the equality of the nature of dharmas of those at the eighth stage, the equality of the nature of dharmas of stream-enterers, the equality of the nature of dharmas of once-returners, the equality of the nature of dharmas of non-returners, the equality of the nature of dharmas of arhats, the equality of the nature of dharmas of pratyekabuddhas, the equality of the nature of dharmas of great bodhisattvas, or the equality of the nature of dharmas of the Tathagatas, Arhats,

Perfectly and Fully Awakened Ones—all such equalities of the nature of dharmas have one and the same characteristic: namely, no characteristic.

They are one equality, without duality or difference. Therefore, it cannot be said: ‘This is the equality of the nature of dharmas of ordinary beings,’ and so forth, up to, ‘This is the equality of the nature of dharmas of the Tathagatas, Arhats, Perfectly and Fully Awakened Ones.’ Within this single equality of the nature of dharmas, the various equalities cannot be apprehended; nor can the distinguishing characteristics of ordinary beings and noble ones be apprehended therein.

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