阿毘達磨俱舍論

Part 23

The two gateways leading into the path of cultivation have been explained above. After attaining concentration through these two gateways, what should the practitioner cultivate next?

The stanza answers:

[Relying on the guidance through which concentration is cultivated,

One cultivates insight by means of the establishments of mindfulness.

By their specific and common characteristics,

One contemplates body, feeling, mind, and dharmas.

The establishment of mindfulness in its intrinsic nature is wisdom born of hearing, and so forth;

The others are the associated establishment of mindfulness and the establishment of mindfulness as object.

Their order is the order in which they arise,

And because they counteract the erroneous views, there are only four kinds.]

Treatise: After attaining concentration (samādhi, śamatha), the practitioner cultivates the establishments of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthānas) in order to attain insight (vipaśyanā).

(Question) How are the establishments of mindfulness cultivated?

(Answer) They are cultivated by contemplating the specific characteristics (svalakṣaṇa) and common characteristics (sāmānyalakṣaṇa) of the body, feelings, mind, and dharmas.

A specific characteristic is precisely a thing’s own intrinsic nature (svabhāva).

The common characteristics are that “all conditioned dharmas (saṃskṛta) are impermanent; all contaminated dharmas (sāsrava) are suffering; and all dharmas are empty (śūnya) and without self (anātmaka).”

The intrinsic nature of the body consists of the primary elements and the material dharmas (rūpa) produced from those primary elements (derived matter).

The term “dharmas” denotes those dharmas that are not body, feeling, or mind (Vibhāṣā, 187, 2).

According to tradition, the establishment of mindfulness of the body (kāyasmṛtyupasthāna) is cultivated when a practitioner who has attained concentration (samāhita) contemplates the atoms and successive moments (kṣaṇa) within the body.

(Question) What is the essence of the establishments of mindfulness?

(Answer) There are three kinds: the establishment of mindfulness in its intrinsic nature (svabhāvasmṛtyupasthāna), the associated establishment of mindfulness (saṃsargasmṛtyupasthāna), and the establishment of mindfulness as object (ālambanasmṛtyupasthāna).

The establishment of mindfulness in its intrinsic nature is wisdom (prajñā).

(Question) What kind of wisdom is this?

(Answer) It is wisdom arising from hearing (śrutamayī), reflection (cintāmayī), and meditative cultivation (bhāvanāmayī). Accordingly, the establishments of mindfulness are also of three kinds: those accomplished through hearing, those accomplished through reflection, and those accomplished through cultivation.

The associated establishment of mindfulness consists of other dharmas: dharmas that are not wisdom itself but are associated with wisdom.

When these dharmas are objects of wisdom and dharmas that arise together with wisdom—in other words, when they are the objects of the establishment of mindfulness in its intrinsic nature and the associated establishment of mindfulness—they constitute the establishment of mindfulness as object.

(Question) How is it known that the establishment of mindfulness in its intrinsic nature is wisdom?

(Answer) Because the sutra (Madhyama, 20) says: “Successively contemplating the body in the body is called the establishment of mindfulness of the body.”

(Question) What is successive contemplation (anupaśyanā)?

(Answer) It is wisdom. Indeed, when wisdom is spoken of, it implies that those who possess wisdom become persons who engage in successive contemplation (anupaśya). The expression “one who successively contemplates the body” (kāyānupaśyin) is explained as follows: One who has accomplished “successive contemplation” or “seeing” (darśana) is called a “successive contemplator”; one who successively contemplates the body is called “one who successively contemplates the body.”

(Question) Why is wisdom called an establishment of mindfulness?

(Answer) The Vibhāṣā masters say: “It is because of the preeminent function (udrekatva, abhikatva) of mindfulness (smṛti), [namely, its ability to disclose the object to wisdom]; it is like the assistance rendered by a wedge (kīla) in splitting wood. It is precisely through the power of mindfulness that wisdom can operate with regard to its object.”

However, the following explanation is the most reasonable: Mindfulness is employed (upatiṣṭhāte) by wisdom; therefore, wisdom itself is the establishment of mindfulness, meaning that it causes mindfulness to stand firmly (smṛter upasthānam). Indeed, in whatever manner an object (artha) is seen by wisdom, it is also “expressed” (abhilapyate) in that manner—that is, it is apprehended by mindfulness in that manner. Therefore, the Venerable Aniruddha (Āyuṣmān Aniruddha) said: “If one dwells constantly contemplating the body in the body (kāyekāyanupaśyī viharati), then this mindfulness whose object is the body becomes established” (Saṃyutta, v. 294).

The Blessed One also said: “If one dwells contemplating the body in the body, mindfulness is established (upaṣṭhita) and does not fail (asaṃmuṣta)” (Saṃyutta, v. 331).

(Objection) But the sutra says: “Monks, how do the arising (samudaya) and dissolution of the establishments of mindfulness occur? Through the arising of nutriment comes the arising of the body; through the dissolution of nutriment comes the dissolution of the body. Through the arising of contact comes the arising of feeling…; through the arising of name-and-form (nāmarūpa)…; through the arising of attention (manasikāra)….” (Saṃyukta, 20, 4). Thus, the establishments of mindfulness are the body, and so forth.

(Reply) In this sutra, the establishment of mindfulness being discussed is not the establishment of mindfulness in its intrinsic nature but the establishment of mindfulness as object: because mindfulness is firmly fixed there, it is called an establishment of mindfulness. The different names derive from their objects (kāyasmṛtyupasthānam = kāyaḥ smṛtyupasthānam).

Each establishment of mindfulness is of three kinds, according to whether the object contemplated is oneself, another, or both oneself and another. [The practitioner contemplates one’s own body, another’s body, and so forth.]

The order of the establishments of mindfulness is the order in which they arise.

(Question) Why do they arise in this order?

(Answer) According to the Vibhāṣā, it is because what is grosser and more evident is seen first. Alternatively, it is because the body (1) is the basis of sensual desire (kāmarāga), which originates in craving for feeling (2); this craving exists because the mind (3) is not disciplined; and the mind is not disciplined because the afflictions (4) have not yet been abandoned.

In this order, the establishments of mindfulness are set forth to counteract the four erroneous views (viparyāsa): belief in purity, pleasure, permanence, and self.

Therefore, there are only four establishments of mindfulness, neither more nor fewer.

Among these four establishments of mindfulness, three have unmixed objects (asaṃbhinna, amiśrālambana); the fourth comprises both kinds. When it takes only dharmas as its object, its object is unmixed; when it simultaneously takes two, three, or four categories as its objects, its object is mixed.

(Question) After cultivating the establishments of mindfulness whose objects are the body and so forth, what does the practitioner cultivate next?

The stanza answers:

[The practitioner abides in the establishment of mindfulness of dharmas,

Contemplating all four objects together.

One cultivates the aspects of impermanence, suffering,

Emptiness, and non-self.]

Treatise: While abiding in the establishment of mindfulness of dharmas (dharmasmṛtyupasthāna), whose mixed objects comprise the body, feelings, and so forth, the practitioner contemplates these objects under the four aspects of impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self.

(Question) After this contemplation has been cultivated, what wholesome root arises?

The stanza answers:

[Cultivating this contemplation gives rise to the Dharma of Warmth,

Which fully contemplates the Four Noble Truths

And cultivates the sixteen aspects;

Next, the Summit arises in the same way.

Both of these wholesome roots

Initially rely upon the establishment of mindfulness of dharmas, and subsequently upon all four kinds.

Next comes Patience, which relies only upon the establishment of mindfulness of dharmas;

Its lower and middle grades are like the Summit,

While its higher grade contemplates only the suffering of the desire realm.

One aspect in one moment.

The Supreme Mundane Dharma is likewise;

All are wisdom and the five skandhas, excluding acquisition.]

Treatise: From the cultivation of the mindfulness of dharmas described above, a wholesome root (kuśalamūla) will ultimately arise in due sequence (krameṇa). This wholesome root is called Warmth (uṣmagata) because it resembles the warmth of the Path (uṣmaprakāra), being the first sign (pūrvanimitta, pūrvasvabhāva) of the noble path (āryamārga), the flame that burns the firewood of the afflictions.

The wholesome root of Warmth may continue for a period of time (prakarṣakatvāt = prābandhikatvāt), and therefore it takes all four noble truths as its objects.

The wholesome root of Warmth has sixteen aspects. Contemplation of the truth of suffering has four aspects: suffering (duḥkha), impermanence (anitya), emptiness (śūnya), and non-self (anātmaka); contemplation of the truth of arising has four aspects: arising (samudaya), origination (prabhava), cause (hetu), and condition (pratyaya); contemplation of the truth of cessation has four aspects: cessation (nirodha), peace (śānta), excellence (praṇīta), and deliverance (niḥsaraṇa); contemplation of the truth of the path has four aspects: path (mārga), right principle (nyāya), practice (pratipatti), and leading forth (nairyāṇika). The distinctions among these aspects will be discussed later.

The Dharma of Warmth gradually increases from weak to middling to strong; ultimately, it gives rise to the second wholesome root, Summit (mūrdhan).

Like Warmth, Summit also takes all four noble truths as its objects and has sixteen aspects, but it bears a different name because of its superior nature.

This wholesome root is called the “Summit” or “peak” because it is the highest or foremost among the “unstable” (cala, movable) wholesome roots; that is, one may fall away from these wholesome roots. Alternatively, one may descend again from these “summits,” or one may pass beyond them by entering Acceptance (kṣānti).

It is precisely through the mindfulness of dharmas that the two wholesome roots, Warmth and Summit, can first “imprint” themselves (initial establishment).

(Question) What does “imprint” mean?

(Answer) It is the initial restriction of the various aspects to the noble truths.

Warmth and Summit gradually increase through the four establishments of mindfulness. Later, when the practitioner has progressed (vivardhayan), the practitioner does not bring into manifestation (saṃmukhībhāva) the wholesome roots attained earlier, because the practitioner no longer esteems them highly (abahumānāt).

The wholesome root of Summit also gradually increases from weak to middling to strong; ultimately, it gives rise to the third wholesome root, Acceptance (kṣānti).

Acceptance is so called because, at this stage, the noble truths produce a very powerful sense of satisfaction (kṣamate = rocate). At the stage of Warmth, the noble truths produce only a weak satisfaction; at the stage of Summit, they produce a moderate satisfaction. This is also evident from the fact that the practitioner may fall away from the first two wholesome roots but cannot fall away from Acceptance.

The wholesome root of Acceptance is likewise of three kinds: weak, middling, and strong (lower, middle, and higher).

The weak and middling kinds both resemble Summit because they too constitute the “initial imprinting” (initial establishment) and both rely on the mindfulness of dharmas; but they differ from Summit in the manner of their development.

Whether weak, middling, or strong, all increase by means of the mindfulness of dharmas, not by means of the other establishments of mindfulness.

Strong Acceptance takes only the suffering of the Desire Realm as its object because it immediately precedes the Highest Mundane Dharmas (agradharmas).

This restriction does not occur at the preceding stages, namely Warmth and Summit; therefore, both of these wholesome roots take as their objects suffering, arising, and so forth in all three realms.

From the moment the practitioner ceases to contemplate the sixteenth aspect (nairyāṇika), which takes the two higher realms—the Form Realm and the Formless Realm—as its objects, and continues progressively to eliminate these aspects and realms until only two aspects (anitya and duḥkha) are imprinted during two thought-moments upon the truth of suffering in the Desire Realm, this constitutes the stage of middling Acceptance.

When, in a single thought-moment, the practitioner contemplates only one aspect of the truth of suffering in the Desire Realm, this is strong Acceptance (the higher grade of Acceptance). The preceding explanations are those of the Vaibhāṣika masters. This type of wholesome root ceases in a single moment and therefore does not form a continuum.

The same applies to the Highest Mundane Dharmas. Exactly like the higher grade of Acceptance, these dharmas take only the truth of suffering in the Desire Realm as their object and also cease in a single moment (ekakṣaṇa). Because they are contaminated, they are called “mundane”; because they are the most excellent among mundane dharmas, they are called the “Highest Mundane Dharmas.” They are supreme because, relying solely upon their own efficacy (puruṣakāra), and although lacking a homogeneous cause (sabhāgahetu), they are nevertheless able to draw forth and initiate the path of seeing the truths (darśamārga, path of seeing).

The essential nature of all four wholesome roots is an establishment of mindfulness; therefore, they are themselves prajna. Nevertheless, if these wholesome roots are analyzed together with their accompanying dharmas, they comprise the five skandhas.

The attainments (prāptis)—that is, the acquisition of the wholesome roots of Warmth and so forth—are not included within these wholesome roots of Warmth and so forth, because one who has become a noble being does not cause the wholesome roots of Warmth and so forth to arise again (), and therefore a noble being does not possess the attainments of these wholesome roots.

i. When Warmth first begins to arise and takes three noble truths as its objects, only one establishment of mindfulness—namely, the mindfulness of dharmas—is present; in the future, all four establishments of mindfulness will be present [one of the aspects is contemplated in the present, and all four aspects are attained in the future]. When Warmth takes the truth of cessation as its object, only the aforementioned mindfulness of dharmas is present, and it is also the sole establishment of mindfulness attained in the future. In every case, the aspects are those of the particular noble truth being contemplated in the present. [One is attaining in the future the aspects of the noble truths that are not present.]

During the period of development, when Warmth takes three noble truths as its objects, any one of the establishments of mindfulness may be present; in the future, all four establishments of mindfulness will be present. When Warmth takes the truth of cessation as its object, the fourth establishment of mindfulness is present; in the future, all four establishments of mindfulness will be present. All the future aspects are attained because the dispositions (gotras) were attained previously.

ii. In the case of Summit, when it takes the four noble truths as its objects during the initial stage (ākaraṇa), and when it takes the truth of cessation as its object during the stage of development, the last of the four establishments of mindfulness—the mindfulness of dharmas—is present; in future cultivation, all four establishments of mindfulness are present, and all the future aspects are present. When it takes the other three truths as its objects during the period of development, any one of the establishments of mindfulness may be present; in the future, all four establishments of mindfulness and all the aspects are present.

iii. In the case of Acceptance, both at the initial stage and at the stage of development, regardless of which noble truth is contemplated, only the last establishment of mindfulness is present; in the future, all four establishments of mindfulness and all the aspects are present.

iv. In the case of the Supreme Mundane Dharma, there is the final mindfulness in the present; in the future there are all four foundations of mindfulness—these foundations of mindfulness are of the kind that are not certain to arise (anutpattidharman, non-arising dharmas); there are only four aspects, namely, the aspects of the truth of suffering—because the aspects of the other noble truths do not belong to the Supreme Mundane Dharma (anyābhāvāt), and because the Supreme Mundane Dharma resembles the Path of Seeing—in the Path of Seeing, only the four aspects of the kind of noble truth contemplated under the same aspect can be cultivated for the future.

The essential characteristics of the wholesome roots that have arisen have been explained above; next follows a discussion of their differences:

[These four aids to penetration

Are all accomplished through cultivation,

In six stages; two kinds in seven stages;

They depend on bodies in the Desire Realm, in nine places.

The first three kinds are acquired in both male and female bodies;

The fourth kind is likewise so with respect to a woman.

A noble one relinquishes them upon losing a stage;

An ordinary being relinquishes them at death.

The first and second kinds are lost through regression or relinquished.

One who relies on a fundamental absorption will certainly see the truths.

When acquired again after relinquishment, they are not the former ones.

The nature of both kinds of relinquishment is non-acquisition.]

Treatise: The four dharmas—Warmth, Summit, Patience, and the Supreme Mundane Dharma—are wholesome roots called the aids to penetration (nirvedhabhāgīya).

Warmth and Summit are unstable (cala), and because they can be lost through regression, they are only weak (mṛdu) aids to penetration; Patience is intermediate; and the Supreme Mundane Dharma is the strongest.

(Question) What is the aid to penetration?

(Answer) (1) “Penetration” (nirvedha) means decisive discernment and penetration (niścita vedha); thus, it is precisely the noble path. Through the noble path, doubt (vicikitsā) is eliminated; therefore, the noble path is “decisive” (niścita), and the truths are distinguished (vibhājana, vedha): “This is suffering … this is the path.” (2) The Path of Seeing (darśanamārga) is a part (bhāga) of the noble path; therefore, the Path of Seeing is also the part consisting in penetration.

The aids to penetration [the term being used with the suffix meaning “conducive to”] are dharmas beneficial (hita) to a part of the noble path because they lead to the noble path (āvāhaka).

All four of these aids to penetration arise from concentration (bhāvanāmayam, accomplished through cultivation), not from hearing or reflection (śruta, cintāmaya).

Their stages are the Preparatory Concentration (anāgāmya), the Intermediate Concentration (dhyānāntara), and the four dhyānas: they can be acquired only in these six stages of meditative concentration. They do not exist in the stages belonging to the Formless Realm because they are auxiliary dharmas belonging to the Path of Seeing. The Path of Seeing does not exist in the Formless Realm because the Path of Seeing takes only the Desire Realm as its object: the practitioner must first fully know (parijñā) and eliminate the Desire Realm, which is regarded as suffering and its origin.

The result of maturation (vipāka) of the aids to penetration comprises the five skandhas of the Form Realm (Vibhāṣā, 60, 15). They belong to completing karma (paripūraka), not projecting karma (ākṣepaka), because they engender aversion toward existence (bhavadveśitvāt).

The word “or” indicates another opinion. According to the Venerable Ghoṣaka (Bhadanta Ghoṣaka), the first two aids to penetration exist in all seven stages, with the Desire Realm added.

All four kinds belong to beings of the Desire Realm. Three kinds can arise only among human beings of the three continents (dvīpas). Once they have arisen, they can be brought into manifestation (saṃmukhībhāva) by devas. The fourth kind can be produced by devas.

The three kinds—Warmth, Summit, and Patience—when acquired by a man or a woman, can be found in either a male or a female body.

When the Supreme Mundane Dharma, that is, the fourth kind, is acquired by a woman, it will be found in a female body—that is, the body she presently possesses—and in a male body—that is, the body that this woman will necessarily acquire in her next life. When acquired by a man, the Supreme Mundane Dharma will be found only in a male body—because, in relation to the Supreme Mundane Dharma, femininity undergoes “cessation through non-discrimination.”

(Question) How are the aids to penetration relinquished?

(Answer) A noble one relinquishes the aids to penetration upon losing a stage (bhūmityāga) in which that noble one acquired these aids to penetration. A noble one does not lose the aids to penetration at death or through regression. A stage is lost because one must pass to another stage (bhūmisaṃcāra), [not because of detachment from that stage, vairāgya].

As for an ordinary being, whether or not that being passes to another stage, the aids to penetration will be lost when the homogeneity of the class of beings (nikāyasabhāga) is terminated.

An ordinary being loses the first two kinds of aids to penetration at death and upon regression (parihāṇi). A noble one does not regress from the first two kinds, and an ordinary being does not regress from the last two.

A practitioner who has produced the aids to penetration while cultivating the fundamental dhyānas will certainly see the truths (satyadarśana) in this very life, because aversion toward samsara (udvega) is extremely intense in such practitioners.

When the aids to penetration have been lost (vihīna) and are acquired again, new aids to penetration (apūrva) are acquired, just as in the case of the prātimokṣa discipline (prātimokṣasaṃvara); one does not acquire the aids to penetration that were previously relinquished (pūrvatyakta). Because the aids to penetration had not been cultivated to maturity (anucita), they are not acquired through detachment (vairāgya); and because their cultivation is accomplished through effort (yatnasādhya), once lost, they cannot be reacquired as the same former aids.

If the practitioner encounters a teacher who has acquired knowledge arising from aspiration (praṇidhijñāna), that is, an excellent teacher of the Dharma, the practitioner will produce the aids to penetration beginning with the kind that was lost after having been acquired. If such a teacher is not encountered, the practitioner must produce the aids to penetration beginning with the first kind, cultivating again from the foundation.

We have learned that a noble one merely loses (tyajati) the aids to penetration, whereas an ordinary being loses them through regression (parihāṇi). Thus, two kinds have been distinguished: mere loss (vihāni, relinquishment) and loss through regression (parihāṇi, regression).

(Question) What do these two kinds of loss comprise?

(Answer) They are precisely non-acquisition (aprāti, asamanvāgama, asamanvaga). Loss through regression arises from the afflictions (kleśa) themselves; mere loss (vihāni), however, is not like this and may instead arise from something wholesome (guṇa), such as the loss of the state of an ordinary being when the noble path arises, and so forth.

(Question) What benefit is there in acquiring these wholesome roots?

The stanza answers:

[Warmth certainly leads to nirvana;

With Summit, one ultimately does not sever the wholesome roots;

With Patience, one does not fall into the evil destinies;

Through the Supreme Mundane Dharma, one enters “freedom from arising.”]

Treatise: Anyone who acquires Warmth, even if it is lost through regression, will certainly attain nirvana (nirvāṇadharman).

(Question) If so, what is the difference in this case between Warmth and the aids conducive to liberation (mokṣabhāgīya)? For anyone who plants the kind of wholesome roots “conducive to nirvana” (nirvāṇabhāgīya) will attain nirvana.

(Answer) If there is no obstacle, Warmth is closer to the insight into the truths.

Those who have attained Summit, even if they lose it or regress, do not sever their wholesome roots; however, they may still proceed to the unfortunate destinies and commit offenses of immediate retribution (ānantarya).

Those who lose only Patience do not proceed to the unfortunate destinies, because they have become removed from the actions and afflictions that lead to those destinies.

For those who have attained Patience, certain destinies, modes of birth, places of rebirth, bodily bases, states of existence, and afflictions enter the state of being incapable of arising (anutpatti-dharmatā): “Destinies” (gati) refers to the unfortunate destinies (apāya); “modes of birth” (yoni) are birth from an egg and birth from moisture; “places of rebirth” (upapatti) are rebirth among the Non-percipient Beings, in Uttarakuru, and as a Great Brahmā; “bodily bases” (āśraya) are the two conditions of being sexless and possessing both sexes; “states of existence” (bhava) are an eighth, ninth, and subsequent rebirth; and “afflictions” are those eliminated through insight into the truths. (Vibhāṣā, 32, 9)

This elimination is related to the degrees of Patience: With weak Patience (lower Patience), the unfortunate destinies enter the state of being incapable of arising;… with strong Patience (higher Patience), all the aforementioned unwholesome phenomena enter the state of being incapable of arising.

The aids to penetration are divided into three kinds because of differences in spiritual lineage (gotra). A practitioner may belong to the lineage of the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, or Buddhas; and Warmth, Summit, and so forth belong to the lineage of the practitioner cultivating these qualities.

(Question) Can these wholesome roots be redirected toward other lineages?

The stanza answers:

[One of the śrāvaka lineage transfers

To Buddhahood through two wholesome roots, and to the other Buddhahood through three wholesome roots.

Pratyekabuddhas and Buddhas do not transfer,

And awaken in only a single sitting.]

Commentary: A person of the śrāvaka lineage may withdraw (vivart) Warmth and Summit from that lineage and become a Buddha who has attained unsurpassed complete awakening. Once Patience has been attained, however, one can no longer do so (Vibhāṣā, 68, 6), because all future unfortunate destinies are eliminated through the attainment of this Patience. Bodhisattvas enter the unfortunate destinies because they wish to benefit others. The foregoing is the explanation of the Vibhāṣā. We would say that once a person of the śrāvaka lineage has attained Patience, that person cannot become a Buddha, because once the śrāvaka lineage has been permeated and established (paribhāvita) by Patience, it can no longer be transformed (avivartya).

The word “other” (itara) above refers to a pratyekabuddha. A person of the śrāvaka lineage may withdraw the first three aids to penetration—Warmth, Summit, and Patience—from that lineage and become a pratyekabuddha.

The aids to penetration belonging to the lineages of Buddhas and pratyekabuddhas, however, cannot be withdrawn (avivartya, incapable of transference).

The Teacher means the Buddha. The Rhinoceros-like One, so called because of resemblance to a rhinoceros, is a pratyekabuddha. Both lineages depend upon the fourth dhyāna, because it is a concentration that is unshakable (āniñjya) and extremely acute (paṭu). Without rising from a single sitting, these Buddhas proceed from the aids to penetration to the arising of awakening (bodhi).

As will be seen below, this awakening is precisely the knowledge of exhaustion (kṣayajñāna) and the knowledge of non-arising (anutpādajñāna).

Some masters (Vibhāṣā, 68, 7) hold that this “single sitting” begins with the contemplation of impurity (aśubhā).

For the Abhidharma masters (Ābhidharmikas), who accept the existence of pratyekabuddhas distinct from the Rhinoceros-like Ones, there is no fault in pratyekabuddhas transforming their lineage.

(Question) Can the preparation (prayoga) for the aids to penetration and the production of the aids to penetration occur in the same lifetime?

(Answer) They cannot.

[Before them are the aids conducive to liberation.

Liberation comes only after three lifetimes.

They consist of the three karmas produced by hearing and reflection,

And are planted in the three human continents.]

Commentary: First, one must produce the aids conducive to liberation. Sowing the seed, the growth of the tree, and the bearing of fruit are three distinct stages. So too on the path, the continuum of the person enters the path, matures, and is liberated through a gradual process: In the first lifetime, one plants the wholesome roots called the aids conducive to liberation; in the second lifetime, one produces the aids to penetration; and in the third lifetime, one produces the noble path.

According to tradition (Vibhāṣā, 7, 15), the aids conducive to liberation are accomplished through hearing and reflection, not through concentration (cultivation).

(Question) How many kinds of karma can constitute the aids conducive to liberation?

(Answer) There are three kinds. Principally (prādhānyena), they are mental karma. But bodily and verbal karma are also aids conducive to liberation when embraced (parigrahaṇāt) by the resolution (praṇidhāna) to attain liberation; this resolution is itself a kind of volition (cetanā): When the aspiration for liberation supports a bodily action such as giving or a verbal action such as undertaking the precepts, one has produced (ākṣipati) an aid conducive to liberation.

Only human beings in the three continents (dvīpas) can produce or plant the aids conducive to liberation. Indeed, all revulsion (nirveda), wisdom (prajñāna), or both revulsion and wisdom are regarded as absent among the devas, among beings who have fallen into the lower destinies, and among the humans of the northern continent.

We have discussed the aids conducive to liberation in passing; our principal concern, however, has been to explain the sequence of insight into the truths (satyābhisamaya), and we have followed this sequence as far as the Highest Mundane Dharma. We must now present the remaining points.

[The Highest Mundane Dharma immediately

Produces uncontaminated Dharma-Patience,

Which takes the truth of suffering in the Desire Realm as its object;

Thereafter, Dharma-Patience produces Dharma-Knowledge.

Next arise Subsequent Patience and Subsequent Knowledge,

Which take the suffering in the other realms as their object.

When taking the truths of origin, cessation, and path as objects,

Each truth likewise has these four qualities.

These sixteen mental moments

Are called the direct realization of the noble truths.

Direct realization is of three different kinds:

Direct realization through seeing, through the objective support, and through activity.]

Commentary: From the Highest Mundane Dharma there arises an uncontaminated Patience called Dharma-Patience (dharmakṣānti). More precisely, it is a Patience constituting Dharma-Knowledge (dharmajñānakṣānti) that immediately follows the Highest Mundane Dharma.

(Question) What is the object of the Patience constituting Dharma-Knowledge?

(Answer) It is the suffering of the Desire Realm (kāmadhātvacacara duḥkha); it is therefore called the Patience constituting Dharma-Knowledge of suffering (duḥkhe dharmajñānakṣānti).

To demonstrate that this kind of patience is untainted (anāsrava), its result or outflow (niṣyanda), which is a kind of Dharma-knowledge, has been adduced. Thus, the expression “Dharma-knowledge patience” means a kind of patience (kṣānti) that produces a Dharma-knowledge and has Dharma-knowledge as its fruit (dharmajñānārtham). It is just as a tree that bears flowers or fruit is called a flowering tree (puṣpavṛkṣa) or a fruit tree (phalavṛkṣa).

This patience is itself entry into “determination” (niyāma), because it is the entrance into the certainty of attaining (niyama) absolute goodness, or rightness (samyaktva). What, then, is rightness? The sutra says that rightness is nirvana. Absolute determination (niyama) with regard to rightness is what is called niyāma and is also called niyama.

To enter (avakramana) this determination of attaining ultimate rightness means to reach (abhigamana) and acquire this determination. Once the acquisition (prāpti) arises, the practitioner becomes a noble person (āryapudgala).

At the future stage (anāgata), that is, while it is in the state of being about to arise, this patience brings the nature of an ordinary being to an end (vyāvartana), because it is maintained that, in the future, this patience alone possesses this function, a function belonging to no other dharma; just as a future lamp will destroy darkness, and just as the characteristic of arising will be a future dharma that arises.

Other masters (= the first position of the Vibhāṣā) hold that it is the highest worldly dharma that abandons the nature of an ordinary being. Someone may say that this position is incorrect because the highest worldly dharma is a dharma belonging to an ordinary being (taddharmatvāt). This objection, however, is invalid because the highest worldly dharma is opposed (virodhitva) to the nature of an ordinary being. This is like a person climbing onto an enemy’s shoulders in order to kill that enemy.

Other masters (Vibhāṣā) hold that the nature of an ordinary being is abandoned because the highest worldly dharma occupies the place of the uninterrupted path (ānantaryamārga), or because patience occupies the place of the path of liberation (vimuktimārga). In the first case, the nature of an ordinary being is being progressively eliminated (prahīyate); in the latter case, it is eliminated immediately (prahīna).

Immediately after the patience of Dharma-knowledge concerning suffering, a Dharma-knowledge arises that has as its object the truth of suffering in the Realm of Desire and is called Dharma-knowledge concerning suffering (duḥkhe dharmajñāna).

The “untainted” nature of the first patience is also the nature of all those that follow; therefore, the knowledge now under discussion is likewise untainted.

Just as a Dharma-knowledge patience and a Dharma-knowledge, when they arise, both take as their object the truth of suffering in the Realm of Desire, so too a subsequent patience and knowledge take as their object the remainder of the truth of suffering.

Immediately after the Dharma-knowledge concerning suffering, a knowledge-patience () arises whose collective object (samastālambanā) is the truth of suffering in the Realm of Form and the Formless Realm. This patience is called the subsequent knowledge-patience concerning suffering (duḥkhe ‘nvayajñānakṣānti). From this patience there then arises a knowledge called subsequent knowledge concerning suffering (duḥkhe ‘nvayajñāna).

Dharma-knowledge is the direct comprehension of dharmas, and it is so called because it is the practitioner’s first direct comprehension, attained since beginningless time, of the essential nature of dharmas such as suffering and so forth. Subsequent knowledge, that is, the direct comprehension that follows, is so called because it has a Dharma-knowledge as its cause (tadanvaya = taddhetuka), and because it directly comprehends the noble truths in the same manner as Dharma-knowledge (tathaivānugamāt).

Just as the four dharmas—that is, the two patiences and the two knowledges—when they arise, all take the truth of suffering as their object, so a Dharma-knowledge patience arising immediately after the above-mentioned subsequent knowledge concerning suffering takes as its object the truth of origin in the Realm of Desire (the patience of Dharma-knowledge concerning origin). From this patience, the Dharma-knowledge concerning origin then arises; and within this continuous succession of arising there next arises a knowledge-patience whose object is the remainder of the truth of origin (the subsequent knowledge-patience concerning origin), followed by the subsequent knowledge concerning origin.

Next arises a Dharma-knowledge patience whose object is the truth of cessation in the Realm of Desire (nirodhedharmajñānakṣānti, the patience of Dharma-knowledge concerning cessation), followed by the Dharma-knowledge concerning cessation. Next arises a subsequent knowledge-patience whose object is the remainder of the truth of cessation (the subsequent knowledge-patience concerning cessation), followed by the subsequent knowledge concerning cessation.

Next arises a Dharma-knowledge patience whose object is the truth of the path (mārga) that counteracts the truth of suffering in the Realm of Desire (the path pertaining to the Realm of Desire), followed by the Dharma-knowledge concerning the path (mārge dharmajñāna). Next arises a subsequent knowledge-patience that takes the remainder of the truth of the path as its object, followed by the subsequent knowledge concerning the path.

Thus, according to the foregoing progressive sequence, the direct realization of the noble truths (satyābhisamaya) comprises sixteen mental moments in all.

Some schools hold that the direct realization of the noble truths occurs in a single instant alone (solely sudden direct realization); this position, however, requires further examination. Above, direct realization was said [to comprise sixteen mental moments] because the distinctions (abhedena) were not specified. When analyzed in detail, direct realization is of three kinds: direct realization through seeing, direct realization by way of the object, and direct realization through function.

Direct realization through seeing (darśanābhisamaya) is the contemplation of the truths by means of untainted wisdom.

Direct realization by way of the object (ālambanābhisamaya) is the contemplation of the truths by means of the aforementioned untainted wisdom and the dharmas associated (saṃprayukta) with that wisdom.

Direct realization through function (kāryābhisamaya) is the contemplation of the truths by means of the aforementioned untainted wisdom, the dharmas associated with that wisdom, and also the dissociated dharmas (viprayukta) that coexist with it, such as moral discipline, the characteristic of arising, and so forth.

When the practitioner sees the truth of suffering, all three kinds of direct realization are present with respect to the truth of suffering; but with respect to the remaining truths, only the third kind of direct realization—direct realization through function—is present, because origin has been abandoned, cessation has been directly realized (sākṣātkṛta), and the path has been cultivated: abandonment, realization, and cultivation.

If, with respect to the truths, one relies on direct realization through seeing to maintain that there is only a single kind of “sudden direct realization,” this is incorrect, because the aspects of the truths differ greatly: one cannot see the truth of origin and so forth under the aspects of the truth of suffering. If it is maintained that all the truths can be seen under the single common aspect of non-self (anātmākāreṇa), then the truths could not be seen under the aspects of suffering and so forth; and this would contradict the sutras.

A sutra (Saṃyukta, 15, 18) says: “When noble disciples contemplate (manasikaroti) the truth of suffering as suffering, the truth of origin as origin, the truth of cessation as cessation, and the truth of the path as the path, then there arises in them the discrimination of dharmas associated with these untainted contemplations….” [If it is maintained that this passage refers only to the preparatory stage (prayogāvasthā) preceding the stage of direct realization, this too is incorrect, because untainted contemplation is not yet present at that stage.] If it is maintained that this passage refers only to the Path of Cultivation (bhāvanāmārga), that is, the stage of cultivating truths that have already been seen, this too is incorrect,

because the truths are cultivated in the same manner in which they were seen (cultivation conforming to seeing).

If it is maintained that there is only “sudden direct realization” because, when the practitioner sees one truth, mastery (vaśitvalābhāt, attainment of mastery) with respect to the other truths is acquired—that is, through seeing the truth of suffering, the practitioner gains the ability to bring forth the seeing of the other truths without having to undertake preparation again (antareṇa prayogam)—then we also agree. However, it remains to be considered whether or not emergence from contemplation occurs in the interval.

If it is maintained that direct realization is still unified because, once the truth of suffering has been fully understood (parijñāte), the truth of origin will be abandoned, the truth of cessation will be directly realized, and the truth of the path will be cultivated, then we also agree; for we have said that when one truth is “seen,” there is the direct realization of function (kāryābhisamaya)—that is, the contemplation regarded as the result with respect to the remaining three truths.

(Objection) If this position is accepted, it contradicts the sutra, which teaches that there is only “gradual direct realization.” It is precisely to indicate the direct realization of seeing that the sutra teaches that direct realization of the truths is only gradual: “Householder, direct realization is not sudden but gradual (anupūrva)…. And so forth.” All three sutras are accompanied by analogies.

(Reply) The sutra also says, “Whoever is free from delusion or doubt concerning the truth of suffering will also be free from delusion or doubt concerning the Buddha.” Therefore, direct realization is not gradual but sudden.

(Explanation) This is also incorrect, because the sutra merely intends to say (it is an implicit teaching) that, once the truth of suffering has been understood, delusion or doubt concerning the Buddha will no longer become manifest (asamudācāra) and will certainly be abandoned (avaśyaṃprahāṇa).

(Question) Sixteen mental moments were mentioned above; upon which stages do these sixteen mental moments depend?

The stanza answers:

[They are the same as the highest worldly dharma,

Depending upon one stage.]

Treatise: These sixteen mental moments belong to the same stage as the highest worldly dharma. It was stated above that there are six stages in all.

(Question) Why must there necessarily be the receptivities and knowledges?

The stanza answers:

[Receptivity and knowledge, in this order,

Are the uninterrupted path and the path of liberation.]

Treatise: Receptivity cannot be obstructed (antarayitum aśkyatvāt) in severing (viccheda) the acquisition (prāpti) of the afflictions; therefore, receptivity is the path that cannot be obstructed (ānantaryamārga, the uninterrupted path).

In those who have been freed from the aforementioned acquisition of the afflictions (liberation or attainment), knowledge arises simultaneously with the attainment of separation from the afflictions (visaṃyoga); therefore, knowledge is the path of liberation (vimuktimārga, the path of liberation).

Thus, receptivity and knowledge resemble two actions: driving away a thief and closing the door.

If the attainment of separation from the afflictions occurred only together with the second receptivity or uninterrupted path (duḥkhe ‘nvayajñānakṣānti, receptivity to subsequent knowledge of suffering), then the knowledge that has already eliminated doubt (vicikitsā) could not arise with the objects of the first uninterrupted path—namely, the truth of suffering in the Desire Realm—as its objects.

(Question) If the afflictions are abandoned by means of receptivity, does this contradict the Fundamental Treatise when it says that “there are nine groups of fetters” (saṃyojananikāya)?

(Answer) It does not contradict the Fundamental Treatise, because the receptivities are auxiliary dharmas (parivāra, retinue) of knowledge. The Fundamental Treatise attributes the functions of receptivity to knowledge, just as deeds performed by the king’s close ministers themselves are said to have been performed by the king.

(Question) All sixteen mental moments above see the noble truths; are all these mental moments, then, the path of seeing (darśanamārga)?

The stanza answers:

[The first fifteen mental moments are the path of seeing,

Because they see what has never before been seen.]

Treatise: The fifteen moments, from receptivity to Dharma knowledge of suffering through receptivity to subsequent knowledge of the path, constitute the path of seeing, because the seeing of what has never before been seen occurs continuously.

At the sixteenth moment, there is nothing left to be seen among those things that had not previously been seen. This moment cultivates the noble truth as something already seen; therefore, it has become part of the path of cultivation (bhāvanāmārga).

(Question) Does not the sixteenth moment itself see the fifteenth moment—namely, receptivity to subsequent knowledge of the path—which had not previously been seen?

(Answer) That is so. However, what is meant here is whether the truth of the path has been seen, not whether a moment (of this noble truth) has been seen. The fact that one moment has not been seen does not mean that this noble truth has not been seen, just as one cannot say that a field has not been harvested merely because one stalk of grain remains uncut.

Furthermore, the sixteenth moment (subsequent knowledge of the path) is part of the path of cultivation because (a) it constitutes a fruit (śrāmaṇyaphala); (b) it possesses cultivation (bhāvanā), namely, the acquisition of the eight knowledges and the sixteen aspects (bhāvitāṣṭajñānaṣoḍaśākāratvāt), [in contrast to the path of seeing]; (c) it relinquishes (vihāni) a type of noble path (pratipannaka); (Answer) because it belongs to a continuum (prābandhika).

(Objection) The sixteenth moment should be regarded as part of the path of seeing because it is certainly incapable of regression (āvaśyakāparihāṇitva). Its non-regression (aparihāṇis, cultivation) is due to its capacity to preserve (saṃdhāraṇa, sustaining) the abandonment of the afflictions abandoned by the path of seeing.

(Explanation) If, for the reason above, it is maintained that the sixteenth moment belongs to the path of seeing, this would lead to the following absurd consequence: the seventeenth and subsequent moments, as well as the seeing of the noble truths on the second and following days, would also be the path of seeing, because they too preserve the abandonment of the afflictions abandoned by the path of seeing.

(Question) All eight knowledges see what the receptivities saw previously, but why do only the first seven knowledges belong to the path of seeing?

(Answer) Because the seeing of the truths has not yet been completed (samāpta, all-pervasive); this seeing becomes complete only at the fifteenth moment. The first seven knowledges belong to the path of seeing because, while the seeing of the truths remains incomplete, they arise only in the intervals (tadantarāla), that is, within the process of the path of seeing or between two receptivities.

The arising of the path of seeing and the path of cultivation has been explained above. Next, the persons (pudgala) in whom the noble paths arise will be discussed.

During the course of the fifteen moments that have the nature of the path of seeing, there are different classes of noble ones:

[They are called followers through faith and followers of Dharma,

Because their faculties differ as dull and keen.

Those who still retain afflictions abandoned by cultivation, having abandoned one grade

Through five grades, are called candidates for the first fruit;

Those who have then abandoned three further grades are called candidates for the second fruit;

Those detached from the eight stages are called candidates for the third fruit.]

Treatise: While abiding in these moments, practitioners whose faculties are slow (mṛdu, dull) are called followers through faith (śraddhānusārin); practitioners whose faculties are keen (tīkṣṇa) are called followers of Dharma (dharmānusārin). Here, the term “faculties” refers to the faculties of faith, concentration, and so forth.

A faith-follower means one who proceeds by virtue of faith (śraddhāya anusāraḥ = śraddhānusāraḥ); one who engages in such proceeding, or one who habitually does so by virtue of faith, is called a faith-follower (śraddhānusārin), because previously (pūrvam) that person pursued the Noble Truths (arthānusevana) [that is, gained an understanding of the truths] through the prompting of others and through reliance upon others (parapratyayena).

A Dharma-follower has a similar meaning, namely, one who proceeds by virtue of the Dharmas (dharmair anusāraḥ = dharmānusāraḥ). It is precisely by relying upon the Dharmas—that is, upon the sutras that teach the twelve divisions—that the practitioner personally pursued the Noble Truths previously.

If these two classes of noble ones have not yet eliminated the afflictions abandoned by the Path of Cultivation, they are those progressing toward the first fruit. The first fruit is the fruit of stream-entry (Srotaāpanna), because stream-entry is the first fruit in the sequence of attaining the fruits.

If those belonging to the classes of faith-followers and Dharma-followers have not previously eliminated even one grade of the afflictions abandoned by cultivation through the mundane path, and remain bound by every kind of bondage (sakalabandhana), then from the moment they enter the Path of Seeing they are called “those progressing toward the fruit of stream-entry” (progress toward the first fruit).

If, by relying upon the mundane path, they have not yet eliminated the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth grade of the afflictions abandoned by cultivation in the Desire Realm, they too are called “those progressing toward the first fruit” once they have entered the Path of Seeing.

If they have previously eliminated the sixth, seventh, or eighth grade of afflictions (bhūyovītarāga), they are called “those progressing toward the second fruit,” namely, the fruit of the once-returner (Sakṛdāgāmin).

If (1) they have become detached from the Desire Realm by eliminating the ninth grade of the afflictions abandoned by cultivation in the Desire Realm (kāmavītarāga), or (2) they have become detached from the higher realms as far as the Sphere of Nothingness (ākiñcanyāyatana), they are called “those progressing toward the third fruit,” namely, the fruit of the non-returner (Anāgāmin).

[Upon reaching the sixteenth thought-moment,

Whichever of the three fruits one was progressing toward, in that fruit one abides;

They are called those liberated through faith and those who have attained through seeing,

Also because of the difference between dull and sharp faculties.]

Treatise: At the sixteenth moment, these two classes of noble ones are no longer designated faith-followers and Dharma-followers. They are no longer called “those progressing toward” a fruit, but have become “those abiding in a fruit” (phalastha): those who were previously progressing toward the fruits of stream-entry, once-returning, and non-returning have now become those abiding in the fruits of stream-entry, once-returning, non-returning, and non-returning.

The state of arhatship (arhattva) cannot be attained directly (āditas)—that is, the fruit of arhatship cannot be attained without first attaining the fruit of non-returning—because afflictions belonging to the class eliminated by the Path of Cultivation cannot be eliminated by the Path of Seeing (Vibhāṣā, 51, 10), and because one cannot become detached from the Peak of Existence () by means of the mundane path.

At this moment, the noble one of dull faculties formerly called a faith-follower is now called one liberated through faith (Śraddhāchimukta), while the noble one of sharp faculties formerly called a Dharma-follower is now called one who has attained through seeing (Dṛṣṭiprāpta). When faith (śraddhā) predominates [in a practitioner of dull faculties], the practitioner is “influenced” (prabhāvita) by this resolution (adhimokṣa), and is therefore called one liberated through faith. When wisdom (prajñā) predominates [in a practitioner of sharp faculties], the practitioner is “influenced” by this seeing (dṛṣṭi), and is therefore called one who has attained through seeing.

Question: At the sixteenth moment, why does a practitioner who has eliminated the initial grades—from one through five—of the afflictions abandoned by cultivation in the Desire Realm become only “one abiding in the fruit of stream-entry,” rather than “one progressing toward the fruit of once-returning”? The same question also applies to noble ones who have eliminated the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades but, at the sixteenth moment, become only those abiding in the fruit of once-returning rather than those progressing toward the fruit of non-returning; and it likewise applies to noble ones who have eliminated the higher grades of afflictions but, at the sixteenth moment, become only those abiding in the fruit of non-returning rather than those progressing toward the fruit of arhatship.

The verse answers:

[At the stages when a fruit is attained,

A path higher than that fruit is never attained;

Because a higher path has not yet arisen,

One is called “abiding in the fruit,” not “progressing toward the next.”]

Treatise: At the time of attaining a fruit, one cannot attain a noble path higher than that fruit (phalaviśiṣto mārgaḥ = phalād viśiṭo mārgaḥ, the path superior to the fruit). For example, when attaining the fruit of stream-entry, the noble one has not yet attained the noble path of once-returning. Therefore, as long as one who abides in a fruit has not yet exerted oneself (prayujyate) toward further advancement (viśeṣāya) in order to attain a new fruit—that is, as long as one has not yet cultivated the preparatory practice (prayuga) that leads to the elimination of the afflictions not yet eliminated and that is also the cause for attaining a new fruit—one is not yet “one progressing toward” a new fruit.

However, if a practitioner has relinquished the third dhyana [by means of the mundane path] and enters the certainty of correctness (niyāma), or the Path of Seeing, by relying upon a stage lower than that dhyana [that is, by relying upon the preparatory absorption (anāgamya), the first or second dhyana, or the intermediate absorption], that person will certainly realize a path higher than the fruit (phalaviśiṣṭaṃ mārgam). If this were not so, then upon being reborn in a higher stage—the fourth dhyana or the Formless Realm—the noble one would be unable to attain the faculty of pleasure (sukhendriya). (Vibhāṣā, 90. 6; Jñānaprasthāna, 6, 5)

The cases of entering the Path of Seeing have been explained above: sometimes it is the case of one largely detached from desire—that is, one who has become detached from the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of afflictions in the Desire Realm—and sometimes it is the case of one completely detached from desire (kāmavītarāga)—that is, one who has become detached from the ninth grade. Next, the practitioner’s gradual cultivation will be explained. Concerning this matter, the following points must be established:

[Each stage has nine defects and nine qualities;

The three grades—weak, middling, and strong—each have three kinds.]

Treatise: Each stage, from the lowest stage up to the Peak of Existence, has nine grades of defects and nine grades of qualities. The nine grades of qualities (guṇa) are the nine kinds of noble paths capable of counteracting those defects; they are the uninterrupted paths and the paths of liberation.

There are three fundamental grades: weak, middling, and strong. Each fundamental grade is further divided into weak, middling, and strong. Thus there are nine grades in all: weak-weak, weak-middling, weak-strong, middling-weak, middling-middling, middling-strong, strong-weak, strong-middling, and strong-strong.

The weakest grade of the noble path is capable of eliminating the strongest grade of affliction; and so on, up to the strongest grade of the noble path, which is capable of eliminating the weakest grade of affliction. This is because the strongest grade of the noble path cannot arise at the outset, and because the strongest grade of affliction cannot be present when the strongest grade of the noble path is present. It is like washing a piece of cloth: the conspicuous stains are washed away first, and only afterward are the minute stains removed. It is also like spacious dark places, which can be seen with only a small light, whereas dark corners require more light. Such are the analogies that may be cited.

Even a feeble noble path, in a single instant, is capable of completely eliminating afflictions that have grown through the uninterrupted succession of their causes in the course of beginningless transmigration. This path severs the acquisitions (prāptis) of those afflictions, which resemble these faculties, because the “white” dharmas are powerful, while the “black” dharmas are weak. It is like the accumulated disorders of wind, bile, and so forth, built up over a long period, being purged by a single grain of powdered trivṛt root (trivṛtkardṣa); or like a vast region of darkness being shattered () in a mere instant by a tiny ray of light.

[Having not yet eliminated the faults abandoned through cultivation,

The practitioner who abides in the fruit is reborn at most seven times.]

Treatise: A noble one who abides in the fruit but has not yet eliminated any group of afflictions abandoned through cultivation (bhāvanāheya) is a Stream-enterer (Srotaāpanna). Because this noble one may be reborn as many as seven times, but no more, such a person is said to return “at most seven times.” Since it is not necessary to be reborn all seven times, the expression “at most” is used. The sutra says, “Seven births are the maximum” (saptakṛtvaḥ paramaḥ). Here the word “maximum” (paramaḥ) means “at the utmost” (prakarṣeṇa).

In the term “Stream-enterer,” “stream” means a river (srotas): the river of nirvana, namely the path, because one proceeds (gamyate) by means of a river. When a practitioner has entered it and arrived at it, that practitioner is called “one who has entered the stream” (srota-āpanna, Stream-enterer).

(Objection) How does one enter it? Is it by attaining the noble path for the first time? If so, in the two cases of those who have greatly departed from desire and those who have completely departed from desire, when they attain the first fruit that they themselves attain, they too should be Stream-enterers. Yet you have clearly stated that they are Once-returners and Non-returners, respectively.

(Explanation) A practitioner enters the stream by attaining the first fruit. This, however, does not mean whichever fruit a certain noble one happens to attain first; rather, it is the fruit attained first in the process of realizing all four noble fruits.

(Objection) Why is the eighth noble person, who has entered the stream of the noble path, not a Stream-enterer?

(Explanation) Because it is only at the sixteenth instant (mārge ’nvayajñāna, subsequent knowledge of the path) that one attains: (1) the path of approach to the fruit, consisting of fifteen instants, and the path of the fruit; and (2) the path of seeing and the path of cultivation. This is because only then does the practitioner directly comprehend (abhisamaya) the “stream,” namely the entire noble path, which includes the sixteenth instant.

The Vibhāṣā says that, after departing from the present life, a noble Stream-enterer is reborn among human beings, undergoing seven existences of rebirth (upapattibhava) and seven intermediate existences (antarābhava); when reborn in the heavenly realm, this noble one undergoes the same number. Thus there may be as many as twenty-eight births. Nevertheless, we know that each series of rebirths comprises only seven, and therefore the practitioner is called “one who is reborn at most seven times.” It is like a bhikṣu being called “skilled in seven matters” (saptasthānakuśala) because he is proficient in seven things; or like a tree being called “seven-leaved” (saptaparṇa) because seven leaves grow on each branch.

(Objection) The sutra says, “It is absolutely impossible for a noble person (pudgala) who has perfected vision (dṛṣṭisaṃpanna) to undergo an eighth birth.” Does this passage not contradict the position of the Vibhāṣā?

(Explanation) It does not, because the passage should be understood as follows: “A noble one does not undergo an eighth birth within the same realm of rebirth (ekasyaṃgatau).” Alternatively, if the sutra is to be understood literally (yathārutaṃ vā kalpyamāne) as saying, “After transmigrating and passing seven times through the heavenly realm as well as the human realm, the noble one will realize the cessation of suffering,” one would have to conclude that the rebirths of gods and human beings are not preceded by intermediate existence (antarābhava), because the sutra mentions only gods and human beings.

(Objection) If it means that “a noble one does not undergo an eighth birth within the same realm of rebirth,” how can it be said that an Upstream noble one (Ūrdhvasrotas) of the class for whom the Peak of Existence is the limit (bhavāgraparama) is reborn eight times within the same realm of rebirth?

(Explanation) The Vibhāṣā replies that the sutra’s denial of an eighth birth is intended to refer only to an eighth birth in the Desire Realm.

Yet what scripture and what reasoning can establish that the passage in question refers only to the Desire Realm? And what proves that the noble one is reborn seven times in the heavenly realm and seven times in the human realm, rather than only seven times in total across both realms? For the sutra merely says, “After being reborn seven times among gods and human beings.”

The sutra of the Kāśyapīyas says, “After being reborn seven times among the gods and seven times among human beings (saptakṛtvo devān saptakṛtvo manuṣyān).” Therefore, there is no reason to cling dogmatically to this matter (nātrābhiniveṣṭvyam).

A noble one who attains the fruit of Stream-entry in the human realm will return to that realm to attain nirvana; one who attains the fruit of Stream-entry in the heavenly realm will return to the heavenly realm to attain nirvana.

(Question) Why does a Stream-enterer not undergo an eighth birth?

(Answer) Because within this period of seven births, the continuum will necessarily reach maturity (saṃtatiparipāka). Such is the nature of the noble path. It is like the nature of the venom of the “seven-step serpent” (saptapadāśīrviṣa), whereby a person who has been bitten must die after taking seven steps; or like the nature of the “four-day fever” (caturthakajvara), whereby the illness recurs throughout four days.

The noble one does not attain nirvana within a period shorter than this because seven fetters (saṃyojanas) still remain: two fetters belonging to the lower category (avarabhāgīya), namely sensual desire (kāmacchanda) and ill will (vyāpāda); and five fetters belonging to the higher category (ūrdhvabhāgīya), namely the two forms of craving (rāgas) pertaining to the Form Realm and the Formless Realm, restlessness (auddhatya), conceit (māna), and ignorance (moha).

Although the noble one has attained the noble paths of the Once-returner and the Non-returner, the noble one still cannot attain nirvana during this intervening period, because the force of karma extending over these seven lives must first be exhausted. If no Buddha is present at the time when the noble one is to attain nirvana (buddhānutpāda), the noble one will attain the fruit of arhatship while living at home; but after attaining it, the noble one will no longer remain at home.

Through the force of the nature of things (dharmatā)—that is, through the force of the noble path of the arhat and the noble path of one beyond training—the noble one assumes the full appearance of a bhikṣu (bhikṣulinga). Some masters hold that this is the appearance of a non-Buddhist bhikṣu.

(Question) Why is the noble Stream-enterer said to be “one who cannot fall into an evil destiny” (avinipātadharman, one whose nature is not to fall back)?

(Answer) Because the noble one does not accumulate karma capable of causing a fall into an evil destiny. As for such karma accumulated in the past, now that the noble one has cultivated powerful roots of virtue through the purity of spiritual practice and the purity of aspiration toward the Three Jewels, the noble one is no longer affected by the maturation of that karma.

A person who has accumulated karma that must necessarily ripen in the evil destinies cannot possibly give rise even to acceptance (kṣānti), much less to the uncontaminated path (anāsrava mārga). Therefore, a verse says: “Though a fool commits only a minor offense, he falls; though a wise person commits a grave offense, he escapes the evil destinies. Even a small lump of iron sinks; even a large iron vessel can float.”

(Question) A sutra says: “The Stream-enterer … brings about ‘the final limit of suffering’” (duḥkhasyāntaṃ karoti). What, then, is “the final limit of suffering”?

(Answer) It is suffering beyond which there is no further suffering; this means that the noble one causes suffering never to arise again (apratisaṃdhikaṃ duḥkhaṃ karoti). Alternatively, the final limit of suffering is nirvana itself.

(Question) If so, how can one speak of “bringing about” nirvana?

(Answer) Because the obstacles to nirvana are removed (tatprātivibandhāpanayanāt). These obstacles are precisely the acquisition of the afflictions (kleśaprāpti). It is just as when one says: “Make space! Tear down the pavilion!” (ākāśaṃ kuru maṇḍapaṃ pātaya).

Apart from Stream-enterers, there are also cases in which one is reborn at most seven more times, namely, the case of an ordinary person whose mental continuum has matured (paripakvasamtāna). This, however, is not certain: such an ordinary person may attain nirvana in this very life, or in the intermediate existence, and so forth; therefore, this case is not mentioned.