善見律毘婆沙

I shall now relate the origin of Panthaka.

Panthaka is translated into Chinese as “born by the roadside.” Why was this so? Panthaka’s mother was originally the daughter of a great wealthy householder. Since he had only this one daughter, the householder built a seven-story mansion and had her live there, attended by the son of a servant woman. When the servant’s son grew up, he entered into a secret relationship with the young woman. She proposed to him, “Let you and me flee together to another country.” Even after she asked him three times, the young man replied that he could not go.

The young woman said, “If you do not go, when my parents learn of this, they will kill you.”

The servant replied, “If we go to another land, I am poor and possess no wealth. How will we make a living?”

She said, “Come with me. I shall steal some treasures, and together we shall flee.”

The young man replied, “If so, I shall go with you.”

Each day, the young woman secretly took treasures and, together with the servant, hid them outside. When she reckoned that there was enough for the two of them, she sent the young man out first and arranged a time for them to meet.

Disguising herself as a maidservant, she broke the lock on the door and went outside. She and the servant traveled very far, eventually reaching another country.

After they had settled there for one or two years, she became pregnant. When she was about to give birth, she thought, “If I remain here, there will be no one to help me during childbirth.” Thinking of her mother and wishing to return home, she discussed the matter with her husband: “When I give birth, only my mother can help and care for me. I wish to return home. Will you go with me?”

Her husband replied, “We cannot return. Since we fled, how could we go back? Your parents would surely kill us.”

The wife said to her husband, “It is the way of women that, though they may be angry, they will not kill their own children. Therefore, we should return.”

Her husband replied, “Even if they do not kill you, they will certainly kill me. We therefore should not go.”

When her husband went into the mountains to gather firewood, the wife closed the door and departed.

Returning home and not seeing his wife, the husband asked the neighbors, “Have you seen my wife?”

They replied, “Your wife has gone away.”

Hearing this, the husband hurried after her. Halfway along the road, he met his wife, who had already given birth to a baby boy.

The husband said, “You set out for home because you were about to give birth. Now that the child has been born, what need is there to return?”

On hearing this, the wife felt ashamed to face her parents, so she returned with her husband to their home and tended to the household.

Not long afterward, the wife became pregnant again. When she was about to give birth, she missed her mother, so once more she secretly set out for home and again gave birth to a baby boy halfway along the road.

Her husband went in search of her and met her halfway along the road, whereupon they both returned home.

Because they had been born along the road, the two boys were named Elder Panthaka and Younger Panthaka. When they played with their companions, both brothers were very strong and struck the other children. Their companions therefore reproached them, saying, “You have no relatives or kin and are alone in this country. Why do you strike us?”

Hearing this reproach, the boys wept and ran home to ask their mother, “Everyone else has relatives and kin. Why do we alone have none?”

Seeing that their mother remained silent and gave no answer, the children wept and refused to eat or drink. Seeing them refuse food and weep in this way, their mother took pity on her two sons and said, “I am the daughter of a wealthy householder in that country. Your father was a household servant of the householder and was assigned to attend me. I loved your father and could not bear to be separated from him, so we fled here together, and here I gave birth to you.”

After hearing their mother’s words, the brothers said to her, “Please let us return to our maternal grandparents’ home. We can no longer live here.”

Their mother would not consent, but the two children continued to weep. She then discussed the matter with her husband: “The two children keep weeping and refuse to remain here. What can we do? Let us take them back to their maternal grandparents’ home.”

Her husband replied, “Very well.”

They returned together, and the husband, wife, and children all stood before the gate of the maternal grandparents’ home. Seeing a household servant come out, they said, “Go inside and inform the householder that his daughter has returned with her husband and children and is now outside the gate.”

Upon hearing this, her parents replied, “Let the two children come in. As for you, there is no need for you to meet us.”

After the two grandchildren had been brought into the house, bathed clean with scented water, and dressed in beautiful garments and ornaments, the householder held the two boys upon his knees and asked, “How does your mother live in that place? Does she suffer from poverty or want?”

The two children replied, “Our father and mother are very poor there. They make a living by selling firewood.”

Hearing this, their maternal grandmother felt compassion. She immediately opened the treasury, filled a bag with gold, and sent someone to give it to her daughter, saying, “Leave my two grandchildren here for me to raise. Take this gold back to where you have been living, make a good livelihood for yourselves, and do not seek to meet me again.”

When the boys came of age, their maternal grandparents arranged marriages for them. When the grandparents were nearing death, they entrusted all their property to the two grandsons and then passed away.

At that time, the Buddha was teaching the Dharma to the fourfold assembly. Maha Panthaka, the elder brother, also went to hear the Buddha teach the Dharma. After hearing the teaching, he developed the wish to go forth. He returned home and discussed the matter with his younger brother, saying, “I wish to go forth, so I am entrusting the entire family estate to you.”

Hearing his elder brother’s words, the younger brother was deeply grieved and said:

“I am alone and have nowhere to turn for support. If you abandon me and go forth, how will I be able to live?”

Although the younger brother pleaded with him three times in this way, the elder brother remained resolute and did not change his mind. He entrusted the entire family estate to his younger brother and then went forth. Not long after going forth, he attained arhatship.

After a long time, the younger brother thought, “My elder brother went forth and handed over the family estate to me as though it were something he had vomited up. How can I greedily continue to possess it?”

Having become disenchanted with worldly life, the younger brother went to his elder brother and asked to go forth. His elder brother admitted him into the monastic life and taught him a verse, but even after four months he could not memorize it, forgetting the beginning when he remembered the end.

Maha Panthaka thought, “This man has no affinity with the Buddha-Dharma,” and therefore decided to send him home.

After telling Cula Panthaka—Younger Panthaka; Cula means “small” or “younger”—that his faculties were dull and that he should return home, the elder brother pulled him by his kasaya and drove him out through the gate.

Standing at the gate and weeping, the younger brother did not wish to return home.

Surveying sentient beings with his divine eye, the Blessed One saw that Cula Panthaka possessed the causes and conditions to be guided. He therefore went to him and asked, “Why are you standing here weeping?”

He replied, “Blessed One, my faculties are dull. I recited a single verse for four months but could not memorize it. Seeing that I was dull, Maha Panthaka, my elder brother, drove me out of the monastery.”

The Buddha said, “Do not weep or grieve. I shall teach you.”

The Dharma master said, “Why did Maha Panthaka fail to perceive the causes and conditions through which his younger brother could attain the path and instead send him home?”

The answer was, “Cula Panthaka could not be guided by a sravaka; only the Buddha could guide him. Therefore, his elder brother sent him away.”

After comforting him, the Blessed One gave Cula Panthaka a piece of white cloth and said, “Take this cloth, hold it up facing the sun to dry”—see the Commentary on the Dhammapada, 25—“and silently recite: ‘Remove the impurity, remove the impurity.’”

Having instructed him in this way, the Buddha entered the village to accept a meal offered by the mother Visakha. After arriving there and contemplating, he knew that Cula Panthaka was about to awaken to the path. The Buddha then spoke this verse:

The peaceful one rejoices,

Seeing the Dharma, he dwells at ease;

Living without anger, he is exceedingly joyful,

And harms no sentient being.

In the world there is no true joy in sensual desire;

One must be liberated from craving.

Whoever has subdued self-conceit—

That is the highest bliss.

Hearing this verse from afar, Cula Panthaka attained arhatship.

Question: Is there any bhikkhu who goes to a bhikkhuni monastery to teach the eight principles of respect and thereby commits three Pacittiya offenses?

Answer: Yes, when the following factors are present:

1. He has not been appointed by the Sangha.

2. He goes to a bhikkhuni monastery.

3. He teaches until evening.

These constitute three Pacittiya offenses.

If he goes to a bhikkhuni monastery but teaches a Dharma other than the eight principles of respect, he commits one Pacittiya and two Dukkatas. Why?

1. He has not been appointed by the Sangha.

2. He goes to a bhikkhuni monastery.

These are two Dukkata offenses.

If he teaches until evening, he commits one Pacittiya.

To praise Devadatta, Sammuddadatta, Khamdadeviyaputta, Kokalika, and Katamorakatissaka is to extol their names.

Eating in a separate group: Eating in a separate group occurs in two circumstances:

1. By invitation

2. By almsround

– What is eating in a separate group? A male lay devotee approaches four bhikkhus, brings staple food, and invites them, saying, “Venerable Ones, please accept this.” This is called eating in a separate group arising from an invitation.

Accepting an invitation together at one time: Whether for the next day or the day after, if they accept together at one time and eat together in one place as a group of four bhikkhus, this constitutes eating in a separate group, and all four incur an offense. After accepting the invitation together at one time, even if each goes separately to the donor’s house and they then return and eat in separate places, because they accepted the invitation together at one time, they incur the same offense as above.

The Dharma teacher said: Why? Because they accepted the food together at one time.

If they accept the invitation together at one time but arrive separately, receive separately, and eat separately, they incur no offense.

If they accept separate invitations and go separately, but then come together to the donor’s house and receive the food together at one time, they incur an offense. This is called incurring an offense through accepting an invitation.

How is an offense incurred through almsround? Four bhikkhus are on almsround, some sitting and some standing. On seeing a male lay follower, they say to him, “Please give food to the four of us”; or each one says, “Please give me food”—it is the same. Whether they then depart together or separately, because they received the food together at one time, they incur an offense. This is called incurring an offense through almsround.

Illness: If one has a wound on the foot into which sand and dirt have entered and is unable to walk, one may accept a meal in a separate group. This is called illness.

The robe-making period: Having obtained cloth for making a robe, or having already cut it to make a robe, is called the robe-making period, continuing until the knots on the robe have been tied.

Traveling on foot: The minimum distance is half a yojana; traveling by boat is the same.

In a time of famine, when there is not enough food for four people, this is called a period of severe famine.

Food offered by ascetics: This means food offered by ascetics of the same teaching or by ascetics of other teachings.

There are five cases in which eating in a separate group is allowable and entails no offense:

1. The full four have not been invited.

2. Four are present, but one obtained food on almsround.

3. Four are present, but one has not received full ordination.

4. Four are completed by the inclusion of a bowl of food.

5. Four are completed by the inclusion of a sick person.

The fourth and fifth cases will now be explained in detail.

What does it mean that the full four have not been invited?

– A donor invites four bhikkhus. One of them knows of the invitation but does not come to the donor’s house. The donor asks, “Is the elder coming?”

The other three bhikkhus reply, “He is not coming.”

As the meal is about to be served, the donor sees another bhikkhu arriving and immediately invites him inside. Although all four eat together, there is no offense. This is called the case in which the full four have not been invited.

Why is there no offense? Because one of them was not invited beforehand.

What does it mean that four are present, but one obtained food on almsround?

– Three have accepted an invitation, while one has obtained almsfood without accepting an invitation; therefore, there is no offense.

Four completed by a samanera: If three ordained monks and one samanera are invited, there is no offense.

What does it mean that four are completed by a bowl of food? If three ordained monks are invited and one bowl of food is given for a bhikkhu, there is no offense.

Four completed by a sick person: If three ordained monks and one sick bhikkhu are invited, making four in all, there is no offense.

Four bhikkhus are invited, and one of them is knowledgeable in the Vinaya. They wish to eat together but fear committing an offense, so he employs an expedient: When the donor serves the food, he covers his bowl and does not accept it.

The donor asks: “Why do you not accept?”

He replies: “Please offer it to the other three. I wish to give the blessing.”

After the other three bhikkhus have finished eating, the remaining bhikkhu eats afterward and incurs no offense.

If they are invited with an offer of rice, but meat is served when they arrive, an offense is still committed because the type of food was specified beforehand. If they are invited with an offer of rice, but gruel is served when they arrive, there is no offense.

If a donor wishes to offer rice to the Sangha and sends a messenger to the monastery to invite the Sangha, saying, “May the venerable ones accept and partake of our rice.”

Among the Sangha is a bhikkhu knowledgeable in the Vinaya, who reflects: “In this Sangha there are many who observe the ascetic practices, but the messenger does not understand the Dharma and therefore has issued the invitation in this manner.”

Therefore, the bhikkhu replies: “We shall know tomorrow morning.”

The next day, the messenger returns and, as before, still does not know how to invite the Sangha using words that accord with the Dharma.

The bhikkhu knowledgeable in the Dharma replies: “We shall know tomorrow.”

This continues for half a month, yet they still do not understand the proper manner. The bhikkhu knowledgeable in the Dharma then tells them: “If the donor invites the Sangha in this way, he can invite only samaneras, not the great Sangha.”

The messenger says: “The venerable ones accept invitations at other houses; why do you not accept my invitation now?”

He replies: “It is not that we do not accept the invitation, but that you do not know the proper manner of issuing one. You need only say that you invite the Sangha; you must not say that you offer rice, provisions, fish, meat, and so forth. If you simply say that you invite the Sangha, the bhikkhus may accept the invitation without committing an offense.”

If the messenger still does not know how to speak properly even after being instructed in this way, he should be told to return home, lest resentment arise.

The next morning, the Sangha enters the village on almsround. When they come to the house of the donor who had issued the invitation, they may receive and eat the food without committing an offense.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning eating in a separate group. This is a prescribed rule, arising from body and mind. (Ganabhojanasikkhapadam dutiyam).

33. Eating Successive Meals

Eating successive meals: If a bhikkhu has already accepted an invitation but the donor has not yet arrived, and the bhikkhu fears that noon will pass and that the donor may not come, he enters the village on almsround. After obtaining almsfood, he sees that the donor who invited him has arrived, and so the bhikkhu does not eat the food obtained on almsround.

The donor asks: “Venerable sir, why do you not eat?”

The bhikkhu replies: “Because I have accepted your invitation, I may not eat it.”

The donor says: “Please go ahead and partake of it.”

If the donor says this and the bhikkhu eats, there is no offense.

If many donors issue invitations at the same time, eating in this manner entails no offense.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning eating successive meals. This is a prescribed offense, arising from body and mind. (Paramparabhojanasikkhapadam tatiyam).

34. Provisions for a Journey

Regarding provisions prepared for a bride traveling to her husband’s home or for merchants, if a bhikkhu accepts one bowlful, he may eat it or give it to another as he wishes. If he accepts two bowlfuls, he may use one himself and offer one to the Sangha of bhikkhus. If he accepts three bowlfuls, he may use one himself and offer two to the Sangha of bhikkhus. He must not give them to lay acquaintances or relatives. Even if the donor invites him to accept the offering and permits him to take as much as he wishes, he must not accept more than three bowlfuls.

The Dharma teacher said: The other passages are easy to understand. This is a prescribed offense, arising from body and mind; one cannot escape the offense on account of not knowing.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning provisions for a bride traveling to her husband’s home and for merchants. (Kanamatusikkhapadam catuttham).

35. The Five Kinds of Staple Food

Rice prepared from sāli rice, fine rice, ordinary rice, red sāli rice, or barley. If gruel cooked from any of these five kinds of grain is thick enough that, immediately upon being taken from the pot, letters can be traced in it, it may not be eaten without observing the procedure for leftover food. The same applies to gruel cooked with rice and vegetables.

If a little rice is mixed with much water, and while eating one has changed one’s posture, the procedure for leftover food must be observed. With meat gruel cooked from rice together with fish or meat, after one has finished eating, if grains as large as mustard seeds can be seen, the procedure for leftover food must be observed. For food prepared from grasses, roots, tubers, or fruits, the procedure for leftover food need not be observed.

Dried rice: dried rice is made from millet, sāli rice, or barley and dried in the sun.

If dried rice is made from beans or fruit, the procedure for leftover food need not be observed.

Provisions: provisions made from sāli rice, millet, or barley require the procedure for leftover food after one has finished eating. There are two kinds of provisions:

1. Loose provisions.

2. Provisions soaked in molasses and made into cakes.

Inferior broken rice: rice prepared from such grain does not require the procedure for leftover food.

Apart from provisions, cereals, and rice, other foods do not require the procedure for leftover food.

While one is eating any of the five staple foods, with food still in one’s hand or bowl, if someone brings more food within one’s reach and one refuses it and then changes one’s posture, the procedure for leftover food must be observed if one wishes to receive more food.

If it is beyond one’s reach, a refusal does not constitute a refusal.

If it is within one’s reach but all the food in one’s mouth has already been swallowed, a refusal does not constitute a refusal (?).

If there is rice in one’s mouth and the food is within reach, a refusal constitutes a refusal.

In the case of impure meat or anything that is not allowable food, a refusal does not constitute a refusal. Why? Because, being impure, it cannot be eaten.

If one is eating impure meat and food is brought within reach, a refusal does not constitute a refusal.

If one refuses on behalf of another, it likewise does not constitute a refusal. Why? Because one still has the intention to eat more.

If one is eating and refuses on behalf of another, it likewise does not constitute a refusal.

If the food is within reach, at a distance of no more than two and a half cubits from the body, a refusal constitutes a refusal; if it is beyond two and a half cubits, a refusal does not constitute a refusal.

If they bring food and place it on the ground within one’s reach but do not offer it to the bhikkhu, a refusal does not constitute a refusal.

If the hand of a lay attendant is holding the food, a refusal constitutes a refusal.

If they offer food to another bhikkhu, but this bhikkhu thinks they are offering it to him, his refusal does not constitute a refusal.

There are two kinds of refusal:

1. Refusal by bodily gesture.

2. Refusal by speech.

What is refusal by bodily gesture?

– It is to refuse by holding up one’s hand, shaking one’s head, or covering the mouth of one’s bowl with one’s hand. Refusal means indicating that it is enough and that one will accept no more. If fish or meat broth has been cooked with vegetables and they say, “Venerable sir, please accept the vegetable broth,” a refusal does not constitute a refusal. If they say, “Venerable sir, please accept the meat broth,” a refusal constitutes a refusal.

When a staple and a supplementary food are cooked together as gruel, if it is offered by the name of the staple food, refusal constitutes a refusal. If it is offered by the name of the supplementary food, refusal does not constitute a refusal.

Regarding the posture of walking: except when traveling by boat or vehicle, there is no offense.

Food left by a sick person: whether it is food that has been partly eaten or food that has not been eaten at all but will no longer be eaten, it is allowable.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning refusal of further food (Pathama pavāraṇāsikkhāpadaṃ pañcamaṃ). This is an offense established by regulation and arising through body and speech.

37. Kinds of Plants

A bhikkhu may not eat all kinds of plants indiscriminately. The roots, branches, flowers, or fruits of some plants may be used as lifelong medicines. Some plants may be used in their entirety as food at the principal meal. With some fruits, the pulp may be eaten at the principal meal, while the remainder is a lifelong medicine. Some plants may be used in their entirety as lifelong medicine.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning eating at the wrong time. (Vikālabhojanasikkhāpadaṃ sattamaṃ).

39. Asking for Fine Food

If one asks for fine foods such as milk, butter, fish, or meat, one commits a Pācittiya offense. Asking for other foods constitutes a Dukkaṭa offense.

There is no offense when asking on behalf of a sick person.

Here ends the explanation concerning asking for fine food (Paṇītabhojanasikkhāpadaṃ navamaṃ).

40. Except Water and Tooth-Cleaning Sticks

If devas, spirits, animals, or birds offer food, it is validly received.

If they carry food on their heads or shoulders and offer it to a bhikkhu, telling the bhikkhu to take it himself, it is not validly received. If they bend down and the food falls into the bhikkhu’s hands, it is validly received.

If a carrying pole is as long as twenty armspans, with food hanging from both ends, and lay attendants carry it together and offer it to a bhikkhu, only one end can be received; the other end is not validly received.

If, while going for alms, a bhikkhu encounters wind and rain and mud falls into his bowl, he should form the thought that he is gathering alms for a novice. After receiving food, he should tell the novice, “While I was gathering alms, I encountered wind and rain, and mud fell into my bowl. Since the food was not validly received, I gathered alms for you; I now give it to you.”

After receiving it, the novice should say to the bhikkhu, “This is the novice’s food; I now offer it to the venerable sir.” When it is offered in this way, it may be received without offense.

If a bhikkhu is holding his bowl while eating and suddenly falls asleep, and someone places food in his bowl without his knowing it, the food is not validly received.

If a bhikkhu is about to receive food but falls asleep, and another person places food in his bowl, it is validly received. Why? Because he had already formed the intention to receive food.

If there are large pieces of earth or grit in the food, they may be removed, and the food may be eaten without offense.

If particles of dust are so fine that they fall into the bowl and cannot be removed, one should ask another person to transfer the food to another vessel.

If two people are eating together and food is offered to one of them, but some of it spills into the other bhikkhu’s bowl, it is validly received.

While eating, if sweat runs from one’s head or neck and falls into the bowl, the food must be received again. If sweat runs from one’s arm into one’s hand, it need not be received again.

If food is thrown to the ground, then moves and falls into a bhikkhu’s hand, it is validly received.

If a lay attendant is in a tree and lowers fruit tied to a rope as an offering to a bhikkhu, it is not validly received.

If a person whose arm is as long as ten yojanas serves food to a bhikkhu, it is validly received.

If a bhikkhu is sick and a novice or lay attendant carries him to seek fruit, the bhikkhu must ask for it again from the lay attendant.

After obtaining the fruit, the lay attendant should take it in his hand, draw it toward his own body, and then pass it to the bhikkhu; it is thereby validly received.

When traveling in hot sunshine, if a bhikkhu carries a fruit-bearing branch for shade and later notices fruit on the branch, he may not touch it. He should ask a novice to pick the fruit and then offer it to him; he may then receive it.

If food is being carried in a boat or cart, a bhikkhu may steer the boat or pull the food-laden cart and may eat the food without offense.

If many bhikkhus are traveling together with only one young novice, and all the bhikkhus carry their own provisions, then at mealtime each should set aside his own portion. After receiving his portion, the novice should say to a bhikkhu, “I now offer the novice’s portion in exchange for the venerable sir’s portion.”

After making the exchange, the novice should take the portion received in exchange and offer it to the second elder in exchange for his portion. Having completed that exchange, he should offer it to the third elder in exchange for his portion. In this way, he should proceed successively through the entire Sangha. If they eat in this manner, there is no offense.

If the novice does not know this procedure, the bhikkhus themselves should exchange their food with the novice. After the first elder has exchanged his portion, the second elder should exchange his with the novice. After the second elder has exchanged his portion, the third elder should exchange his with the novice. Proceeding successively in this manner, the entire Sangha may exchange its food and eat without committing an offense.

Contact with food kept overnight: If a bhikkhu carries rice along and a young novice is unable to cook the food, the bhikkhu may prepare it himself, except that he must not kindle the fire; he should tell the novice to kindle it. After the food is cooked, he should divide it into portions and exchange the food as described above; there is no offense.

When cooking it himself, if the food boils over, the bhikkhu must not blow on it or stir it with an implement; doing either entails an offense of dukkata.

If one vomits food but it has not passed beyond the throat, swallowing it again is no offense. If the vomited food has passed beyond the throat and one swallows it back into the throat, one commits an offense of pacittiya.

If raw ginger has been accepted and subsequently sprouts, its valid acceptance is not lost.

If, after it has been made allowable by fire, it later sprouts again, the newly grown sprout should again be made allowable. There is no offense in eating the portion that is not the sprout without making it allowable again.

Salt that has been accepted does not lose its valid acceptance if it later dissolves into liquid. In a sudden illness, feces, urine, ashes, or earth may be taken and drunk as medicine. If ashes are unavailable, one may cut wood and burn it to obtain ashes.

What is a sudden illness? It is, for example, the painful effects of poison from a snakebite and so forth.

The Dharma teacher says that the other passages are easy to understand. This is an offense established by regulation, arising from body and speech (Dantaponasikkhapadam dasamam).

43. The rule concerning sitting in a house where two persons are engaged in sexual intercourse:

This has been clearly explained under the two indeterminate rules (Sabhojanasikkhapadam tatiyam).

44. Sitting alone with a woman in an open place

If the two sit together on the same bed or seat, converse with mutual understanding, and are within arm’s reach of each other, an offense of pacittiya is committed. If they converse without understanding one another but are within arm’s reach, an offense of dukkata is committed.

47. Using an offering for a different purpose

Mahanama was the Buddha’s paternal cousin, born one month before the Buddha, and attained the path of stream-entry. If a donor offers medicine, it should be used as medicine and not as food. If oil was offered but one asks for ghee instead, one commits an offense of dukkata.

(Mahanamasikkhapadam sattamam).

48. Types of soldiers

Elephant troops: Four men on an elephant and eight men below are called elephant troops.

Cavalry: One man on a horse and two men below are called cavalry.

Chariot troops: Four men accompanying one chariot are called chariot troops.

Infantry: Four men proceeding together are called infantry.

(Uyyuttasenasikkhapadam atthamam).

51. Consuming liquor

If liquor is cooked into food or made into medicine and the smell and taste of liquor remain, consuming it entails an offense of dukkata. If neither the smell nor the taste of liquor remains, it may be consumed.

(Surapanasikkhapadam pathamam).

53. Playing in water

Playing in water whose depth reaches from the calf downward entails an offense of pacittiya. If one rocks a boat or splashes water in play, one commits an offense of dukkata.

(Hassadhammasikkhapadam tatiyam).

58. Using a robe that has not been marked to make it allowable

Blue-green—the color of copper rust—or blue, magnolia color (a dark, nearly black green), or the color of mud may be used to make a mark upon the robe, thereby making it allowable. When any of these three colors is used to mark it, the mark must be at least as large as a sesame seed. Using a robe that has not been marked to make it allowable entails an offense of pacittiya.

(Dubbannakaranasikkhapadam pancamam).

62. Using water containing living creatures

If a bhikkhu knows that water contains living creatures but nevertheless drinks or uses it, each mouthful drunk constitutes one offense of pacittiya. The same applies if, knowing that water contains living creatures, he pours it onto a fire or into hot water.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning the use of water containing living creatures (Sappanakasikkhapadam dutiyam).

64. Concealing another’s offense

If a bhikkhu knows that another bhikkhu has committed a grave offense and conceals it, and a second bhikkhu conceals it in turn, and so on—even if a hundred thousand bhikkhus all conceal it—they each commit an offense of pacittiya. This is an offense by its very nature, arising from body and mind.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning concealing another’s offense (Dutthullasikkhapadam catuttham).

65. Age for full ordination

For a person who has not yet reached twenty years of age and wishes to receive full ordination, the months spent in the womb, intercalary months, and the additional days beyond the fortnightly uposatha days each month should be included in the calculation. If these complete twenty years, the person may be given full ordination.

(Unavisativasikkha pancamam).

66 + 67. Traveling together on the same road

Conspiring with a band of tax thieves to travel together on the same road is an offense established by regulation. Conspiring with a bhikkhuni to travel together on the same road is an offense established by regulation. This is clearly stated in the Vinaya.

Theyyasatthasikkhapadam chattham).

68. Rubbing and caressing women

Arittha held the wrong view that rubbing and caressing one another’s intimate parts with lustful intent did not obstruct the path to rebirth in heaven or the path to liberation. Because this wrong view had arisen in him, Arittha said that stream-enterers and once-returners could have wives without obstructing the Noble Path. He declared that rubbing and caressing intimate parts likewise did not obstruct the Noble Path, subjectively comparing this act with other things and arguing that, if rubbing and caressing were said to obstruct the Noble Path, then blankets, mattresses, and pillows are also soft; why, then, is it said only that rubbing and caressing women obstructs the Noble Path?

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning Arittha’s wrong view (Aritthasikkhapadam atthamam).

71 & 72. Disparaging the disciplinary rules

One who studies the Vinaya possesses five virtues, six virtues, seven virtues, eight virtues, nine virtues, ten virtues, and eleven virtues.

The five virtues are:

1. One personally observes the precepts.

2. One can dispel the doubts of others.

3. One remains unafraid when entering an assembly.

4. Adversaries must submit.

5. One enables the true Dharma to endure for a long time.

What does it mean to observe the precepts personally? It means maintaining pure precepts, without breach, rent, or leakage.

A Vinaya master has six conditions under which an offense is not avoided—that is, if he acts under them, he commits an offense:

1. Not being without intentional transgression.

2. Ignorance.

3. Not being without doubt.

4. Declaring what is impure to be pure.

5. Declaring what is pure to be impure.

6. Not being without heedlessness.

Not being without intentional transgression means knowing and still deliberately acting; this is called intentional transgression. As stated in the Vinaya, one who knows and still deliberately acts commits an offense. Concealing something despite knowing it, or going to a place to which one must not go, is called intentional transgression.

Ignorance means that a person does not understand the defining characteristics of a precept and thus does whatever he wishes to do. Although this is called acting without knowledge, he nevertheless commits an offense.

Committing an offense while in doubt means that one wishes to act, has doubt in one’s mind, but nevertheless acts; this is called committing an offense while in doubt.

What does it mean to declare what is impure to be pure? It means declaring bear meat, which is impure, to be pork, which is pure, so that it may be eaten. This is called declaring what is impure to be pure. Declaring tiger meat to be venison, or eating at an improper time while claiming that one is eating at the proper time, is called declaring what is impure to be pure.

What does it mean to declare what is pure to be impure? It means that the meat is truly venison, but one deliberately regards it as tiger meat and eats it, and so forth; likewise, one eats at the proper time while declaring it to be an improper time. This is called declaring what is pure to be impure.

What is heedlessness? It is sharing sleeping quarters with a person who has not received full ordination for more than two nights without being aware of it. This is called committing an offense through heedlessness. There are also cases in which, through heedlessness, one does not know the proper and improper times or does not know that one is sleeping apart from one’s robe. This is called heedlessness.

What does it mean to dispel another’s doubts? A bhikkhu has committed an offense but, being uncertain, cannot determine the matter himself. If he comes to ask, one knows how to decide the matter for him in accordance with the Vinaya. This is called dispelling another’s doubts.

What does it mean to be unafraid when entering an assembly? Because one understands the Vinaya, one acts correctly according to the matter at hand. This is called entering an assembly without fear.

What does it mean that adversaries must submit? For example, regarding the ten unlawful practices introduced by the Licchavis, one is able to eliminate them in accordance with the Vinaya. This is called causing adversaries to submit.

What does it mean to enable the true Dharma to endure for a long time?

– First, one personally lives in accordance with the Dharma.

– Second, one can enable others to attain the Dharma. Through attaining the Dharma, they maintain the Vinaya with a rightly directed mind. Through maintaining the Vinaya, they enter meditative concentration. Through meditative concentration, they attain the fruits of the path. This is called enabling the True Dharma to endure for a long time.

As stated in the Vinaya, the Buddha told Ananda: “After I enter parinirvana, the Vinaya shall be your teacher.” This is called enabling the True Dharma to endure for a long time. If there are at least five bhikkhus in the world who understand the Vinaya, they can enable the True Dharma to endure for a long time. If the Buddha-Dharma has disappeared from Central India, ordination may be conferred in a border region by a group of five.

In Central India, a full complement of ten persons must be present before full ordination may be conferred upon another. This is called enabling the True Dharma to endure for a long time. Likewise, a group of up to twenty persons is authorized to rehabilitate one from an offense entailing a formal meeting of the Sangha.

This is called enabling the True Dharma to endure for a long time. Because the True Dharma endures for a long time through Vinaya masters, these are called the five virtues of upholding the Vinaya.

What are the six virtues of upholding the Vinaya?

1. Mastering the three Patimokkhas.

2. Knowing the Uposatha.

3. Knowing the invitation ceremony.

4. Knowing the procedure for conferring full ordination upon others.

5. Accepting others as dependent pupils.

6. Being permitted to support novices.

These are the six virtues.

What does mastering the Patimokkha mean?

1. Knowing the Uposatha on the fourteenth day.

2. Knowing the Uposatha on the fifteenth day.

3. A harmonious Uposatha.

4. The Sangha’s Uposatha and a group’s Uposatha.

6. One person’s Uposatha.

7. The Uposatha conducted by reciting the Patimokkha.

8. The Uposatha by declaration of purity.

9. The Uposatha by command.

These are called the nine cases of the Uposatha that a Vinaya master must know.

There are nine cases of the invitation ceremony:

1. The invitation ceremony on the fourteenth day.

2. The invitation ceremony on the fifteenth day.

3. A harmonious invitation ceremony.

4. The Sangha’s invitation ceremony.

5. A group’s invitation ceremony.

6. One person’s invitation ceremony.

7. The invitation ceremony with three statements.

8. The invitation ceremony with two statements.

9. The invitation ceremony among those of equal seniority.

These are matters that a Vinaya master must know.

The Sangha has four procedures:

1. A motion before the Sangha.

2. A motion and formal act.

3. A formal act consisting of one motion and one proclamation.

4. A formal act consisting of one motion and three proclamations.

These four procedures belong to the knowledge of a Vinaya master; they are not known by a Sutra master or an Abhidharma master.

One who does not understand the Vinaya and knows only the sutras and treatises may not ordain novices or serve as a teacher upon whom others depend.

One who possesses the five virtues and the six qualities above becomes a Vinaya master fully endowed with eleven virtues. Because Vinaya masters uphold the Vinaya, the Buddha-Dharma remains in the world for five thousand years. For this reason, many bhikkhus came to study the Vinaya under Upali.

Why does one study the Vinaya, recite it, and explain its meaning? It means studying the minor and detailed portions of the Vinaya (Sahadhammika-misikkhà padamì patthama). From the two indeterminate rules through the rules to be trained in are called the details. If one disparages the precepts before a senior bhikkhu, one commits a Pacittiya offense. If one disparages the precepts before a person who has not received full ordination, one commits a Dukkata offense. The other passages are easy to understand and need no explanation.

Here ends the explanation of the rule concerning disparaging the Vinaya precepts (Vilekhanasikkhàpa-dam dutiyam). This is an offense by its very nature, arising from body and speech.

73. (not present)

74. Striking (another bhikkhu):

The group of six bhikkhus frequently beat the group of seventeen bhikkhus because, when ordered about, they did not comply. If, in anger, one strikes another nearly to death, one commits a Pacittiya offense.

If, in anger, one strikes another so as to split his head or break his arms or legs, one commits a Pacittiya offense.

If one strikes a person who has not received full ordination, or even an animal, one commits a Dukkata offense.

If, with lustful intent, one strikes a woman, one commits an offense entailing a formal meeting of the Sangha.

If confronted by a tiger, wolf, lion, or even a danger to the holy life, and one strikes with one’s hand in order to escape, there is no offense.

(Pahàrasikkhàpadam catutthamï).

75. Threatening to strike:

The hand does not touch the body; one merely raises it as though intending to strike.

Here ends the rule concerning threatening and intending to strike (Talasattikasikkhàpadadam panõcamam).

78. Eavesdropping:

To listen secretly from a concealed place means listening through a wall or going to a dark place to eavesdrop. With each step taken, one commits a Dukkata offense; upon reaching a place where one can hear, one commits a Pacittiya offense.

If one goes to listen secretly because one wishes to correct one’s own faults, there is no offense.

This is an offense by its very nature (Upassutisikkhàpadam atthamam).

79. Regret

The rule concerning a bhikkhu who, after consenting to a formal act of the Sangha, later regrets it.

No explanation (Kammapatibàhanasikk-hàpadam navamam).

80. Leaving

While the Sangha is assembled to conduct Sangha business and the matter is not yet concluded, one leaves on one’s own initiative without saying anything.

No explanation (Chandamïadatvà gamanasikkhàpadam dasamamï).

81. Changing one’s mind

If a bhikkhu, having previously rejoiced in and consented to the Sangha’s proceedings, later says that the bhikkhus diverted the Sangha’s property and gave it to their own associates.

This rule is not explained (Dabbasikkhàpadam ekàdasamam).

83. A bhikkhu must not enter the royal palace

The Buddha told Ananda: “There are ten faults in entering the royal palace.” What are the ten faults?

– When the king and queen are sitting together in one place, the queen sees a bhikkhu and smiles. On seeing the queen, the bhikkhu also smiles. Seeing this, the king becomes suspicious that this bhikkhu will have illicit relations with the queen. This is the first fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that entering the royal palace has yet another fault. If the king has intercourse with a woman of the inner palace and afterward forgets about it, but she bears a child, the king says: “I did not approach this woman of the palace, so how could she have a child? It must have been the bhikkhu’s doing.” This is the second fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that there is yet another fault. If a precious object is lost in the palace and cannot be found despite a search, the king says: “Who else could it have been? It must have been taken by the bhikkhu.” This is the third fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that there is yet another fault. If confidential words spoken in the royal palace become known outside, the king thinks: “It must have been the bhikkhu who spread them outside.” This is the fourth fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that there is yet another fault. If the king demotes a person of high rank and promotes a person of low rank when no one else has been permitted to enter the royal palace, people will say: “Surely the bhikkhu advised the king to act in this way.” This is the fifth fault.

– (... the sixth fault?)

– The Buddha told Ananda that entering the royal palace has yet another fault. If the king strips a prominent elder of his position and appoints the elder’s son in his place, the people become dissatisfied and say: “Surely the bhikkhu who frequents the royal palace advised the king to act in this way.” This is the seventh fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that a bhikkhu’s entering the royal palace has yet another fault. If the king orders his soldiers into action at an improper time, causing the people to become dissatisfied, they will say that the bhikkhu advised the king to act in this way. This is the eighth fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that entering the royal palace has yet another fault. If the king orders the army to withdraw midway at an improper time, causing the people to become dissatisfied, they will say: “It was the bhikkhu who advised the king to act in this way.” This is the ninth fault.

– The Buddha told Ananda that entering the royal palace has yet another fault. If the king rides in a carriage or upon an elephant or horse adorned with precious objects, the people become dissatisfied and say that the bhikkhu advised the king to act in this way. This is the tenth fault.

Here ends the explanation of the rule that a bhikkhu must not enter the royal palace (Ràjanteparasikkhàpadam pathamamï).

84. Handling precious objects

If one picks up a precious object for the sake of the Buddha or the Sangha, one commits a Dukkata offense. If one finds a precious object that has been dropped in the Sangha’s room or within the monastery, one should keep it safe on the owner’s behalf. When going elsewhere, one should tell a person who knows the Dharma and fears wrongdoing: “If the owner comes to claim it, return it to them.”

If, after a long time, no owner comes to claim it, it may be used to build quarters for the Sangha, a pond, or a well; it must not be used for oneself.

If, after a long time has passed, the owner comes to claim it, one should take them there and point out the Sangha quarters or the well, saying, “This is the donor’s property.”

If they offer it as a donation, that is good. If they do not donate it but wish to recover the original property that was lost, the bhikkhu should enter the village and, upon meeting a faithful donor, say, “On such-and-such a day of such-and-such a month, a valuable object that had been dropped was found in the monastery. It was kept safe for a long time, but no one came to claim it, so it was used to build Sangha quarters, a pond, or a well. Now the owner has come to claim the original property. Could you provide an object with which to redeem it and offer it to the Sangha?”

If they redeem it and offer it to the Sangha, that is good. If no one is able to redeem it and make the offering, the bhikkhu should exhort and solicit contributions from various places to gather enough to repay the owner. This concludes the explanation of the precept concerning handling valuables (Rataanasikkhàpadam dutiyam). This is an offense originating from bodily action.

85. The precept concerning entering a village at an improper time is not explained (Vikàlegàmappavesanasikkhàpadam tatiyam).

86. Lying on a fine, high bed is not explained (Mancasikkhàpadam pancamamï).

87. The precept concerning making a sitting cushion stuffed with kapok is not explained (Tùlonaddhasikkhàpadam chattham).

88. The precept concerning making a needle case of horn is not explained (Sùcigharasikkhàpadam catuttham).

89. A sitting cloth is to be made two spans long and one and a half spans wide, according to the Buddha’s measure. If one additional span is added—that is, six Chinese inches—the excess at the end must be cut off in accordance with the rule. Thus, for every additional span, according to the Buddha’s span, the excess must be cut from three sides of the sitting cloth. This permitted addition is measured according to the Tathagata’s span.

This concludes the explanation of the precept concerning the sitting cloth (Nisìdanasi-kkhàpadam sattamam).

90. The precept concerning a cloth for covering sores is not explained (Kandupaticchàdisikkhàpadam atthamam).

91. The precept concerning a rains-bathing cloth is not explained (Vassikasàtikasikkhàpadam navamam).

-ooOoo-

The Pātidesanīya Rules (Pathamapàtidéaniya).

1. The first Pātidesanīya rule is not explained.

2. If both husband and wife have attained the path of stream-entry, then even if they possess a hundred measures of gold, they will donate it all. Because they have attained the path, they no longer cling to or begrudge their possessions. Through excessive giving, their household becomes impoverished. Therefore, the Buddha established this precept to prevent members of the Sangha from accepting their offerings.

-ooOoo-

The Training Rules (Sekhiyavatta).

Thi Sa (Sikkhà) means training.

Ca La Ny (Karanìya) means what must be learned and practiced.

If the lower calves are large or long, or the thighs are thin and small, the robe may be worn lower.

When pouring out water used to wash the bowl in a layperson’s house, there is no offense if all the rice has first been gathered and given to living beings, and only the remaining water is poured away. If broken rice is mixed with water and poured out as an offering to living beings, there is no offense.

One must not urinate or defecate in clean, usable water.

There is no offense in the following cases: water that people do not use.

– In seawater.

– In water that could be used but is in a remote, deserted place where no one uses it.

One must not sleep overnight or store requisites in a stupa dedicated to the Buddha. These two rules are absent from the Pāli text. This is because, while the Buddha was alive, there were not yet any stupas enshrining the Buddha’s relics. These rules were established by the Buddha during his lifetime and therefore could not have included such provisions. Thus, the following rules are concerned:

1- Wearing leather sandals into a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

2- Carrying leather sandals in one’s hand into a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

3- Wearing boots into a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

4- Carrying boots in one’s hand into a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

5- Carrying a corpse beneath a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

6- Cremating a corpse beneath a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

7- Cremating a corpse facing a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

8- Cremating a corpse on any of the four sides of a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

9- Carrying the clothing and bed of a deceased person past a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

10- Urinating or defecating beneath a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

11- Urinating or defecating facing a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

12- Urinating or defecating around a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

13- Bringing an image of the Buddha to a place used for urination and defecation.

14- Cleaning one’s teeth with a tooth-stick beneath a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

15- Cleaning one’s teeth with a tooth-stick while facing a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

16- Cleaning one’s teeth with a tooth-stick around a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

17- Spitting beneath a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

18- Spitting toward a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

19- Spitting around a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

20- Stretching one’s feet toward a stupa dedicated to the Buddha.

– Installing an image of the Buddha in a room on a lower floor.

The twenty rules transmitted above are absent from the original Pāli text because, while the Blessed One was alive, there were no stupas dedicated to the Buddha.

At that time, the Buddha rebuked the group of six bhikkhus, saying, “Why do you remain below while teaching the Dharma to those above?”

The Buddha told the bhikkhus, “Long ago, in the country of Bārāṇasī, there was a householder named Chapaka. His wife was pregnant and wished to eat mangoes. She said to her husband, ‘I crave mangoes; please find some for me.’

The husband replied, ‘This is not mango season. How could I find any?’

The wife said, ‘If you cannot find mangoes, I shall surely die.’

Hearing his wife’s words, the husband thought, ‘Only the king’s garden will have mangoes out of season. I shall go and steal some.’

Having formed this plan, he secretly entered the king’s garden at night to steal mangoes. Before he could pick a single fruit, dawn broke. Unable to leave the garden, he hid in a tree.

At that time, the king entered the garden together with a brahmin, wishing to eat mangoes. While the brahmin remained below, he taught the Dharma to the king, who was seated upon a high seat.

While hiding in the tree, the mango thief thought, ‘I am stealing mangoes, an act punishable by death. Because the king is listening to the brahmin teach the Dharma, I shall escape. I am acting contrary to the Dharma, but the king is also acting contrary to the Dharma, and the brahmin likewise is acting contrary to the Dharma. Why is this? For the sake of a woman, I am stealing the king’s mangoes. The king, too, is arrogant: his teacher sits below while he remains above to listen to the Dharma. Out of greed for gain and offerings, the brahmin remains below and teaches the Dharma to the king, who is seated above. The king, the brahmin, and I are all acting contrary to the Dharma; therefore, I shall escape.’

Having reflected thus, the man climbed down from the tree, approached the king, and spoke this verse:

Three people do not know the Dharma;

Two people do not see the Dharma.

The teacher does not accord with the Dharma;

The listener does not understand the Dharma.

For the sake of eating fine rice

And excellent foods,

Merely for food and drink,

I speak contrary to the Dharma—this makes three.

Fame and gain have corrupted

The family Dharma of you all.

“When I, the Buddha, was still an ordinary person, upon seeing one below teaching the Dharma to one above, I declared their conduct contrary to the Dharma. How much more so today, when I see you, my disciples, yourselves remaining below while teaching the Dharma to those above. The person who stole the fruit at that time was I in a former life.”

This concludes the section on the training rules (Sekhiyavamnanà nitthità).

The rules for settling disputes will be explained clearly in the subsequent Khandhaka section (Bhikkhuvibhangavannanà titthità).

-ooOoo-

THE PRECEPTS FOR BHIKKHUNĪS

The precept concerning physical contact: if, from below the hollow of the shoulders and from above the knees and elbows, she touches and caresses another, she commits a Pārājika offense.

If a bhikkhunī caresses a bhikkhu and the bhikkhu experiences pleasure but does not move his body in response, he incurs no offense.

If a bhikkhu comes and caresses a bhikkhunī, and the bhikkhunī does not move her body in response but experiences pleasure, she incurs an offense according to the place of contact.

This concludes the section on the latter four Pārājika rules.

If a bhikkhuni tells another person to accompany her to the authorities and says to that layperson, “You should present the case first,” then if the layperson presents the case, the bhikkhuni commits a dukkata offense. After the layperson has finished speaking, if the bhikkhuni continues to speak to the authorities about the litigation, she commits a thullaccaya offense. If the layperson continues speaking and the bhikkhuni wins the case, she commits a Sanghadisesa offense. If the bhikkhuni does not win the case, she likewise commits a Sanghadisesa offense.

If a layperson says, “Bhikkhuni, the authorities summon you,” and, after she arrives, the authorities tell her, “Return home; we shall adjudicate the matter ourselves,” then whether she wins the case or not, the bhikkhuni commits no offense.

If a bhikkhuni goes before the authorities and merely refers to “a person” without stating the person’s name, and the authorities ask who that person is, she must not disclose the person’s name. If she asks the authorities to punish that person by imposing a material penalty, whether of great or little value, she commits an offense and must make restitution to that person. If, when questioned by the authorities, she does not clearly state that person’s name, she commits no offense. If the authorities subsequently discover the person’s identity on their own and impose punishment, the bhikkhuni commits no offense.

If someone steals a bhikkhuni’s robe, the bhikkhuni must not say that the person is a thief; she may only say, “This person took my robe away.”

If someone is going to seize a bhikkhuni’s property, she is permitted to go to the king and request protection for herself, but she must not state that person’s name. If she states the person’s name, she commits an offense.

As stated above, upon hearing the bhikkhuni’s request for protection, the king has a drum beaten and proclaims: “Whoever violates this bhikkhuni shall be punished according to the law.”

Thereafter, if someone violates the bhikkhuni and is punished by the king according to the law, the bhikkhuni commits no offense.

If someone enters a bhikkhuni monastery and cuts down or damages its trees, the bhikkhuni must not seize that person’s knives or axes and destroy them. If she damages them, she must compensate the person according to their value. If she does not make restitution, she commits an offense according to whether their value is great or little.

The remaining passages are easy to understand. This concludes the explanation of the rule concerning litigation with others.

The rule concerning the ordination of a female thief: No explanation.

The rule concerning leaving the boundary without authorization to perform the formal act of rehabilitating one who has been suspended: No explanation.

Any bhikkhuni who travels alone by boat across a river commits a Sanghadisesa offense.

This concludes the explanation of the seventeen Sanghadisesa rules for bhikkhunis.

The thirty rules requiring forfeiture and expiation: No explanation.

The sixty Pacittiya rules.

Garlic refers only to large bulb garlic: each piece eaten entails a Pacittiya offense. There is no offense in eating small garlic or scallions. It is permitted to mix large garlic into food to remove odors, as a seasoning, and there is no offense.

When washing the urinary passage, one should use two fingers, inserting each no more than one joint. If cleansing with one finger, it may be inserted up to two joints, but no farther. One must not use all three fingers for cleansing; inserting them inside entails an offense.

Any bhikkhuni who asks for seeds of rice, maize, or wheat commits a Pacittiya offense. If she asks for beans, melons, or vegetables, there is no offense. If she asks for rice, maize, or wheat for the purpose of constructing lodgings, there is no offense.

One must not urinate or defecate upon any vegetables, grass, fruit-bearing trees that are still alive, or grains of rice; doing so entails a Pacittiya offense. Urinating or defecating upon fruit, dry wood, or seeds that have not yet sprouted entails a dukkata offense.

Going to watch dancing or singing—including going to watch monkeys, apes, or peacocks frolicking together—entails a Pacittiya offense. If one goes to watch dancing within the monastery, there is no offense.

After the rains retreat, one should travel at least six yojanas away from the monastery. If one does not go, one commits a Pacittiya offense.

The eight Patidesaniya rules: No explanation.

This concludes the section on the bhikkhuni rules (Bhikkhunivibhangavannanā nitthitā).

The Khandhaka sections.

Khandhaka: translated into Chinese as “Miscellaneous Section.”

Then, seven days after his enlightenment, the Buddha emerged from meditative absorption. Sakka, lord of the devas, offered him a haritaki fruit (Osadhaharitaka—a mountain fruit, the Kha-lê-lặc fruit). After the Buddha accepted and consumed it, Sakka again offered him a tooth-cleaning stick and clean water (Mukhodaka—water for washing the face).

At that time, two merchants came from the village of Ukkalā, their carts fully laden with goods, and were about to enter the country. When they approached the Bodhi tree, their carts suddenly stopped and would go no farther. Seeing that the carts would not proceed, the two brothers regarded this as an ill omen and prepared food as an offering to spirits and deities.

The tree deity then manifested the upper half of his body and said to the merchants, “Your carts cannot proceed because I have detained them. Merchants, you should know that the son of King Suddhodana renounced the household life to cultivate the Path and has attained omniscience beneath the Bodhi tree. For seven days he has eaten nothing.

Offer cakes and honey to the Tathagata, and you will obtain welfare, security, and happiness for a long time.”

Hearing the tree deity speak thus, the two merchant brothers immediately offered cakes and honey to the Blessed One.

The sequence of these passages has already been clearly explained in the Vinaya.

The first people to take the Two Refuges were the two merchants who offered cakes and honey to the Buddha.

After taking refuge, as they wished to depart, the two brothers said to the Buddha, “How may the two of us make offerings to the Buddha?”

The Buddha raised his hand and stroked his head, and hair fell into his palm. He told the merchants, “You should make offerings to this hair; doing so is itself making offerings to your Great Teacher.”

Question: Where is the bowl in which he formerly received the milk-rice, such that he now accepted the bowls offered by the Four Heavenly Kings?

Answer: The bowl in which the Buddha had formerly received the milk-rice sank into the water when he crossed the Nerañjarā River. The nāga king beneath the waters took it and enshrined it as an object of offering. Therefore, the Buddha now had to accept the bowls offered by the Four Heavenly Kings. This bowl was colored like a jewel.

Anyone who wishes to seek ordination, has received permission from their parents, has no illness, and is free from impediments should approach the Sangha. If the community has assembled, the matter should be announced to the Sangha; if it has not assembled, the members should inform one another so that everyone knows.

After the announcement has been made to the Sangha, the candidate should bathe and cleanse himself. When he has finished bathing, the preceptor should regard him as his own son and must not give rise to a disparaging mind. Why? If the preceptor attends to his affairs with a wholesome mind, the disciple will regard the preceptor and acariya as his father.

Before shaving the candidate’s hair, the preceptor should teach him the five subjects of contemplation. These five are hair of the head, hair of the body, nails, teeth, and skin (kesā, lomā, nakhā, dantā, taco).

These five subjects are taught because some people contemplated these five in previous lives. Now, when their shaven hair falls to the ground, their former wholesome karma arises, and they immediately attain arhatship. Therefore, they must first be taught the five subjects, and only afterward may their hair be shaved. Rāhula, for example, attained arhatship before all his hair had been shaved. Just as a boil that has ripened needs someone to lance it before it can burst, and just as a lotus must await sunrise before it opens fully, so it is with a person about to go forth: through being taught the five subjects, that person may awaken to the Path.

When shaving the candidate’s hair, one should leave five or three patches of hair on his head, wash them clean with scented water to remove the odor of secular life, and then bring him before the preceptor.

The preceptor asks, “Do you consent to having all the remaining hair on your head shaved off?”

He replies, “Yes, venerable sir.”

The preceptor himself shaves the hair from his head.

After his hair has been shaved, the candidate kneels before the preceptor. The preceptor hands him the kasaya robe; the candidate receives it and places it upon his head, then returns it to the preceptor. This is done three times.

After the ordination candidate has placed the kasaya upon his head, the preceptor dresses him in the robe. The candidate must not take and put on the kasaya on his own initiative; it must be handed to him by the preceptor.

Next, the candidate pays homage to the bhikkhus, approaches the Acariya, bows at his feet, kneels, and joins his palms. The Acariya instructs him:

– Repeat after me, and I shall teach you to undertake the Three Refuges.

He replies:

– Yes, venerable sir.

After administering the Three Refuges, the Ten Precepts are next conferred.

How are the Three Refuges undertaken?

Answer: There are two ways of undertaking the Three Refuges:

1- Undertaking them separately.

2- Undertaking them together.

What is undertaking them separately? Undertaking them separately means saying: “I go to the Buddha for refuge; I go to the Buddha for refuge; I have gone to the Buddha for refuge. I go to the Dharma for refuge; I go to the Dharma for refuge; I have gone to the Dharma for refuge. I go to the Sangha for refuge; I go to the Sangha for refuge; I have gone to the Sangha for refuge.” This is called undertaking them separately.

Undertaking them together means saying: “I go to the Buddha for refuge; I go to the Dharma for refuge; I go to the Sangha for refuge. I have gone to the Buddha for refuge; I have gone to the Dharma for refuge; I have gone to the Sangha for refuge.” This is recited three times. This is called undertaking them together.

One must not say that one goes to the Sangha for refuge first and then to the Dharma and the Buddha, nor may the phrases be intermixed.

If the teacher instructs the disciple to say “I go to the Buddha for refuge,” but the disciple pronounces it incorrectly as “I go to the Budha for refuge,” the undertaking is still valid.

If the teacher incorrectly instructs him to say “I go to the Budha for refuge,” but the disciple correctly says “I go to the Buddha for refuge,” the undertaking of the Three Refuges is still valid.

If both teacher and disciple incorrectly recite the formula for taking refuge in the Buddha, the undertaking of the Three Refuges is not valid.

If the teacher instructs him to say “I go to the Buddha for refuge,” but the disciple replies, “Yes, venerable sir,” or the words do not issue from his mouth, or he utters an incomplete formula, the undertaking of the Three Refuges is not valid.

After undertaking the Three Refuges, the Ten Precepts are next undertaken.

There are two ways of undertaking the Ten Precepts:

1- Undertaking them separately.

2- Undertaking them together.

What is undertaking them separately? It is to say: “I undertake the precept to abstain from killing living beings; I undertake the precept to abstain from killing living beings; I have undertaken the precept to abstain from killing living beings.” Each of the other precepts is undertaken successively in the same manner. This is called undertaking them separately.

What is undertaking them together? It is to say: “I undertake the first precept, to abstain from killing living beings; the second, to abstain from stealing; the third, to abstain from sexual activity; the fourth, to abstain from false speech; the fifth, to abstain from drinking intoxicants; the sixth, to abstain from eating after midday; the seventh, to abstain from dancing, singing, music, using musical instruments, and deliberately going to see or hear such performances, even to the extent of not going to watch contests; the eighth, to abstain from wearing garlands and ornaments and from applying perfumes; the ninth, to abstain from lying or sitting on high and luxurious beds or seats; the tenth, to abstain from accepting jatarupa.

Jatarupa means gold, silver, and all precious objects, none of which may be accepted.”

If their speech is not mutually intelligible, as when they speak different regional languages and cannot understand one another, the meaning must be explained to the candidate, such as: “This means not killing living beings.”

The candidate replies:

– I can observe it.

In this way, the undertaking of the precepts is also accomplished.

A person of slow faculties who does not know how to put on his robe or carry his bowl must not leave his preceptor. He must follow the preceptor in every respect in order to learn.

The preceptor should regard the disciple as his own young child.

End of the Section on the Ordination of Novices.

-ooOoo-

The duties of a disciple in attending upon his teacher:

At dawn, he should rise early, rinse his mouth, wash his hands, feet, and face, remove his leather sandals, and enter the preceptor’s quarters.

When the teacher has awakened and risen, the disciple should offer him three kinds of tooth-cleaning sticks—large, medium, and small—presenting all three at once. If the teacher ordinarily selects the large stick each day, the disciple should retain the medium and small ones and offer him the large one. If the teacher ordinarily uses the medium stick, the disciple should retain the large and small ones. If the teacher ordinarily uses the small stick, the disciple should retain the large and medium ones. If he sometimes uses the large stick, sometimes the medium one, and sometimes the small one, the disciple should offer whichever of the three the teacher prefers.

He should offer water to the teacher. There are two kinds of water: cold and warm. If the teacher ordinarily uses cold water, the disciple should retain the warm water. If the teacher ordinarily uses warm water, the disciple should retain the cold water. If the teacher sometimes uses cold water and sometimes warm water, the disciple should offer whichever of the two the teacher prefers. End of the section on offering water.

When the preceptor enters the privy to relieve himself, the disciple should go to the preceptor’s room to sweep it, arrange the bed and seat, and put the robes in order.

Offering the Sanghati robe: The disciple should fold the Sanghati and the undergarment and offer them to the preceptor. If the preceptor is preparing to depart, the disciple should put on his robe, carry his bowl, and follow behind him. He must walk neither too near nor too far away, but approximately seven Chinese feet behind the preceptor. (0.3 m × 7 feet = 2.1 m — translator)

The teacher should instruct the disciple in observing the precepts, and if the disciple commits an offense, he should teach him to confess it. If the disciple lacks a bowl and the teacher has a spare one, he should give it to him.

If the disciple falls ill, the teacher should care for him.

If the preceptor has many disciples, one should attend upon him, while the others may study and recite the scriptures as they wish.

At that time, a brahmin wished to seek ordination, but the bhikkhus would not consent, so he wept and grieved.

Seeing that the brahmin had become thin, weak, and haggard from grief, the Buddha asked the bhikkhus why the brahmin was so haggard.

The bhikkhus replied: “This brahmin wishes to seek ordination, but the bhikkhus will not consent, so he has become sorrowful, thin, and weak.”

The Buddha asked the bhikkhus whether any among them had received a kindness from this brahmin.

Sariputta replied:

– In the city of Rajagaha, this brahmin once gave me food; therefore, I know him.

The Buddha told Sariputta:

– You should ordain this brahmin.

Sariputta said:

– Blessed One! How should I ordain this brahmin?

The Buddha told Sariputta:

– You should perform the formal act with a motion followed by three proclamations (Natticatutthā kammavācā).

Then, after assembling the bhikkhus and teaching the Dharma, the Buddha instructed them that henceforth ordination was not to be conferred by a threefold recitation. Within the Sangha, a bhikkhu well versed in the Vinaya should confer ordination upon the candidate through a formal act with a motion followed by three proclamations.

After being ordained, newly ordained bhikkhus committed many improper acts and did not train in proper conduct. Bhikkhus of few desires and contentment reproached them, saying: “Why do you commit improper acts and fail to train in proper conduct?”

Those bhikkhus replied: “Who invited you, venerable sir, to confer ordination upon us? Who requested you, venerable sir, to become our preceptor?”

Then bhikkhus of few desires reported to the Buddha that bhikkhus who had neither invited a preceptor nor requested ordination were nevertheless being given full ordination.

On this account, the Buddha laid down the rule that full ordination must not be conferred upon anyone who has not invited another to be his preceptor and has not requested ordination. Whoever confers ordination upon such a person commits an offense of dukkata.

The procedure for inviting a preceptor and requesting ordination is clearly set forth in the Vinaya.

At that time, some bhikkhus conferred full ordination upon a person by performing the formal act with a motion followed by three proclamations with only two or three bhikkhus present.

Bhikkhus of few desires and contentment reproached them and then reported the matter to the Buddha.

Because of this incident, the Buddha assembled the bhikkhus and instructed them that henceforth a quorum of ten Sangha members should be established to confer full ordination upon a person. If full ordination is conferred when fewer than ten are present, an offense of dukkata is committed.

Some bhikkhus who had completed only one or two rains retreats conferred full ordination upon others. Because they did not know how to instruct them, their disciples did not know how to maintain proper deportment. One such bhikkhu brought his disciples before the Buddha, bowed at his feet, and sat to one side.

The Buddha then inquired:

– Are the four great elements of your bodies in harmony? Is it easy for you to obtain almsfood?

They replied that the four great elements of their bodies were in harmony and that it was easy to obtain almsfood.

Thereupon, although the Buddha already knew, he deliberately asked:

– Whose disciples are these bhikkhus?

He replied:

– They are my disciples.

The Buddha asked:

– How many rains retreats have you completed?

He replied:

– Two rains retreats.

The Buddha asked:

– How many rains retreats have your disciples completed?

Answer: “One rains retreat.”

The Buddha immediately rebuked him, saying, “You yourself are like a child not yet weaned from milk; how can you admit others into the Order?”

After rebuking him, the Buddha assembled the bhikkhus and taught: “From now on, a bhikkhu who has not completed ten rains retreats may not admit anyone to full ordination. If he grants full ordination, he commits an offense. Even one who has completed ten rains retreats but is foolish and without wisdom may not grant full ordination to another.”

Here ends the section on ordination.

-ooOoo-

The Dharma teacher said: “What follows explains the conditions under which dependence (Nissaya) is lost and is not lost.”

When a disciple traveling together with his teacher on whom he depends sees his preceptor, his dependence on that teacher is terminated.

If he sees his preceptor but thinks that he is not his preceptor, the dependence is not terminated.

If the preceptor enters within the boundary, enters a house, or enters a village to seek alms, and the disciple hears his voice but does not see his form, the dependence is terminated in every such case. If he hears the voice but thinks it is not that of his preceptor, the dependence is not terminated.

If a non-Buddhist ascetic has newly entered the Buddha’s Dharma, he should be given Parivāsa—a probationary period. After being placed under Parivāsa, if he delights in frequenting the five places that should not be frequented, as explained above; is lazy and unwilling to study the Buddha’s Dharma; rejoices upon hearing the Buddha’s Dharma disparaged; or rejoices upon hearing the Sangha disparaged, he may not be granted full ordination.

Even if a non-Buddhist ascetic undergoing Parivāsa attains the fourth dhyāna and is even able to fly through the air, he still may not be granted full ordination until the full four months have elapsed. If, within the Buddha’s Dharma, he has attained the fruit of stream-entry, and he comes before the Sangha to request admission into homelessness, he may be admitted and granted full ordination without having to undergo the four-month probationary period of Parivāsa.

After he has completed the full four-month probationary period, if he still rejoices upon hearing the Buddha’s Dharma disparaged, becomes angry upon hearing non-Buddhist teachings disparaged, or delights in frequenting the five places that should not be frequented, he must be required to undergo another full four-month probationary period.

Matted-hair ascetics and fire-worshiping ascetics need not be placed under Parivāsa. Why? These two classes of non-Buddhist ascetics believe, through all three kinds of karma, in cause and effect. When the Buddhas were bodhisattvas in the past and cultivated the perfection of renunciation, they studied under these two kinds of non-Buddhist ascetics.

Here ends the section on giving non-Buddhist ascetics a probationary period before admission into homelessness.

-ooOoo-

Leprosy (Kuṭṭha) has many forms, including white leprosy, black leprosy, ulcerous sores, and ringworm; all are classified as leprosy.

Nor may a person afflicted with leprosy or ringworm be admitted into homelessness; even a lesion no larger than a fingernail disqualifies the person from admission.

A ringworm lesion as large as a fingernail that appears on an exposed part of the body, whether spreading or not, disqualifies a person from admission. If it appears on a concealed part of the body but is spreading, the person likewise may not be admitted. If it is not spreading, the person may be admitted.

A tumor growing on an exposed part of the body, whether increasing in size or not, disqualifies a person from admission. If it grows on a concealed part of the body but is not increasing in size, the person may be admitted.

If a lump temporarily appears during defecation and afterward subsides, the person may be admitted. Because this is not a tumor, admission is permissible.

If small eruptions appear on the body as though the skin had been pricked by a sharp point, they are classified as leprosy, and the person may not be admitted.

Concerning the admission of persons under the king’s authority: At that time, certain bhikkhus admitted the king’s military commanders into homelessness. Later, a rebellion arose, and the king wished to summon those commanders to suppress it. He sent messengers to search for them, even in the quarters of the Sangha. The messengers saw that the commanders had been admitted into homelessness by the bhikkhus, so they returned and reported to the king that the bhikkhus had admitted those commanders into homelessness.

Upon hearing this, the king assembled his officials for deliberation and asked, “What punishment should be imposed for admitting a person belonging to the royal service?”

The officials replied, “The one who served as preceptor should be beheaded; the kammavācā teacher should have his tongue cut out; and the others who participated in the ordination assembly should have their ribs broken.”

At that time, the king had already attained the path of stream-entry. After hearing the words of his officials, he went to see the Buddha and said: “From now on, please do not admit persons belonging to the king into homelessness. In the future, when worldly kings who have no faith in the Three Jewels arise, if bhikkhus admit persons belonging to the king into homelessness, they will be punished according to the law.”

Those belonging to the king or to his officials, including anyone who merely receives a royal stipend, are all considered persons belonging to the king. If a father receives a royal stipend but his son does not, the father may not enter homelessness, but the son may. One who receives a royal stipend for a fixed term may not enter homelessness before that term has expired. Only after the period of receiving the royal stipend has ended may he enter homelessness. If one is determined to enter homelessness, he may transfer his share of the stipend to his brothers, children, or other relatives, and afterward enter homelessness. If one who receives a stipend petitions the king and receives permission, he may enter homelessness.

Bandits are those who plunder, rob, steal, obstruct travelers on the road, and kill people. If a person is known by name to be a bandit, he may not be admitted into homelessness.

If one became a rebel because of political schemes but has abandoned that evil intention and wishes to enter homelessness, he may be admitted. Because a danger to the country has thereby been removed, the king, upon hearing that the rebel has entered homelessness, will be greatly pleased.

If such a bandit abandons his evil conduct, surrenders to the king, and receives the king’s permission, he may be admitted into homelessness.

A person presently suffering from a wound caused by a weapon may not be admitted. Once the wound has healed, he may be admitted into homelessness.

If a criminal has had his name branded upon his body with a heated iron, he may not be admitted into homelessness. If the mark is later successfully treated and removed, he may be admitted.

A debtor (Iṇāyika): A person who is himself in debt, whose grandfather or father incurred a debt, or whose son incurred a debt for which he is responsible may not enter homelessness. If someone has repaid the debt on his behalf, he may enter homelessness.

Bondservants (Dāsa—slaves or servants): There are four kinds of bondservants:

1. One born in the household.

2. One purchased by a master.

3. One enslaved after being captured in a raid.

4. One who voluntarily becomes a bondservant.

One who voluntarily becomes a bondservant is one who, for the sake of food and clothing, willingly enters servitude.

If a master releases a bondservant to enter homelessness but says to the bhikkhus, “If the bondservant possesses a sincere aspiration for the path, he is released to enter homelessness. If he does not possess such an aspiration, he must return to servitude,”

then, if the master speaks in this manner, the bhikkhus may not admit that bondservant into homelessness.

At that time, an epidemic arose in the household of a certain layman. At first it killed flies and centipedes; afterward it killed chickens and pigs, then cattle and goats, then bondservants, and finally people of good standing. When this disease arose, no one could leave the house through the doorway; they had to break through the wall and proceed straight out without looking back. Anyone who looked back died. If such a person did not die immediately, he would die upon reaching another region.

At that time, a father and his two sons broke through the wall and went straight out without looking back, and thus survived. After reaching another region, they were so impoverished that they could not support themselves, so they went to the bhikkhus and requested admission into homelessness.

The bhikkhus admitted them into homelessness. After their admission, the father led his two sons on the alms round.

Commentary on the Vinaya: The Good-Seeing

—Volume Sixteen—