諸經要集

Chief Editor: Thích Nguyên Chơn

XXIII. THE TEN EVIL DEEDS

This chapter consists of ten sections: Killing, Stealing, Sexual Misconduct, False Speech, Harsh Speech, Divisive Speech, Frivolous Speech, Greed, Anger, and Wrong Views.

XXIII.1. Killing

Having taken birth among the six realms^[29], every kind of being clings to life; having received a form from heaven and earth, all fear death. Although sentient beings are born and perish among the myriad species, and wisdom and foolishness vary in a thousand ways, ultimately they never depart from these two concerns: avoiding suffering and seeking happiness. [128b] What is strange about this?

Thus, a frightened bird plunged down upon a table and begged the King of Wei^[30] to spare its life. A cornered animal fled into a thatched cottage, hoping that the man named Âu would save it. A Han king provided food and was repaid with a luminous pearl^[31]. Dương Bảo offered flowers and was rewarded with jade rings^[32]. There was even a novice monk who saved a colony of ants from flowing water and received the karmic blessing of an extended lifespan. A man who made a channel of water to save a school of fish was, in return, blessed with a rain of precious treasures^[33]… How could all similar accounts ever be enumerated?

How, then, could one wantonly kill sentient beings to sustain one’s own body, causing creatures to suffer and die harboring resentment? Though the earth is vast and boundless, they have nowhere to hide; though the heavens rise majestically on high, they know no one to whom they can plead their case.

Therefore, a sutra states: “All sentient beings fear knives and clubs and cherish their lives. Therefore, forgive sentient beings as you would forgive yourself: do not kill and do not strike.” Deluded ordinary beings possess inverted and mistaken views. Thus, whether for auspicious or inauspicious occasions, private or public affairs, sacrificial offerings, or entertaining guests, some kindle their hearths, light fires, and cut up and cook animals for food.

Others, whenever free from public or private duties throughout the months and years, set out in the dim, dew-laden morning and remain until the blazing noonday sun. They mount wind-chasing horses and release falcons that fly as swiftly as lightning; they wield the swords Cự Khuyết^[34] and Can Tương^[35] and bear the bows Ô Hiệu^[36] and Phồn Nhược^[37]. They capture every creature in ponds and marshes and shoot all the fledglings in forests and mountains.

They destroy birds’ nests, dig up animals’ dens, and spread nets over fields and mountains, blocking the front, intercepting the rear, meeting them on the left, and encircling them on the right. Horses’ hooves raise clouds of dust that obscure the sun, while dense smoke and fire rise to the clouds. Birds separated from their flocks scatter in confusion, and beasts parted from their herds flee for their lives.

Wild geese in flight hear the twang of bowstrings, lose their senses in terror, and fall; troops of apes cling to trees and howl mournfully. All are driven into perilous caves, where they wail in anguish, gazing upon the green forest and uttering cries of despair.

Thus, no bow is drawn in vain and no arrow misses its mark. Their backs are then pierced, their breasts skewered, their heads severed, and their brains gouged out. Some cast hooks into turbid waters and throw bait into still marshes; they angle for carp at river landings and shoot crucian carp in ponds and wells.

Once their crimson scales hang aloft, they forever lose the power to carry a message^[38]; once their white flesh is hooked, they forever lose the auspicious chance of leaping into a boat. Their flesh and bones are minced, placed on platters, and distributed. Or, because the Hiễm Duẫn^[39] tribes were wicked, troops had to be dispatched to subdue them; because enemy forces disturbed the frontier, military might had to be employed.

Even virtuous kings commenced wars, and even enlightened sovereigns undertook punitive campaigns. Thus, fame was won through the campaign that ascended Mount Nhi^[40], while the great victory at Mục Dã^[41] was praised as a manifestation of sublime virtue. Among such men, some commanded armies of millions and ranged unhindered in every direction; another led five thousand soldiers in a stealthy attack and routed Tào Tháo’s forces at the Battle of Xích Bích^[42].

Others defeated Emperor Hạng at Ô Giang^[43], displayed Vương Mãng’s severed head upon a high terrace^[44], or cast Đổng Trác’s corpse into the marketplace of the capital^[45]. All were heroes whose martial power dominated their age. People such as these are too numerous to record fully, yet together they created the karma of piling bones into mountains and causing blood to flow like rivers.

Now the imperial army advances with the force of thunder, displaying its might to eradicate rebellion and deploying its troops in battle formations to guard the frontiers. Some have served in the vanguard and also taken part in the rear guard. Beneath the cloud-emblazoned banners^[46], who would dare rest secure?

Before keen blades, dangers are indeed numerous. Thus, how many have had to bow their heads before sword points and beg for their lives beneath spearheads? Such offenses cannot be fully described.

Sentient beings harm one another because of enmity, resentment, or because they have created causes for a shortened lifespan and therefore must incur the retribution of frequent illness… May we vow henceforth to sever such deeds forever, so that even into the future we may together become companions on the path to bodhi, never damage wholesome affinities, and all become friends in the Dharma.

The Sutra of Contemplation of the True Dharma states: “What does it mean not to kill? If tiny insects have arisen among the five grains, such as rice or beans, one must neither grind nor pound them. Knowing that insects are present, one must protect them, must not hand them over to others, and must not kill them.

Or when oxen, horses, donkeys, or camels develop ulcerated sores infested with worms on their necks or backs from carrying loads, one must not use medicine that kills the worms in those sores when cleansing the wounds. Instead, one should first use a feather to remove the worms and place them upon another piece of rotten meat so that they do not die. In this way, one both protects the health of the oxen, donkeys, and other animals and preserves the lives of worms, ants, and other small creatures.

One must always exercise care and never give rise to the intention to kill. If a sentient being intends to eat insects, one must use one’s own food to ransom their lives so that they may remain alive.”

The Vinaya records: “Long ago, while the Buddha was still in the world, there was a brahmin in the kingdom of Śrāvastī who regularly made offerings to the arhat bhikshu Kāludāyin. The brahmin had only one son, who had married. As he approached death, the brahmin instructed his son: ‘After I die, you must honor and make offerings to the Venerable Kāludāyin as I do today. Do not allow him to lack anything.’

After his parents passed away, the son obeyed their instructions and made offerings to the Venerable Kāludāyin just as he had while they were alive.

One day, the son had business that required him to travel far from home. He instructed his wife to remain at home and make offerings to Kāludāyin. That day, five hundred bandits also arrived.

Among them was a bandit of handsome appearance. When the wife saw him from afar, she sent someone to summon him and then committed adultery with him. The Venerable Kāludāyin came on several occasions and discovered them engaged in their illicit relationship.

Fearing that he would reveal the matter to others, the brahmin’s daughter-in-law conspired with the bandit to kill the Venerable One. Because King Prasenajit cherished the Venerable One, when he heard that Kāludāyin had been killed by bandits, he became enraged [129a] and ordered the execution of the brahmin’s entire household and the inhabitants of more than eighteen neighboring households. He also had the five hundred bandits arrested, their heads and feet severed, and their bodies thrown into a ditch.

Upon witnessing this, the bhikshus returned and reported it to the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One! What evil karma did Kāludāyin create in the past that he has now been killed by that brahmin’s daughter-in-law?’

The Buddha told the bhikshus:

– In ancient times, Kaludayin was the custodian of a temple dedicated to a deity. At that time, five hundred people carried a goat whose four legs had been severed to the temple as a sacrifice to the deity, and together they offered prayers. The temple custodian then killed the goat. Because he killed the goat, he fell into hell and endured immeasurable suffering. The temple custodian of that time is now Kaludayin. Although the Venerable One had attained arhatship, his evil karma from a previous life had not yet been exhausted, and so he now had to undergo this retribution. The goat of that time is now the brahmin's wife; the five hundred people who severed the goat's legs are now the five hundred bandits whose legs were severed by the king.

The Buddha told the bhiksus:

– Those who kill will receive retribution, which will never be lost.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “In the past, when the Buddha was still in the world, there was an elder named Liuqimi in the city of Sravasti. He had seven sons, all of whom had married. The wife of his youngest son was named Vaisali. She possessed both ability and virtue and was proficient in every affair. Liuqimi entrusted his entire household estate to his daughter-in-law. Because of her ability and virtue, Vaisali earned the admiration of King Prasenajit, who entered into a bond of sworn siblinghood with her.

Later, she became pregnant. When the time came for her to give birth, she produced thirty-two eggs, and from each egg a son hatched. When they grew up, her sons were handsome in appearance and possessed extraordinary strength; each one alone could withstand a thousand men. When they reached marriageable age, they all married daughters of virtuous and wealthy families in the kingdom.

One day, Vaisali invited the Buddha and the Sangha to her home to make offerings. After hearing the Buddha expound the Dharma, everyone in the family attained the fruit of stream-entry, except for the youngest son, who had not yet attained realization.

One day, the youngest son was riding an elephant for pleasure when he encountered the prime minister's son walking across a bridge. He seized the man and threw him beneath the bridge, injuring his entire body. The prime minister's son returned and reported the matter to his father. The prime minister told him: ‘This man is not only strong but is also closely connected with the king. It will be difficult for us to overcome them by force; we must use strategy to take revenge.’

He then fashioned thirty-two horsewhips from the seven precious substances and forged sharp steel blades, which he concealed inside the whips. He presented one whip to each of Vaisali's thirty-two sons. Her sons were all delighted and happily accepted them without the slightest suspicion. They habitually carried them, even when entering or leaving the royal court.

According to the law of the kingdom, anyone going to meet the king was forbidden to carry weapons. Having already devised his scheme, the prime minister now saw that his opportunity had arrived. Seeing them carrying the whips, he slanderously reported to the king:

– Your Majesty! The sons of Vaisali have only recently come of age, yet they are exceedingly strong, each one capable of withstanding a thousand men. Now they are plotting to assassinate the king, and each carries a blade concealed within his horsewhip. I beseech Your Majesty to investigate.

The king immediately ordered them searched, and it was indeed as the accusation had stated. Believing it to be true, the king ordered all of Vaisali's sons to be killed. He then [129b] had their thirty-two heads placed in a single chest, sealed it with the royal seal, and sent it as a gift to his sworn younger sister.

On that same day, Vaisali had invited the Buddha and the Sangha to her home to make offerings. When she saw that the king had sent her a chest, she thought to herself: ‘Perhaps the king has bestowed offerings for the Buddha and the Sangha.’ Thinking this, she was about to open it, but the Buddha stopped her and said:

– Wait until the Sangha has finished its meal before opening it.

After the meal, the Buddha taught Vaisali the Dharma concerning suffering, impermanence, and so forth, enabling her to attain the fruit of non-returning.

After the Buddha departed, Vaisali opened the chest and saw the thirty-two heads of her sons. Yet because she had severed sensual attachment, she no longer felt sorrow and anguish, but merely lamented: ‘How painful! Once human beings are born, they must die; how could they live forever? Drifting through the five realms, how great is their suffering!’

When the wives of the thirty-two young men and their relatives learned of this, they cried out indignantly: ‘The unrighteous king has mistakenly killed innocent men!’ They then assembled troops and horses and advanced to take revenge. When the king heard the news, he fled in terror to the Buddha, while they led their forces to surround Jetavana Monastery.

Seeing that the king had killed Vaisali's thirty-two sons, causing their relatives to come and seek revenge, Ananda joined his palms and asked the Buddha:

– World-Honored One! Through what causes and conditions were Vaisali's thirty-two sons killed by the king?

The Buddha told Ananda:

– In the past, thirty-two men stole an ox and led it to an old woman's house, where together they killed and ate it. The old woman gladly brought out the implements for slaughtering it. Just as they were about to bring down the knife, the ox knelt and begged them to spare its life, but everyone was determined to kill it. The ox then made a vow: ‘You kill me now, but in a future life I will not spare you.’

After killing it, they cooked and ate it together. Having eaten her fill, the old woman happily said: ‘Throughout all the banquets I have attended, I have never eaten anything as delicious as today's meal.’

The Buddha told Ananda:

– The ox of that time is now King Prasenajit. Those who stole the ox are now Vaisali's thirty-two sons. The old woman of that time is now Vaisali. Because they killed the ox, throughout five hundred lifetimes these men were continually killed by others. Because the old woman rejoiced in their deed, throughout five hundred lifetimes she continually became their mother, and whenever her sons were killed, her maternal heart suffered boundless grief. Now, because that mother has encountered me, she has attained the fruit of non-returning.

When the wives and relatives of those thirty-two men heard the Buddha speak in this way, their resentment vanished. Each said to themselves: ‘Because these men planted this cause in a previous life, they must now reap its fruit. For killing a single ox, they have now suffered such retribution; how much more so if they had killed many living beings! Prasenajit is our king; why should we resent him and wish to kill him?’

They then knelt before the king, repented, and asked to receive punishment. Because of what had transpired, the king was also pleased to forgive them and did not hold them guilty.

Ananda asked the Buddha:

– World-Honored One! What wholesome merit did Lady Vaisali's sons cultivate that they are now healthy and wealthy, have encountered the Buddha, and attained the fruits of realization?

The Buddha taught:

– In the past, during the time of Kasyapa Buddha, there was an old woman who blended various fragrances with oil and took it to coat a stupa. On the way, she encountered thirty-two men and encouraged them to go with her to coat the stupa. [129c] After they had finished coating it, they all made this vow: ‘May we, wherever we are born in life after life, possess wealth, honor, and power; may we continually be mother and sons to one another; and may we encounter the Buddha and attain the Way.’ Therefore, from that time until now, throughout five hundred lifetimes, they were continually born into noble families and always became mother and sons to one another. Today, having encountered the Buddha, they all attained the fruits of the Way.”

Verse on the primary retribution:

Killing creatures, their hearts rejoicing,

They enter hell, grieving and weeping.

Filthy water is poured over their bodies;

Molten copper is poured into their mouths.

Mountains of blades and vast pits of fire

Dismember them, scattering flesh and bone.

For millions of years, amid myriad sorrows,

Their anguish cannot be fully told.

Verse on the residual retribution:

Killing beings leads to four realms^[47],

Where suffering is borne in the three evil destinies.

Afterward, though born as a human,

One is sickly and dies young.

Afflicted by illness, one suffers greatly,

And one's life is exceedingly fragile.

If one is a person of wisdom,

One should never heedlessly kill.

XXIII.2. Stealing and Robbing Property.

Sentient beings who take birth within the six realms all have craving and desire as their source; those who receive the endowments of yin and yang all have attachment and love as their root. Although humans and animals are not the same, their covetous attachment does not differ. Therefore, one who encounters wealth and takes it unrighteously is no worthy person; one who, upon seeing profit, forgets righteousness cannot become a noble person.

Moreover, money, gold, jade, cloth, and silk are necessities used by people in the world; banners, canopies, flowers, and fruit are offerings made to the Sangha. Even if one is destitute, one should rejoice in the prosperity of others. How could one, merely because one is poor, covet and seize another person's possessions? Devadatta plucked a flower and consequently fell into a lower realm. Gavampati cut stalks of grain and was reborn in the body of an ox. Kasyapa begged for a cake and was ridiculed by others. A bhiksu smelled the fragrance of flowers and was rebuked by the deity guarding the pond. Thus, we should know that the offense of stealing and robbery is extremely grave.

Therefore, some people have nowhere to eat by day and nowhere to sleep at night. They drift through life like birds alighting or deer pausing to rest, their naked bodies curled up as they sleep by the roadside, begging for food from house to house. It may even come to pass that the mother follows the francolin southward, while the child follows the northern horse northward. The husband is like the shadow of the sun declining toward the west, while the wife resembles a swift-flowing river rushing eastward. They all think of their former homeland, their hearts aching as though their entrails were torn apart; remembering their birthplace, they cry aloud. Their tears flow until they become tears of blood, while anguish gathers upon their eyelids.

Such sufferings all arise from not knowing how to practice generosity in former lives and from having committed theft and robbery. Therefore, the sutra states: If you wish to know the causes of the past, observe the results of the present; if you wish to know the results of the future, examine the causes of the present. [130a] Hence, practitioners are exhorted always to guard themselves and never give rise to thoughts of stealing. They should not covet even lost property, much less take the possessions of others. Cases of theft include:

XXIII.2.1. Stealing Offerings Made to the Buddha

As recorded in the Nirvana Sutra: “When a monastery is built, a Buddha is enshrined, and flower garlands are offered, anyone who hastily takes them without first asking commits the offense of stealing, whether or not anyone knows of the act.”

The Vinaya Treatise states: “If one steals banners or flowers from a stupa of a sravaka or a Buddha, one commits a grave offense, because one deprives the donor of merit.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “If one steals objects from a stupa enshrining the Buddha, or offerings from a monastery where there is a custodian, one commits a grave offense.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya recounts the story of a person who stole relics, while the Sarvastivada Treatise tells of someone who stole a Buddha image. In both cases, the person who stole them did so with sincere intent to venerate and make offerings. That person thought: “They are disciples, and I too am a disciple.” Although such a person takes the object without asking, because the sole intention is to make offerings, no offense is committed. (In this case, if the donor is understanding toward the person who took it, no offense is committed; if the donor is not understanding, a grave offense is committed.)

The Matrka Treatise states: “If one steals relics or Buddha images and sells them to make a living, one commits an extremely grave offense.” (The value of these Dharma objects can be determined only with reference to the Buddha's ruling. Thus, a later passage in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya cites this story: “At that time, someone stole another person's scripture scroll. The Buddha taught: The words of the Buddha are priceless. Therefore, the value should be calculated according to the paper and ink; if it amounts to five coins, a grave offense is committed.”)

XXIII.2.2. Stealing Property of the Sangha

The Mahisasaka Vinaya states: “If one borrows property from the Sangha and does not return it, the offense is determined according to the value of that property.”

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha states: “The offense of stealing unrestricted property of the Sangha^[48] is even graver than killing eighty-four thousand fathers and mothers.”

The Ratnarasi Sutra states: “I would rather eat my own flesh than ever use property belonging to the Three Jewels.”

The Vaipulya Sutra states: “Bodhisattva Flower Garland said: ‘I may still be able to save those who commit the five rebellious offenses^[49] and the four grave offenses^[50], but I cannot save those who steal property belonging to the Sangha.’”

The Chapter on Aiding the Nagas in the Mahasamnipata Sutra records: “At that time, certain nagas attained the knowledge of former lives. Recalling their past karma, they wept like rain and went before the Buddha. Each spoke for himself:

– I remember that in a past life I was a human being. Through causes and conditions, I drew near to the Buddha-Dharma and was also able to hear the Dharma. I had faith and resolved to offer many flowers, fruits, foods, and drinks, after which I ate them in turn together with the bhiksus.

Another naga said:

– I once ate foods, drinks, and fruits belonging to the Sangha of the four directions.

Another naga said:

– I went to a monastery and made offerings and paid homage to the Sangha. Through making such offerings, from the time of the seven Buddhas until now, I was repeatedly born as a person of faith and offered various flowers, fruits, foods, and drinks to the Three Jewels. After the bhiksus accepted them, they gave them back to me, and I then ate them. Because of these karmic conditions, I had to remain in hell for immeasurable kalpas, scorched and boiled in fierce flames, or made to drink molten copper or swallow red-hot iron balls. After leaving hell, I was reborn among animals; after relinquishing an animal body, I was born among hungry ghosts. In this way, we have undergone immense bitterness and suffering.

[130b] The Buddha said:

– Such evil karma is comparable to stealing offerings made to the Buddha. The offense of the five rebellious acts is only half as grave as this offense. It is exceedingly difficult to escape its retribution. During the Auspicious Kalpa^[51], only when that person encounters the last Buddha, named Rucika, will this offense finally be exhausted.

Question: Why is the offense of stealing and using property belonging to the Sangha so extremely grave?

Answer: Stealing any property of the Sangha involves the noble and ordinary members of the Sangha throughout the ten directions, from the Buddhas above down to ordinary members of the Sangha. Because the sphere involved is boundless, the offense is also boundless. Although particles of dust may be counted and known, the retribution of a person who commits this offense cannot be fathomed.

Why is this so? Because a donor has relinquished even a small article—though it be no larger than a strand of hair—or a single grain of rice, offering it to noble and ordinary renunciants throughout the ten directions for their use as they cultivate the path day and night, not to provide for secular people. Therefore, when the sound of the bell rings, members of the Sangha from near and far partake of the meal together.

When noble and ordinary members alike make use of the offerings, these become provisions for their practice of the path and invisibly help the donor obtain boundless benefit. Since the merit generated is abundant, the offense incurred is likewise not slight. Now we see deluded and confused sentient beings who make no distinction between what is honorable and what is base and who have no faith in the Three Jewels.

Some covet offerings and appropriate them as personal possessions; consume food and fruit; ride animals belonging to the Sangha; employ the Sangha's servants; borrow property of the Sangha and fail to return it for a long time; when repeatedly asked by the Sangha to return it, they instead revile and curse them; relying on official authority and powerful influence, they investigate and seek faults in the Sangha.... Harmful acts against the Sangha such as these are too numerous to enumerate fully.

When one stills the mind and reflects upon these transgressions, how could one's heart not ache?

When members of the Sangha do not give such property to others, it is not because they are miserly or lack benevolence, but because, out of compassion, they pity the white-robed laity and fear that, after accepting it, they will have to undergo suffering. If a member of the Sangha gives Sangha property to another person, not only does this directly harm the secular person, but the Sangha steward also incurs an offense; both must undergo painful retribution in future lives. Therefore, the Sutra of the Buddha's Original Conduct states that a single evil thought can lead to five unwholesome consequences:

1. It burns away a person's wholesome roots.

2. It gives rise to other evil thoughts.

3. It incurs the rebuke of noble ones.

4. It causes one to regress from the fruits of the path.

5. At death, one is born in an evil realm.

Knowing that the retribution for the offense of stealing can never be altered, I sincerely admonish everyone that henceforth, whenever taking or using property belonging to the Sangha, one must carefully examine oneself.

XXIII.2.3. Stealing and Indiscriminately Using Property

The Jewel Seal Sutra states: “Property belonging to the Buddha and the Dharma must not be used interchangeably. This is because no one can be the master of property belonging to the Buddha and the Dharma, nor is there anyone from whom permission may be sought. Property belonging to the Buddha and the Dharma is unlike property belonging to the Sangha, for both the property of the permanent Sangha and that of the invited Sangha^[52] have persons from whom permission may be sought.

If Sangha property is to be used to repair a Buddha stupa, the prescribed Dharma procedure must be followed, and it may be used only with the Sangha’s consent. If the Sangha does not consent, laypeople should be encouraged to undertake the repairs. If a Buddha stupa possesses articles, or even one coin or more sincerely offered by a donor, devas and human beings must regard those things as belonging to the Buddha and the stupa.[130c] Even if they are damaged by wind or fall into disrepair, they must not be sold or exchanged for other offerings. This is because no one can set a price upon property belonging to a Tathagata’s stupa.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “The Buddha permitted attendants, elephants, horses, oxen, goats, and so forth to be kept within the monastery for the Sangha’s daily activities. However, because they each have an owner, they must not be used interchangeably.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya states: “If a large surplus of offerings belonging to the Buddha remains, it is permitted to exchange or sell them in order to purchase incense and lamps. This is permitted because the surplus articles are abundant, so that even after some are exchanged or sold, enough still remains for use.”

The Oral Instructions on the Five Hundred Questions states: “When there is a large surplus of banners and streamers offered to the Buddha and one wishes to use them for another service of the Buddha, they may be used if the donor consents. Conversely, if the donor does not consent, they must not be diverted to another purpose.”

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya states: “The caretaker of a Buddha stupa is permitted to consume food offered at the stupa.”

The Commentary on the Vinaya, the Good Discernment, states: “Food offered to the Buddha may be consumed by the bhikshu attending upon the Buddha. If there is no bhikshu, a layperson attending upon the Buddha may also consume it.”

The Sutra Resolving Doubts Concerning Sin and Merit states: “Before laypeople present offerings to the Buddha, the senior, intermediate, and junior elders must instruct them first to make offerings to the Buddha and afterward to the Sangha. If food is offered to the Buddha and then, in due order, offered to the Sangha, no offense is committed. If this procedure is not followed, anyone who consumes the Buddha’s food will fall into Avici Hell for a hundred billion years. A donor who does not heed the Sangha’s instruction will likewise incur the foregoing retribution. If that person is later born as a human, they will be born among the lowly for nine million years. Why is this? Because no one can determine the value of property belonging to the Buddha.”

(To explain more broadly, at the two regular daily meals of laypeople and the Sangha, apart from the food already offered to the Buddha and the noble Sangha, food that does not belong to the Buddha or the Sangha need not be purchased back. After it has been proclaimed to be surplus food, everyone may eat it. If the intention was clearly stated that the food was offered only to the Buddha and the Sangha, with no portion intended for laypeople, it must be purchased back before it may be consumed.)

Suppose a donor intended an offering for the carving of an image of Shakyamuni Buddha, but it is instead used to carve an image of Amitabha Buddha; intended it for printing the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra, but it is instead allocated to printing the Nirvana Sutra; offered it to build living quarters for the Sangha, but it is instead converted into an offering of food to the Sangha; offered it to both assemblies, but it is instead given to only one assembly; offered it to the Sangha of the ten directions, but it is instead allocated to the Sangha presently assembled; offered it to the great assembly, but it is instead given privately to a single person; or offered it to the Sangha, but it is instead given to laypeople—these actions contradict the donor’s intention.

In such cases, the value should be calculated in money. If it amounts to five coins or more, a grave offense is committed; if it is less than five coins, a minor offense is committed.

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya states: “If one has promised an offering to this dwelling place but instead presents it to another dwelling place, one commits an offense.” (To determine whether the offense is grave or minor, one must first ascertain the donor’s intention.)

According to the foregoing principle, if materials remain after repairing or embellishing a Buddha image, they must not be used to make images of bodhisattvas, noble members of the Sangha, and so forth. Because the stations of teacher and disciple differ, their property cannot be used interchangeably. No offense is committed if the materials are used to embellish other articles and these are then offered to the Buddha.

If the donor consents that, after the Buddha image has been painted, the remaining materials may be used at will to adorn images of Sangha members and laypeople, sages and ordinary beings, and also to embellish other offerings, such as precious flowers, plants and trees, mountains and lakes, birds and animals, and so forth, then although these things are not part of the Buddha image, no offense is committed by using the materials interchangeably.

The Record of the Five Hundred Questions states: “If paint intended for painting a Buddha image is used to paint images of birds or animals, an offense is committed. However, if images of birds or animals are made as offerings to the Buddha, no offense is committed.” (I have heard that monastics and laypeople living in remote border regions do not observe the Vinaya. Although they devote themselves wholeheartedly to caring for the Three Jewels,[131a] they follow their own opinions and use property belonging to the Three Jewels interchangeably.

Even money offered to the noble Sangha must not be taken for personal use, incorporated into the property of the permanent Sangha, used to make a Buddha image, or used to model or paint images of the Venerable Ananda, Kasyapa, and so forth. None of these uses is permitted. If the property is so used, an offense is committed.

These matters are explained fully in the section on Accepting Invitations.)

Question: At present, during meal-offering ceremonies, donors commonly offer money. For what purpose should that money be used?

Answer: If the donor wishes it to be used to make an image, one should act according to the meaning explained in the preceding passage. It may be used only to make a Buddha image and must not be used for any other purpose.

At present, if a donor, after offering food to the Sangha, jointly offers money to the Buddha and the Sangha but does not clearly specify the respective portions, the money may be used to purchase incense or oil, make banners, or repair the Buddha hall. It may be used for anything offered to the Buddha, but it must not be incorporated into Sangha property or used by an individual.

Although the foregoing presentation is only a brief account, every point has been examined on the basis of the sutras and Vinaya and is not merely one person’s opinion. If one fails to act in accordance with the Vinaya and the Dharma, one incurs the offense of failing to study and understand. Besides these matters, there are many others too numerous to relate; they are fully set forth in the ten-fascicle Vinaya Extracts for monks and nuns.

Therefore, overseeing the affairs of the Three Jewels is a grave responsibility and must not be taken lightly. If one does not oneself clearly understand the precepts of the Vinaya, one must have profound faith in cause and effect, exercise meticulous care, fear the course of karma, remain constantly vigilant, and not yield merely to others’ wishes. Only then is one worthy to become an exemplary steward.

Anyone unable to do so should not assume the office.

The Heap of Jewels Sutra states: “The Buddha said to Kasyapa:

“‘I permit two kinds of bhikshus to oversee the affairs of the Sangha: bhikshus who purely uphold the precepts and bhikshus who fear the retribution of future lives. This is because the minds of these two kinds are as steadfast as vajra. There are also two kinds of bhikshus: those who understand karmic retribution and those who know shame and remorse and practice repentance. There are yet another two kinds: bhikshus who have attained arhatship and bhikshus who constantly cultivate the Eight Liberations^[53]. These are the kinds of bhikshus whom I permit to administer the affairs of the Sangha, for these very persons do not fall into error and can assist other bhikshus in entering the Path.’

Because the Buddha regarded this responsibility as difficult, he spoke thus to Kasyapa.

Within the Buddha-Dharma there are many kinds of renunciants. They come from different families, have differing aspirations, cultivate various Dharma methods, and differ in how they sever the binding defilements. Some bhiksus dwell in aranyas^[54]; some go on almsround; some delight in mountains and forests; and others prefer to live near villages while maintaining the precepts purely.

Some have freed themselves from the four yokes^[55]; some diligently cultivate extensive learning; some are skilled in expounding and debating the various dharmas; some are adept in upholding the disciplinary precepts; some carefully maintain proper deportment; and others travel from place to place preaching the Dharma. Since there are such different kinds of bhiksus, the bhiksu who administers Sangha affairs must thoroughly understand the disposition and conduct of each person.

Therefore, a sutra states: “The bhiksu who administers Sangha affairs must distinguish clearly between them. Property belonging to the resident Sangha must not be given to the Sangha of the four directions, and vice versa.” Property belonging to the resident Sangha and property belonging to the Sangha of the four directions must not be mixed with property belonging to the Buddha; likewise, the Buddha’s property must not be mixed with the property of either of those two classes of Sangha.

If the resident Sangha possesses an abundance of property and the Sangha of the four directions needs to use it, the administrator must convene the Sangha, distribute voting tallies^[56], and conduct a karma procedure. Only when the Sangha is in harmony may property of the resident Sangha be taken and allocated to the Sangha of the four directions. If a Buddha-stupa needs repair or is about to fall into ruin, and the resident Sangha or the Sangha of the four directions possesses abundant property, the administrator should convene the Sangha, distribute voting tallies to ascertain their opinion, and make the following announcement:

– The Buddha-stupa is now damaged and needs repair. The resident Sangha and the Sangha of the four directions possess abundant property, so the assembly should convene and conduct a karma procedure, declaring: ‘Venerable Sangha, please listen! If the time is appropriate for the Sangha, may the Sangha grant its consent! [131b] The Sangha now does not begrudge the offerings it has received, whether property of the resident Sangha or property of the Sangha of the four directions. I shall now use it to repair the Buddha-stupa.’

If the Sangha does not consent, the administrator should encourage laypeople to donate resources for repairing the Buddha-stupa. Even if the Buddha possesses abundant property, it must not be distributed to the resident Sangha or the Sangha of the four directions. Why?

Because such property should be regarded as belonging to the Buddha. Everything belonging to the Buddha, down to a single thread, was offered to the Buddha by donors of faithful hearts. Therefore, devas and humans should regard such things as belonging to the Buddha-stupa, all the more so precious objects.

Property kept within a Buddha-stupa should sooner be left to be battered by wind and drenched by rain until it decays than be used in exchange for anything, even another precious object. Why? Because no one has the authority to set a price upon the Tathagata’s property; moreover, the Buddha has no need of anything that would require such an exchange.

Thus, the administrator must not intermingle the property of the Three Jewels in its use. If he arbitrarily uses it indiscriminately, he will incur grave karmic retribution and must undergo suffering for one kalpa or many kalpas.

The Ratna-rasi Sutra records: “The Buddha taught:

– If a bhiksu who administers Sangha affairs gives rise to anger and arbitrarily orders a venerable monk who purely upholds the precepts to perform menial labor, then because of this deed the administrator must undergo painful retribution in hell. If he is later born as a human, he will become a servant who is beaten, abused, and tormented by his master.

Furthermore, if the administrator arbitrarily establishes regulations that exceed the Sangha’s customary rules in order to punish bhiksus, or orders them to perform tasks at inappropriate times, then after death he must fall into the Hell of Nails, where hundreds of thousands of nails are driven into his body, causing it to blaze like a great heap of fire.

Furthermore, if a bhiksu who administers Sangha affairs, out of anger, assigns burdensome tasks to a venerable monk who purely upholds the precepts, causing him to become fearful, that administrator incurs the offense of falling into hell. There his tongue extends naturally for five hundred yojanas, and hundreds of thousands of nails are driven into it. Each nail emits fierce flames.

Furthermore, an administrator may repeatedly receive property belonging to the Sangha, but because of stinginess he hoards it tightly; or he gives it to the Sangha at an improper time; or he gives it only when he has no other choice; or he gives it only because he is compelled; or he gives too little or nothing at all; or he gives to one person but not to another, and so forth. Because of such unwholesome karma, after death this administrator will be born among hungry ghosts that constantly eat excrement, or for hundreds of thousands of years he will obtain no food.

Whenever he does eat, the food will invariably turn into feces, urine, blood, and pus. Therefore, Kasyapa, a bhiksu who administers Sangha affairs should sooner eat the flesh of his own body than ever indiscriminately use the property of the Three Jewels, such as robes, bowls, food, drink, and so forth…”

XXIII.2.4. Stealing Others’ Property

The Samantapasadika states: “Suppose a person is entrusted with safeguarding property for another person or for the Three Jewels, [131c] carefully protects it, and securely locks the storehouse, yet thieves enter the building through an opening and secretly steal all the property, or forcibly seize it while the custodian is unable to stop them. In such a case, it would be wholly unreasonable to condemn the custodian merely because the owner lost the property. However, if the custodian was negligent and failed to protect it carefully, thereby allowing thieves to steal it, the custodian must make restitution. The offense is determined on the basis of the custodian’s responsibility.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “If a person accepts an object to convey on behalf of someone living far away and the object is damaged on the journey, then if the courier had good intentions but it was damaged through carelessness, he need not make restitution. If he had malicious intentions and caused the object to be damaged, he must make restitution. If one borrows another person’s property, however, then whether one’s intentions are good or malicious, one must certainly make restitution if it is damaged.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “When a thief brings stolen property and sincerely offers it, or offers it out of fear while being pursued by others, a bhiksu is permitted to accept it, because at that moment the thief himself is the possessor of the property. If the thief offers it of his own accord, it may be accepted, but it must not be solicited. If those objects have been dyed another color but their former owner recognizes them, they should still be returned to him.”

The Matrka Treatise states: “If a deranged person brings an object as an offering and one does not know the person’s parents or relatives, one is permitted to accept it. If one knows that the person has parents, but the offering is not personally made by those parents, one must not accept it.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “If one takes meat left uneaten by a tiger, one commits a minor offense, because the tiger has not yet abandoned the remains of its food. If one takes meat left uneaten by a lion, no offense is committed, because the lion has abandoned that food.”

The Sarvastivada Treatise states: “Stealing food left over by any bird or beast constitutes a minor offense.” (Nowadays, during years of crop failure and famine, many people dig into rat burrows to take the nuts and fruits the rats have carried back and stored, such as chestnuts, walnuts, and so forth. According to the passage cited above, this constitutes an offense.)

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya states: “A person may take something because he believes it was intended for him; because he believes he has a share in it; because he believes the cloth to be old, torn, and worthless; because he believes he is borrowing it temporarily for use; or because he believes it belongs to an intimate friend, and so forth. In each of the cases just mentioned, taking the object does not constitute an offense.”

What constitutes an intimate friend? According to the Vinaya, a person must fulfill all seven of the following conditions before he may be called an intimate friend:

1. He does what is difficult to do.

2. He gives what is difficult to give.

3. He endures what is difficult to endure.

4. He shares private matters with his friend.

5. He protects and supports his friend.

6. He does not abandon his friend in times of hardship.

7. He does not despise his friend for being poor or distressed.

Anyone capable of fulfilling all seven of these conditions is called an intimate friend. Taking the property of such a friend does not constitute an offense.”

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra records: “The Buddha taught the bhiksus:

– A person who steals another’s property and is caught by the owner is bound and handed over to the king for punishment. The king then orders that person imprisoned; or has their hands and feet cut off; or their ears and nose severed; or their skin flayed; or their sinews extracted; or has them hung upside down; or sawn apart; or burned with fire; or boiled in oil; or has their head wrapped in rawhide; or has boiling molten copper poured over their body; or has a trident thrust into their flank and abdomen; or has a ferocious elephant trample them; or has their belly cut open, their intestines pulled out, and grass stuffed inside; or has them bound backward; [132a] or has deafening drums beaten; or has them suspended in the marketplace and beheaded; or has the parts of their body severed one by one; or has them cut with knives; or shot with arrows… Thus are they killed in many cruel ways. Because of this evil karma of theft and robbery, immediately after death they fall into hell, where fierce flames burn their bodies, boiling molten copper is poured into their mouths, and they undergo every kind of suffering in cauldrons of boiling water, blazing furnaces, mountains of knives, forests of swords, pits of burning coals, filth, and mills that grind and pound. The offenders experience pain and suffering that pierce their hearts and entrails beyond description, passing through hundreds of thousands of myriads of years without knowing when they will be released. When their punishment in hell is complete, they are reborn among animals, taking the bodies of elephants, horses, cattle, goats, camels, dogs, and so forth, and for hundreds of thousands of years they repay their former debts to others. When their punishment in the animal realm is complete, the offenders are reborn as hungry ghosts, enduring indescribable hunger and thirst, without so much as hearing the words “food” and “water,” and for hundreds of thousands of years they undergo all such sufferings. When their painful retribution in the evil realms is exhausted and they are reborn as human beings, they still incur two kinds of retribution: they are poor and destitute, without enough food to eat or clothing to wear; and they are constantly afflicted by five calamities—the calamity of rulers, the calamity of bandits, the calamity of floods, the calamity of fire, and robbery.”

The Scripture of Right Mindfulness records:

Question: What is called stealing?

Answer: Suppose a person constantly gives rise to the evil thought: “I wish that all kinds of grain, such as rice and unhusked grain, would belong to me alone, while everyone else suffered crop failure.” After some time, because sentient beings possess little merit, all their crops fail. Seeing the crop failure and everyone suffering from hunger and thirst, that evil person rejoices and says, “It has indeed happened just as I wished!” They take their grain to the market and advertise it at a low price, yet with a deceitful mind and fraudulent intent they use false weights and measures to cheat others when weighing and measuring the grain, thereby creating the karma of stealing.”

If this is merely contemplated in the mind, it is called the karma of intention. When one deceives others, it is called the karma of deception. Once the deception has been carried out, the karma of stealing is complete.

XXIII.2.5. Taking Lost Property

The Scripture of Right Mindfulness records: “If one sees an object lying by the roadside, such as gold, silver, or some other precious article, the person who finds it must call out loudly: ‘To whom does this belong?’

If someone says, ‘That belongs to me,’ one must ask what the object looks like; if the person describes it correctly, it should be returned.

If no one claims it, then for seven days one must take the object out each day and loudly announce it so that everyone may know. If no one still claims it, the precious object should be handed over to the king, a high official, or the head of the local province or district. If the king, high official, or head of the province or district sees that the finder possesses merit and virtue and declines to accept the object, it should be used for the affairs of the Three Jewels. Only then is it not called stealing.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “If one sees a robe or other object that has been lost, one must inform everyone so that the person who lost it may recover it. If no one claims it, it should be hung in a high, open place where everyone can see it. If someone claims, ‘That object is mine,’ one must ask: ‘Where did you lose it?’ If that person answers correctly, it should be handed over. If no one claims it, it should be kept. After three months, if the object was originally found within the precincts of a stupa, it should be used for matters concerning the stupa. [132b] If it was found in the Sangha’s garden, it should be distributed to the Sangha of the four directions.

If the articles are precious objects such as gold, silver, or jeweled necklaces, they should not be displayed casually or widely announced. Instead, the finder must repeatedly and carefully examine their exact appearance before making an announcement. If a claimant describes them correctly, they should be returned, but the return must take place in the presence of many witnesses and must not occur in a concealed place. On this occasion, the monastic should also encourage the person recovering the lost property to take the Three Refuges and say: ‘Had the Buddha not established the precepts, you would not have seen these objects again.’

If no one comes to claim them, they should be kept for three years and then handled as described above. An object should be used for the sphere to which it belongs. If treasure is found while repairing a stupa, it should be used for the stupa. If an object is found within the Sangha’s living quarters, it should be used for the Sangha.”

The Treatise on the Establishment of Truth ^[57] records: “If a treasure buried underground appears naturally, there is no offense in taking and using it. When the Buddha was in the world, the elder Anathapindika, although a noble one, still took such objects; therefore, it is known that doing so is not an offense. If one happens to find an object, that too is not called stealing.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “When a bhiksu enters a village and sees a lost object, he must not pick it up; but if someone else picks it up and offers it to him, he is permitted to accept it, for that person is the donor. If another person’s clothing is blown away by the wind within a village, a bhiksu must not think that it is a discarded rag robe^[58] and pick it up. If it is on a deserted road where no one is present, he may take it.”

The Five-Part Vinaya records: “If one keeps a robe in trust for someone for twelve years and that person does not return to claim it, the Sangha should assemble, determine its value, and distribute it for the use of the Sangha of the four directions. If that person later returns, property belonging to the Sangha should be used to compensate them. It is best if that person declines to accept it.”

Verse on Direct Retribution:

Those who steal offerings made to others

Will fall into hell,

Where birds with hard beaks peck them,

Shattering their hearts and entrails.

Boiling copper is poured into their mouths,

And iron cudgels strike their bodies.

Terrified, they flee in panic,

Only to fall into a forest of swords and spears.

Verse on Residual Retribution:

The retribution for theft and robbery

Is to have one’s body burned in hell.

When the offense is exhausted, one is born human,

Yet suffers hunger throughout an entire lifetime.

One’s wealth is kept by others—

How is this different from being poor and lowly?

May these few words be remembered well;

Contemplate the causes of destitution.

XXIII.3. Sexual Misconduct

Lustful conduct that harms virtue is something the wise do not engage in; the appearances of desire that delude the mind are what the noble ones keep far away from. Thus, King You of Zhou lost his kingdom through the fault of Bao Si^[59], and Emperor Xian of Jin lost his throne because of Lady Li^[60]. The Pratyekabuddha seer^[61] on the mountain knew nothing of the humiliation of being ridden upon the neck; Shujia-po^[62], keeping an appointment at the ancestral temple, could not have foreseen the agony of his body being burned.

All such things occur because sentient beings in the Desire Realm do not cultivate contemplative insight^[63] and, bound by afflictions, are unable to subdue or eradicate them^[64]. Moreover, among earth, water, fire, and wind, where is there a master? Body, feeling, mind, and dharmas are originally empty in their intrinsic nature.

Thick skin and thin skin alike are impure; the organs containing undigested and digested food are foul and putrid beyond description, continually driving people to fall into the three evil realms. Therefore, great bodhisattvas constantly cultivate contemplative practice^[65] and see the entire body as overflowing with filthy impurities. The six sense objects^[66] are six thieves that constantly torment and trouble us; the five skandhas are like candalas^[67], difficult to approach.

Ordinary beings, deluded and inverted, are infatuated with physical beauty. Seeing a graceful figure, they become enamored of the countenance. White teeth, red lips, long eyebrows, coiffed hair, a swaying gait, and a supple bearing further enhance its loveliness.

Thus, the beautiful woman who removed her jade ornaments by the Luo River^[68] caused Prince Chen^[69] to humble himself; the beauty playing with pearls by the Han Bend^[70] moved Jiaofu^[71] to linger in affection. Upon the summit of Mount Wu, one borrowed clouds and rain to come and go^[72]; beside the Shugu spring, another rode the flowing waters back and forth. There was also one who had incense burned while yearning for Han Shou’s^[73] short robe, and another who played the zither to intimate her affection for Xiangru^[74].

Some suddenly became intimate through the offering of a pillow; others drew close by means of a hanging cap. Yet they do not know that the body is like floating foam and its substance like drifting clouds: empty both within and without, it vanishes in an instant. The entire body is impure and every part of it impermanent; no sooner is it cast into a ditch than it becomes fine food for worms and ants.

Sentient beings habitually engage in sexual misconduct, acting contrary to pure conduct, obstructing the bodhi-mind, planting the causes for the four destinies, and reaping the fruits of the three evil paths. One should know that the root of the three realms lies precisely in sexual karma, and that rebirth throughout the six destinies is truly caused by defiled attachment, which continually nourishes and deepens karma. Therefore, the Buddha established the precept against sexual misconduct.

XXIII.3.1. Reproaching Desire as the Cause of Much Suffering

The Nirvana Sutra states:

If one indulges in sorrow and distress,

Suffering will only increase.

Like a person who delights in sleep,

Who sinks ever deeper into slumber,

Those who crave lust and delight in wine

Are likewise the same.

The Sutra of Right Mindfulness states:

As fire fed with dry wood

Blazes ever more fiercely,

So too, when a person delights in craving,

The fire of craving grows stronger.

Though dry wood may burn fiercely,

A person can still escape;

But when the fire of craving consumes one,

One can never break free.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states:

The foolish people of the world,

Infatuated with the five desires,

Do not relinquish them even at death,

And throughout future lives

Undergo immeasurable suffering.

They are like a foolish person

Who craves sweet fruit,

Climbs a tree to gather it,

But refuses to come down.

Suddenly someone comes to fell the tree;

The tree immediately topples,

His body covered with wounds,

And he dies in agony.

What is gained is but a little pleasure;

What is lost brings myriad sorrows.

Like honey smeared upon a blade,

A person eagerly licks it,

And his tongue is immediately cut,

Causing boundless pain.

The Treatise on the Establishment of Truth states:

Craving and desire are suffering,

Yet sentient beings, confused and inverted,

Mistakenly regard them as pleasure.

When the wise see clearly,

Their suffering ceases.

When sensual craving is not relinquished,

It is like drinking salt water:

Thirst only increases further.

Since it merely heightens thirst,

How could there be any pleasure?

It is like a dog

Gnawing a dry bone,

Its saliva flowing profusely,

Imagining it has obtained delicious food.

Craving and desire are likewise:

Within them there is no savor,

Yet because of delusion and inversion,

They are taken to be delicious.

Therefore, know that sensual desire

Is suffering and not pleasure.

Only when one does not crave or seek it

Is there true happiness.

XXIII.3.2. Contemplating the Impurity of Women

Here, women are mentioned merely as an example: outwardly their appearance may be graceful, but inwardly they are filled entirely with foul substances. The deluded become infatuated with the outward form, unaware that it is temporary and deceptive. Only the wise know the truth and regard it as something to be wearied of and abandoned.

The Sutra on the Essential Secrets of Meditation states: “The elder Maudgalyayana had attained the fruit of arhatship, but his former wife continued to pursue him. Adorning herself magnificently, she followed and harassed him. At that time, the Venerable Maudgalyayana spoke verses to admonish his former wife:

The body is like a heap of dry bones,

On which flesh and skin temporarily depend;

Within, it is filled with putrid filth,

And contains nothing beautiful.

It is merely a sack of filthy excrement,

Forever oozing through nine openings,

Loathsome as a demon—

What in it could be treasured?

The body resembles a latrine pit,

Covered outside by a thin layer of skin.

The wise have grown weary of it and departed,

As one keeps far away from a cesspit.

If you understood this,

You would know what I abhor;

I feel no attachment to any of it,

Like one avoiding a cesspit.

Yet you continue to adorn yourself

With perfumes, flowers, and jeweled necklaces—

Things to which ordinary beings cling,

But by which the wise are not deluded.

Your body is inherently unclean,

Nothing but accumulated impurity!

Once the latrine has been decorated,

Fools consider it beautiful.

The ribs and backbone

Are like beams and pillars supporting one another;

Within them lie the five viscera,

Foul and filthy as a cesspit.

Your body is like a cesspit,

Yet the ignorant consider it precious;

Adorned with strings of pearls and jade,

Its exterior is lovely as a painted vase.

One who is free from desire

Remains unattached throughout life.

Now you come to disturb me—

How are you different from a moth flying into a flame?

All the poisons of desire

I have now extinguished;

I have departed far from the five desires

And torn apart Mara’s net.

My mind is like empty space,

With nothing left to which it clings.

Even if the pleasures of the heavenly realm approached,

They could not stir my heart.”

The Ekottarika Agama states: “It would be better to heat an iron rod until it glows red and thrust it into one’s eyes than to allow one’s thoughts to become disordered by gazing upon physical beauty.”

The Sutra of Right Mindfulness states: “The nature of women is prone to jealousy. Therefore, after death they are often reborn among hungry ghosts. Although they constantly speak sweet and gentle words, their hearts are exceedingly malicious. Women are especially skilled in schemes, deceptions, and devices for beguiling others.”

XXIII.3.3. Women Are Difficult to Approach and Should Be Shunned

The Sutra of King Udayana contains this verse:

Women are truly evil;

It is difficult to associate with them throughout life.

The cords of affection bind one fast

And drive one through the gate of transgression.

They not only draw people

Down the evil paths,

But also beguile heavenly beings,

Causing them to fall.

The Sutra on the Right Mindfulness of the Dharma contains this verse:

Of all bonds within the heavenly realm,

None surpasses feminine beauty.

Women bind the devas

And lead them to the three evil paths.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “The bodhisattva contemplates desires and sees that they are all impure. Among all dangers, the danger posed by women is the greatest. Fire, knives, thunderbolts, enemies, and venomous snakes may still be approached for a time, but women must never be approached. For women are by nature miserly, jealous, angry, flattering, wanton, wicked, contentious, and greedy.

[133c] The Buddha spoke this verse:

Better to take burning iron

And thrust it straight into one’s eyes

Than to let the mind run heedlessly free

And gaze with infatuation upon women.

Smiling and striking alluring poses,

Proud yet feigning modesty,

Turning their faces and glancing sideways,

Speaking charmingly yet harboring jealousy,

Walking with graceful steps,

They beguile the hearts of men.

The net of lust is spread wide,

Causing people to fall within it.

Whether walking, standing, lying down, or sitting,

They cast alluring glances.

Fools devoid of wisdom

Become intoxicated, deluded, and inverted.

When battling an enemy,

One may still prevail;

But before the female foe that harms people,

One can only suffer defeat.

A venomous snake

May still be grasped by hand,

But a beguiling woman

Must not be touched.

The Ekottarika Agama contains this verse:

Do not become intimate with women,

Nor should you converse with them.

Whoever can keep far away from them

Will eliminate the eight difficulties.

The Sutra of Satyaka the Nirgrantha states that the Nirgrantha spoke this verse:

Is your own wife not enough?

Why do you still desire another man’s wife?

Such a person is without shame

And therefore always suffers, finding no joy.

In this life and the life to come,

He is assailed by suffering;

After death he enters hell,

Where his pain never ceases.

The Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables states: “When the Buddha was still in the world, a man of brahmin lineage had two daughters, both exceedingly beautiful. He offered a reward and announced: ‘Within ninety days, if anyone can discover and point out a flaw in my two daughters, this reward shall belong to that person.’ In the end, however, no one could find any flaw in the two young women. The brahmin led his two daughters to the Buddha. As soon as the Buddha saw them, he rebuked them, saying:

‘These two young women are both ugly; there is nothing beautiful about them.’

The Venerable Ananda said to the Buddha:

– Blessed One! These two young women are very beautiful, yet you say they are not. What, then, is not beautiful about them?

The Buddha said:

– Eyes that do not gaze upon forms may truly be called beautiful eyes. The same is true of the ears, nose, and tongue. A body that does not crave softness and smoothness may truly be called a beautiful body. Hands that do not take the property of others may truly be called beautiful hands. I have now examined these two young women and know that their eyes gaze upon forms, their ears listen to sounds, their noses smell fragrances, their bodies delight in softness and smoothness, and their hands desire to take the property of others. People such as these are not beautiful.”

The Sutra of the Buddha’s Parinirvana records: “The Buddha told the Woman of the Mango Grove:

– Those who delight in illicit relations between men and women bring five kinds of harm upon themselves:

1. They acquire a bad reputation.

2. They transgress the laws of the realm.

3. Their minds are filled with suspicion.

4. After death, they fall into hell.

5. When their punishment in hell is exhausted, they are subsequently reborn among animals.

All five of these consequences arise from the offense of lustful misconduct.”

Those who refrain from illicit relations have five things that increase their merit and virtue.

[134a] 1. They are praised by many people.

2. They do not fear the authorities.

3. Their bodies dwell in peace and security.

4. After death, they are reborn in the heavenly realms.

5. Because their minds are pure, they attain the path of nirvana.”

XXIII.3.4. Deceitful Women

As recorded in the Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables: “Long ago, there was a handsome young man from a wealthy and distinguished family. He cast a statue of a woman in gold and said to his parents, ‘Only if there is a young woman who resembles this statue will I take her as my wife.’

At that time, in another kingdom, there was also a beautiful young woman who was no less attractive than that young man. She likewise cast a statue of a man in gold and said to her parents, ‘Only if there is a young man who resembles this statue will I consent to marry him.’

When the parents of both families heard of this, they sought one another out and arranged the marriage of the young couple.

At that time, the king looked at himself in a mirror and asked his close ministers:

– Is there anyone in the world as handsome as I am?

The ministers replied:

– We have heard that in another kingdom there is a young man of incomparable beauty.

Upon hearing this, the king immediately dispatched an envoy to invite the young man. The envoy went to the young man’s home and conveyed the command:

– The king wishes to see you, worthy sir.

Obeying the royal command, the young man immediately prepared a carriage and horses to enter the palace. On the way, he thought, ‘The king must regard me as knowledgeable and accomplished in all matters, and that is why he has sent someone to invite me.’ Having thought this, he returned home to fetch some books and happened to discover his wife committing adultery with a servant. He was both grieved and enraged, and the anguish in his heart caused his appearance to become haggard.

Seeing this, the envoy thought, ‘The long journey must have made him thin and ill,’ and allowed the young man to rest temporarily in the royal stables. That night, the young man discovered the king’s chief consort committing adultery with a groom. Witnessing this, the young man’s mind suddenly awakened, and he said to himself, ‘Even the king’s chief consort behaves in this way; how much more so other people!’ All his resentment dissolved, his spirit became light and at ease, and consequently his appearance returned to what it had been before.

After his appearance had recovered, the young man entered the palace and had an audience with the king.

The king asked:

– Why did you remain outside the palace for three days?

The young man replied:

– On my way to the palace, I suddenly remembered that I had left several books behind. When I returned to retrieve them, I happened to discover my wife committing adultery with a servant. I became enraged, and as a result my appearance grew haggard, so I remained in the royal stables outside the palace for three days. Last night, I discovered Your Majesty’s own consort coming to commit adultery with a groom. I thought that if even the royal consort is like this, how much more so other people. Upon witnessing this, my heart became light and at ease, and only then did my appearance return to what it had been before.

The king exclaimed:

– Even my consort is like this; how much more so other ordinary women?

Having said this, the two men abandoned everything and entered the forest together, shaved their heads, and became sramanas. Reflecting that women were unworthy of their attachment, they strove diligently in cultivation and ultimately both attained the fruit of pratyekabuddhahood.”

The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, a woman gave birth to a girl of incomparable beauty. When the girl was three years old, the king selected her for the palace and summoned a practitioner of the Way to examine her physiognomy.

The king asked:

– Will this girl be able to become my consort in the future?

The physiognomist replied:

– This girl will first have a husband and only afterward become Your Majesty’s consort.

The king thought:

– I must take her to a secluded place and have her kept under the strictest guard. How, then, could I come after another?

Having thought this, the king summoned a crane and asked:

– Where do you live?

The crane replied:

– I live in a great tree halfway up the slope of Mount Tai. Neither humans nor animals can reach that place. A stream flows below it, but boats and rafts cannot pass through.

The king said:

– I now entrust this girl to you. Take her home and raise her.

[134b] The crane immediately carried the girl back to its dwelling. Every day, it came to the royal palace to obtain food with which to raise her.

A very long time passed. There was a village on the summit of Mount Tai, and one day it was suddenly swept away by a flood. A strange tree appeared in the water and drifted downstream with the current. A young man managed to cling to the tree, but because it had entered a whirlpool, he was continually spun around. A grapevine grew upright from the stream, rising high and leaning against the mountainside. The young man clung to the vine and followed it until he reached the tree where the crane lived, and there he had illicit relations with the girl. The girl hid the young man. The crane noticed that the girl’s body was becoming increasingly heavy, so it searched throughout the mountain, found the young man, and killed him. Afterward, the crane reported the matter to the king.

The king said:

– The practitioner of the Way examined her physiognomy before, and his prediction was indeed correct!”

The treatise states: “When people are bound by karmic enmity from previous lives, it cannot be resisted by force; upon meeting again, the destined event immediately comes to pass. The same is true among animals.”

The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, there was a king who kept his consorts and palace women under very strict guard. One day, the king’s chief consort said to the crown prince:

– Ever since giving birth to you, I have never once been able to behold the mountains and rivers of the realm. I wish to go outside for an excursion. Could you ask your royal father on my behalf?

The consort repeatedly urged the crown prince in this manner. The crown prince petitioned his royal father, and the king consented. The crown prince drove the carriage and took his mother out. Along both sides of the road, the ministers welcomed them and bowed in salutation. The consort reached out and lifted the curtain, deliberately allowing everyone to see her beauty. When the crown prince saw his mother behave in this way, he pretended to have a stomachache and drove the carriage back. The consort lamented:

– There are still many people who have not seen my beauty!

The crown prince thought to himself, ‘Even my mother is like this; how much more so other people!’

Having reflected thus, that night the prince left the royal palace and entered the forest to wander among the mountains and waters. Along the way, he happened to see a large tree beside the road, with a stream beneath it. The prince climbed the tree and saw a brahmin ascetic wade into the stream to bathe and then come out to eat.

Afterward, the brahmin ascetic performed a spell and disgorged a gourd vessel. Inside the vessel was a woman, and together they took their pleasure in a secluded chamber. When the brahmin ascetic fell asleep, the woman likewise disgorged a similar gourd vessel.

Inside it was a young man, and the woman lay with him. When they had finished, she swallowed the gourd vessel again. When the brahmin ascetic awoke, he placed the woman inside the gourd vessel, swallowed it into his belly, and departed leaning on his staff.

The prince returned to the kingdom and asked the king to summon the brahmin ascetic and the court ministers. He also ordered a meal for three people to be prepared and set aside. When the brahmin ascetic arrived and saw three portions of food on the tray, he said:

– I have come alone.

The prince said:

– Brahmin ascetic, call forth your wife so that she may eat with us.

Having no alternative, the brahmin ascetic brought out his wife.

The prince then said to the brahmin ascetic’s wife:

– You too should call forth your husband so that he may eat with us.

The prince told her this three times. Having no alternative, she finally brought out the young man to eat with them. After the three had eaten, they immediately departed.

The king asked the prince:

– How did you learn of this matter?

The prince replied:

– Previously, when I drove Mother in a carriage on an excursion through the kingdom, she raised the curtain, deliberately allowing everyone to see her. At that moment, it suddenly occurred to me that women are, for the most part, fond of lust. Therefore, I pretended to have stomach pains and drove the carriage back. Afterward, feeling disheartened, I went wandering in the mountains and happened to see the brahmin ascetic concealing a woman within his belly. Such are women: their lust never ceases. I humbly beseech Your Majesty to release all the women of the inner palace and allow them to go wherever they please.

The king accepted the prince’s request and issued an order to the inner palace:

– Whoever wishes to leave may do as she pleases!”

[134c] The treatise says: “Of all those beneath heaven who are unworthy of trust, it is women!”

The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, there was a wealthy man who always kept his wife secluded and allowed no one to see her. His wife then ordered a servant to dig a tunnel, through which she secretly had relations with a silversmith. Later, her husband discovered the matter, but the wife said:

– Never in my life have I engaged in illicit relations. Do not falsely accuse me!

The husband said:

– I do not believe you. I shall take you before the sacred tree so that you may swear an oath.

The wife said:

– Very well!

The husband then observed the fasting precepts for seven days. As soon as he entered his chamber, the wife secretly said to the silversmith, ‘Disguise yourself as a madman and go begging for food in the marketplace. When you meet me amid the crowd, pretend to embrace me, pull at me, caress me, and sport with me.’

After the husband had observed the fasting precepts for seven days, he took his wife to the sacred tree.

The wife said:

– Never before have I seen the marketplace. Could you take me through it just once?

Indulging his wife’s wish, the husband led her through the marketplace. As planned, as soon as the silversmith saw her, he came forward, embraced and caressed her, and then feigned madness by rolling on the ground. The wife immediately reproached her husband:

– Why did you allow this man to embrace me?

The husband said:

– He is a madman. Pay him no heed!

The husband and wife then proceeded to the sacred tree. Bowing her head, the wife swore:

– Never in my life have I done anything evil, yet today that madman embraced me.

In this way, the wife escaped blame. The husband could only remain silent in shame.

The Buddha said:

– You should know that all women are deceitful in this way and truly unworthy of trust.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya records: “The Buddha was in the kingdom of Sravasti. At that time, a man of brahmin lineage had a very beautiful daughter, whom he named Wondrous Radiance.

A physiognomist said, ‘In the future, this child will engage in sexual relations with five hundred men.’ Everyone came to know of this matter.

When the child was twelve years old, no one had yet sought her hand in marriage. At that time, a merchant lived near the brahmin’s house. This merchant often went to sea in search of jewels and was rarely at home. One day, while he was in an upper chamber, he saw the girl from afar and lust immediately arose in him. He asked those around him:

– Whose daughter is that girl?

They replied:

– She is the daughter of that brahmin.

The merchant asked further:

– Does she have a husband?

They replied: No.

The merchant asked again:

– Has anyone sought her hand in marriage?

They replied: No one has sought her hand.

The merchant asked in surprise:

– Why is no one willing to seek her hand?

They all said in unison:

– A physiognomist predicted, ‘In the future, this girl will certainly engage in sexual relations with five hundred men.’ For this reason, even to this day no one has dared to seek her hand in marriage.

The merchant then thought, ‘Apart from the Sakyaputra renunciants, no one ever comes to my house.’ Having thought thus, he went to the brahmin’s house and asked to marry the girl. Not long after the girl entered her husband’s household, the merchant once again prepared to go to sea with other merchants. Before departing, he summoned the gatekeeper and instructed him:

– I am about to go to sea. Do not freely admit any man into the house, with the exception of the Sakyaputra renunciants, for the Sakyaputra renunciants never commit misconduct.

The gatekeeper replied:

– Yes, sir!

After the merchant departed, bhiksus continued, as usual, to come to that house to beg for alms. When the merchant’s wife saw the renunciants, she said:

– Have relations with me!

The bhiksus did not know why she spoke in this way, so they brought the matter before the Buddha.

The Buddha taught:

– There must certainly be an immoral person in that house. You must not go there again.

Later, the merchant’s wife fell ill and died at midnight. [135a] The people of the household placed all her ornaments beside her corpse and carried it to the charnel ground.

At that time, five hundred bandits passed by that place. When they saw the girl’s corpse, lust suddenly arose in them, and they took turns gratifying themselves upon it.

Because that woman had previously invited renunciants and brahmins to engage in sexual relations with her, she consequently fell into an evil realm. She was born in the northern region of that kingdom as a female dragon named Vimadatta.”

Verses on the Direct Retribution:

For sexual misconduct, one suffers the punishments of hell,

Ascending mountains of blades and forests of swords;

Molten iron is driven into the mouth,

And boiling copper poured into the heart.

Venomous dragons crush the bones and marrow,

And iron rats gnaw the body;

One embraces a copper pillar, climbing up and down,

And lies upon an iron bed in darkness.

Verses on the Residual Retribution:

Craving and lust disorder body and mind,

Bringing suffering within and without.

If one should again attain human birth,

One’s wife will often prove unfaithful.

They constantly harbor doubts about each other,

And neither is willing to yield.

How could one endowed with the least spiritual awareness

Fail to know shame?

XXIII.4. Speaking Falsehoods

Those born into this world encounter an age of defilement; having assumed a provisional, illusory body, they dwell in an insubstantial and fleeting world. Therefore, their thoughts are untrue, they fabricate accusations, and their hearts are filled with delusion and confusion, perversely opposing what is right. Contrary to reason, they speak falsehoods, bewildering others and causing them to misunderstand, until myriad sufferings close in around them and a hundred anxieties torment them. Those who sow causes of falsehood reap the fruit of degradation; beyond the extreme suffering of hell, there are also boiling water and burning ashes. Because of lying, they receive the retribution of failing to understand the true Dharma and being unable to distinguish the false from the true.

A verse in the Sutra on the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states:

Those who speak falsehoods,

Bringing suffering to sentient beings,

Are foolish people;

Though alive, they are as if dead.

The blade of speech cuts their own tongues;

How could their tongues not fall away!

Those who always speak falsehoods

Lose all their merit.

Those who utter deceptive words

Have venomous snakes within their mouths.

A blade lies within their mouths,

And fierce flames blaze forth.

The poison in the mouth is truly venomous;

A serpent's poison cannot compare.

The venomous mouth harms sentient beings;

After death, they fall into hell.

Those who speak falsehoods

Have pus forever flowing from their mouths.

Their tongues are no different from filthy mud

And are also like raging fire.

Those who malign others

Are often treated with contempt.

Good people always keep away from them,

And the devas offer them no protection.

They constantly envy others

And bear hatred toward sentient beings,

Then seek ways to torment and disturb them;

Because of this, they enter hell.

The Sutra on the Upasaka Precepts states:

If there are people

Who habitually speak falsehoods,

They will receive the retribution

Of sparse teeth and a crooked mouth.

Even when they speak the truth,

People will not believe them.

Everyone resents and detests them,

And dislikes seeing their faces;

This is retribution in the present life.

Having created evil karma,

After they die,

They fall into hell

And undergo immeasurable suffering—

Hunger, thirst, and scorching heat;

This is retribution in a future life.

Having created evil karma,

If they attain human birth,

Their mouths will be twisted and deformed.

Although they speak the truth,

People will not believe them,

And no one will wish to look upon them.

Even if they teach the true Dharma,

No one will listen.

Those who commit evil deeds,

Through the power of karmic conditions,

Will be deficient

In all necessities.

From this, we know that those who lie will certainly undergo painful retribution throughout the three times.

The Sutra on the Essential Secrets of Meditation states: “Among the four assemblies of the Buddha's disciples, whoever greedily seeks offerings without knowing contentment, commits evil through deception out of love for fame, does not truly cultivate, indulges body and speech, acts recklessly, and, in pursuit of offerings, says, ‘I practice seated meditation…,’ commits a Sthulatyaya offense. If a bhiksu has committed an offense but refuses to disclose it and does not reform himself, then even concealing it for only a moment constitutes a Sanghavasesa offense^[75]. If he conceals it for one or two days, know that this bhiksu is a thief, a raksasa among humans, who will certainly fall into an evil realm in the future and incur grave offenses.

“If bhiksus or bhiksunis have not truly accomplished the contemplation of the white bones but claim that they have, or even claim to have accomplished the contemplation of counting the breath, they deceive and bewilder devas, nagas, ghosts, spirits, and others. Such evil people belong to the lineage of Mara Papiyan^[76], because they have spoken falsely. If they say, ‘I have attained the contemplation of impurity^[77], or even the contemplation of the crown of the head^[78],’ [135c] then after death they immediately fall into the Avici Hell.

They remain in hell for one kalpa; upon emerging from hell, they fall among hungry ghosts and must swallow pellets of red-hot iron for eight hundred years. After undergoing suffering among hungry ghosts, they again fall into the animal realm, where their bodies constantly bear heavy burdens and carry great loads. When they die, they are flayed and their flesh is carved apart.

Only after five hundred lifetimes do they attain human birth again. As humans, their bodies are constantly afflicted by blindness, muteness, speech impediments, deformities, and every kind of disability. The full extent of such suffering cannot be described.”

The Sutra on the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states:

Sweet dew and deadly poison

Both issue from the tongue.

Sweet dew is truthful speech;

Poison is deceitful speech.

If people seek sweet dew,

They should speak truthfully.

If they desire poison,

Then let them utter malicious words.

Poison may not kill a person,

But falsehood will surely bring death.

Those who always speak falsely

Are like people already dead.

Falsehood benefits neither oneself

Nor, still less, anyone else.

Neither oneself nor others find joy;

Why, then, resort to deceit?

If truly evil people

Delight in speaking falsehoods,

They will fall upon fiery blades

And suffer torment without end.

Though poison is terribly harmful,

It harms only a single body;

The evil karma of false speech

Will cause harm through hundreds of thousands of lives.

The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on Sura^[79] states: “The Buddha taught: Speaking falsely not only deceives oneself but also deceives others. Those who lie receive the retribution of a foul-smelling body; their speech and thoughts contradict one another, leaving their minds constantly uneasy. Liars also receive the retribution of foul breath and an ugly form, and heavenly spirits keep far away from them. Those who lie destroy all their own roots of goodness; deluded, they lose the path to wholesome destinies. Therefore, falsehood is the root of all evil deeds and cuts off wholesome conduct and a life of tranquility.”

The Sutra on the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “King Yama spoke verses reproaching the sinners:

Through truthful speech, one gains peace and joy;

Through truthful speech, one attains nirvana.

False speech brings suffering

In this life and the next.

If one does not abandon falsehood,

One will undergo suffering.

Truthful speech need not be purchased;

It is easily obtained and not difficult.

It does not come from elsewhere,

Nor need one beg it from anyone.

Why, then, forsake it

And delight in false speech?

Those who speak untruthfully

Create the cause of hell.

The causes were formed in former times;

What use is lamentation now?

The fire of false speech is the fiercest,

Able to burn even the great ocean;

How much more will it burn the liar,

As fire consumes grass and trees.

Those who do not speak truthfully

But always utter deceitful words—

Such foolish people

Cast away jewels and embrace stones.

Those who do not cherish themselves

But delight in entering hell

Will have the fire of false speech upon their bodies

Immediately consume their forms.

Truthful speech is very easily obtained

And adorns all people,

Yet they cast truthful speech away;

Through foolishness, they have come to this place.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states:

Truthful speech is foremost,

A stairway ascending to heaven.

For great and small alike,

Falsehood leads into hell.

The Sarvastivada Treatise states: “Those who refrain from false speech, when teaching the Dharma, engaging in debate, or offering explanations, may encounter issues whose correctness or incorrectness cannot be determined. In such cases, they must not insist that they themselves are right, but should sincerely learn from others; only thus can they avoid fault. Otherwise, it is like having an axe within the mouth.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “To call a person of high and noble station poor and lowly, or to call a person with two eyes one-eyed… all such statements are called false speech. Or, if one says to a one-eyed person, ‘You are blind’… one incurs the offense of contemptuously insulting another.”

The Verses on Direct Retribution state:

Those who lie and deceive others

Undergo painful punishment in hell.

Burning saws tear apart their bodies,

And red-hot iron plows through their tongues.

Boiling copper is poured upon them,

And iron mallets crush their bodies.

Their bones are shattered in agony,

And their wailing never ceases.

The Verses on Residual Retribution state:

Those who lie fall into the three evil realms.

After undergoing punishment there,

If their karma remains and they are born human,

They suffer sorrow from slander.

They are also deceived by others,

And anger burns them like fire.

The wise blame no one,

For they clearly understand cause and effect.

XXIII.5. Harsh Speech

The flames of anger in ordinary beings are always blazing fiercely: as soon as they encounter conducive conditions, they flare up; when they meet adverse circumstances, they become enraged. Thus, whenever beings speak, they give voice to anger; when they open their mouths, they scorch others’ hearts and inflict wounds more painful than cuts from a knife. Whoever utters such words acts contrary to the benevolent mind of a bodhisattva and against the Buddha’s loving teachings.

The Sutra on the Distinctions in Karmic Retribution^[80] contains this verse:

Words that distress others,

Exposing their private affairs,

Stubborn and difficult to tame—

These make one a fire-mouthed hungry ghost.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “There was once a hungry ghost who, in a former life as a human being, habitually spoke harshly and often reviled sentient beings with malicious words. Beings hated this person and regarded him as an enemy. Because of the karma of such harsh and evil speech, after death he fell into the realm of hungry ghosts.”

The Dharmapada Sutra^[81] records: “Even if one becomes a sramana, if one does not restrain body and speech but continues to speak harshly and injure many people, not only will one fail to earn the affection and respect of others, but the wise will also have no compassion for one. After death, one’s consciousness will wander endlessly through the three evil destinies, being born and dying, dying and being born, and suffering without measure. Nor will one receive the compassion of the Buddha or the noble sages. Even if beings commit no bodily offense, should they fail to guard carefully the karma of speech, they too will fall into an evil destiny.”

The treatise records: “At that time there was a ghost whose head resembled a pig’s head. Maggots crawled out of its mouth, yet its entire body radiated brilliant golden light. In a former life this ghost had been a bhiksu. Because he reviled another bhiksu with harsh and malicious words, he received the retribution of worms crawling out of his mouth; yet because he had observed the precepts, his body radiated brilliant golden light.”

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra records: “It would be better to cut off your own tongue with a sharp sword than ever to utter harsh words of abuse and thereby fall into the three evil destinies.”

The Sutra on Guarding the Mouth records: “In the past, the Buddha Kasyapa appeared in the world and expounded the Dharma. When his work of teaching and transforming beings was complete, he entered the realm of nirvana without remainder. After the Buddha had entered nirvana, there was a Tripitaka-master bhiksu named Yellow Head. The Sangha said to Yellow Head: ‘You need not attend to any of the minor duties. We ask only that you teach the wondrous Dharma to later students.’

At that time, the Tripitaka-master bhiksu harbored contempt in his heart, but he could not disobey the Sangha’s instruction. With no other choice, Yellow Head expounded the meaning of the sutras to the later students. Yet while teaching the sutras, he would address a student by saying, ‘You elephant-headed fellow, come quickly to the front!’ In this manner, one after another, he called others horse-head, camel-head, pig-head, goat-head, lion-head, and tiger-head. He called those who listened to the Dharma by the names of animals in numbers beyond reckoning.

Although Yellow Head taught the scriptures, he could not escape the consequences of that offense. After his death, he fell into hell, [136c] where for tens of millions of kalpas he endured immeasurable suffering. When the retribution for his offense had not yet been exhausted, he was born from hell into the great ocean in the body of an aquatic creature. One body bore one hundred heads and was immense in form. All other creatures kept far away whenever they saw it.”

The Sutra of the Emergence of the Essential^[82] records: “Long ago, while the Buddha was still in the world, the Venerable Purna entered the realm of hungry ghosts and encountered a hideous ghost whose appearance caused anyone who saw it to shudder in terror. Its body spontaneously blazed like a great heap of fire. Maggots crawled from its mouth, while blood and pus poured forth, producing such a foul stench that no one could approach.

At times, flames issued from its mouth and shot more than ten zhang into the distance; at other times, its eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and limbs emitted fierce flames more than ten zhang. Its lips and mouth hung down like those of a wild boar, and its body was a full yojana in length and breadth. It slapped its face with its hands, wailed piteously, and ran back and forth from east to west.

Seeing this, the Venerable Purna asked:

– What sinful karma did you create that you must now endure this painful retribution?

The hungry ghost replied:

– In the past, I left the household life, but I was attached to my quarters and greedily refused to relinquish them. Relying on my noble lineage, I spoke harshly and maliciously. Whenever I saw a bhiksu observing the precepts and diligently practicing, I insulted him, curling my lips or narrowing my eyes at him, or speaking this way and that against him. For these reasons, I must endure this painful retribution.

Therefore, it would be better to take a sharp knife and cut off one’s own tongue, enduring suffering for many kalpas, than ever to revile or disparage a bhiksu who diligently practices and strictly observes the precepts.

The hungry ghost further said to the Venerable Purna:

– When the Venerable One returns to the human world, use my example to admonish the bhiksus. Urge everyone to guard against offenses of the mouth and never speak false words. If they see someone observing the precepts, they should praise that person’s merit. Since I first took on this body of a hungry ghost, tens of millions of years have passed, and I have constantly endured such suffering. As soon as I cast off this body, I shall immediately fall into hell.

Having spoken these words, the hungry ghost wailed piteously and hurled itself to the ground like Mount Tai collapsing, as though heaven and earth were being torn asunder.”

Such retributions are all caused by offenses of the mouth!

The Sutra of a Hundred Conditions records: “The wife of a wealthy elder emitted such a foul odor while pregnant that no one could approach her. When her time came, she gave birth to a boy who looked like a skeleton, so emaciated that no one dared look at him; feces and urine flowed all over his body. As the child grew day by day, he did not wish to remain at home but delighted only in eating filth and could not be made to stop. His parents and relatives were so disgusted that they did not wish to see him, and so they placed him alone in a house far away from them. Free to roam outside, the child ate filth to his heart’s content. Seeing this, people called him Dambala. Later, the child encountered the Buddha, left the household life, cultivated the path, and attained arhatship.

The cause was that, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda, the child had left the household life and served as abbot of a monastery. At that time, a lay Buddhist donated fragrant oil for members of the Sangha to anoint their bodies after bathing. Among the Sangha was an arhat. When the abbot saw him, he became angry and reviled the arhat, saying: ‘You are a renunciant, yet you still anoint your body with fragrant oil. [137a] This is no different from smearing human excrement upon your body.’

The arhat felt compassion for the abbot and manifested supernatural powers. Seeing this, the abbot sincerely repented, hoping to eradicate his karmic offenses.

Because he had created the evil karma of such reviling, the abbot received the retribution of having a perpetually foul-smelling body for five hundred lifetimes, so that no one dared approach him. Yet because he had formerly left the household life and had earnestly repented before the arhat, he was now able to encounter the Buddha, leave the household life, and attain realization of the path. Therefore, sentient beings should guard the karma of speech and never revile or insult others.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, on one occasion, while traveling with the bhikshus toward the city of Vaishali, he came to the Levi River and saw fishermen who had caught a fish with one hundred heads. As many as five hundred people joined together to pull the fish ashore, but they could not move it. At that time, five hundred cowherds were on the riverbank. They released their cattle and all came to help pull. Only through the combined strength of one thousand people were they able to drag the fish ashore. Seeing this strange fish, everyone vied with one another to come and look. The Buddha and the bhikshus also approached. The Buddha then asked:

– Are you Kapila?

The fish replied:

– Yes, I am.

He asked again:

– Where is your teacher now?

The fish replied:

– My teacher has already fallen into the Avici hell.

At that time, Venerable Ananda witnessed and heard this exchange. Finding it extraordinary, he asked the Buddha:

– World-Honored One! What is the meaning of this?

The Buddha told Ananda:

– Long ago, when the Buddha Kashyapa appeared in the world, there was a man of brahmin lineage who had a son named Kapila. Kapila was intelligent, widely learned, and foremost in erudition. After Kapila’s father died, his mother asked:

– Now that you have become a man of great learning, is there anyone in the world who can defeat you in debate?

The son replied:

– The shramanas are highly skilled. Whenever I bring my doubts to them, they explain everything clearly so that I understand. Conversely, if they question me, I am unable to answer.

His mother asked him:

– How can you learn their Dharma?

The son replied:

– If I wish to learn their Dharma, I must become a shramana. We are householders dressed in white; how could we learn it?

His mother told him:

– For now, pretend to be a shramana so that you may learn their Dharma. Once you have mastered it, return home.

Following his mother’s instruction, the son pretended to be a bhikshu. After only a short time, he mastered the entire Tripitaka, returned to lay life, and went home.

His mother asked again:

– Can you defeat them in debate now?

The son replied:

– I still cannot defeat them.

His mother then told him:

– From now on, whenever you debate with them and cannot prevail, turn to reviling and abusing them. By doing so, you will defeat them.

The son followed his mother’s advice. Later, when he was defeated while debating with the bhikshus, he remembered his mother’s words and began to abuse them, saying: ‘You are foolish, ignorant shramanas; your heads are like the heads of beasts.’ He then invoked the heads of a hundred different beasts in his comparisons as he reviled the bhikshus. Because he formerly abused the bhikshus in this manner, he has now received the karmic retribution of being born as a fish with one body and one hundred heads, comprising every kind of bird and beast, such as the head of a camel, donkey, ox, horse, pig, goat, dog, and so forth.

Venerable Ananda asked the Buddha:

– When will that man be freed from this fish’s body?

[137b] The Buddha told Ananda:

– Even after all one thousand Buddhas have appeared and entered nirvana during the Auspicious Kalpa, he still will not be freed from this fish’s body.

Therefore, everyone must exercise the utmost caution regarding the three kinds of karma—those of body, speech, and mind.”

The Account of Wang Xuance’s Journey records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, on one occasion he traveled to the city of Vaishali. Observing that all sentient beings endured many sufferings and afflictions, he wished to save and liberate them. He also saw that in that kingdom there were two groups of Kaivartas^[83], totaling five hundred people, who had caught a great makara fish in the Balakumati River.

The fish had one hundred and eight heads and thirty-six eyes. Its many heads resembled those of various kinds of beasts, as described in the preceding passage. The Buddha taught the Dharma to the fish.

Immediately after hearing it, the fish relinquished its body of karmic retribution and was reborn in heaven as a deva prince. The deva prince then contemplated and understood that in his former life he had been a great fish and that, through hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, he had been reborn in heaven. Taking all kinds of celestial flowers, incense, jeweled necklaces, and precious objects, he returned to the human world and made offerings to the Buddha.

At that time, the two groups of Kaivartas witnessed this and repented of their transgressions. Together, they went northward to a place more than one hundred paces from the Balakumati River, where they burned their nets and cremated the fish. They then placed all the ashes in a bronze vessel and buried it with great care.

At the same time, they erected a jeweled stupa at the very place where the Buddha had taught the Dharma and raised a lofty image that remains to this day. Because that stupa was constructed in accordance with the Dharma, all who behold it are filled with delight.”

The Sutra of One Hundred Karmic Conditions records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, Queen Mallika, the wife of King Prasenajit, gave birth to a princess named Vajra. Vajra was exceedingly ugly: her skin was coarse and rough like snakeskin, and her hair was stiff and coarse like a horse’s tail. When the king saw her, he was displeased and ordered that she be confined deep within the palace and never allowed outside. The princess grew older day by day and eventually reached marriageable age. The king therefore commanded a minister: ‘Go and find a man who was formerly born into a wealthy family but has now fallen into poverty, and bring him before me.’ Obeying the king’s command, the minister found such a man and brought him before the king.

The king led the man to a secluded place and quietly said:

– I have heard that you were born into a wealthy family but have now fallen into poverty. I have a daughter who is very ugly. If you are willing to take her as your wife, I shall provide you with money, jewels, and precious objects.

The impoverished man immediately knelt before the king and said:

– Even if Your Majesty were to bestow a dog upon me, I would not dare disobey your will, much less when Your Majesty would grant me the beloved daughter of Queen Mallika!

The king immediately arranged their wedding. At the same time, he had a house built with seven successive doors and instructed his son-in-law: ‘You must keep the doors locked. Whenever you leave or enter, remember to lock them securely. Do not allow anyone else to see my daughter.’ The king also supplied his son-in-law with wealth and precious goods, leaving him in want of nothing, and appointed him a minister.

Some time later, the wealthy families of the kingdom jointly held a banquet. According to the rules for attending such a great assembly, every man was required to bring his wife. Thus, everyone brought his wife with him, but that minister alone arrived by himself. The others found this strange and thought: ‘His wife must either be exceptionally beautiful or exceedingly ugly, so she dares not appear before others and therefore has not attended the gathering.’”

When the great assembly had concluded, everyone joined together in plying that minister with wine until he became drunk and fell asleep. They found the key to his house on his person and sent five men there to discover the truth. When the five men arrived and opened the door of the minister’s house, his wife realized that it was not her husband. [137c] She reproached herself and thought sorrowfully, “What offense did I commit in a former life that my husband keeps me confined so that I cannot see the sun or moon?” Having thought thus, she turned in the direction of the Buddha, bowed with utmost sincerity, and vowed, “May the Buddha, in his compassion, come to me and rescue me from this suffering and tribulation!”

The Buddha knew the princess’s prayer and suddenly emerged from beneath the earth before her. He first revealed his blue-black hair. When the princess raised her head and saw the Buddha’s hair, reverence and joy arose within her; consequently, her own hair naturally became lustrous blue-black. Gradually, the Buddha allowed the princess to see his face. Her joy increased, and consequently her countenance naturally became extraordinarily beautiful; her rough skin also disappeared of itself. Finally, the Buddha manifested his entire body. Seeing him, the princess rejoiced beyond measure, and consequently her body became beautiful, no different from that of a celestial maiden.

At that time, the Buddha taught the princess the essential principles of the Dharma. After hearing them, she immediately attained the fruit of stream-entry. After the Buddha departed, the five men opened the door and entered the house, where they saw a woman of incomparable beauty. Having seen her, they locked the door again, returned, and replaced the key where it had been.

After he awoke from his drunkenness, the husband returned home and saw that his wife had suddenly become extraordinarily beautiful. Overjoyed, he asked her:

– Who are you?

His wife replied:

– I am your wife.

The husband said:

– You were formerly ugly. Why are you now so beautiful?

The wife recounted to her husband everything that had happened and then said to him:

– I wish to see my royal father. Please help me report this to him.

The husband entered the palace and reported to the king:

– The princess now wishes to come and pay her respects to Your Majesty.

The king said to his son-in-law:

– Never mention this matter again! Quickly confine your wife and do not allow her to go outside.

The son-in-law reported to the king, his father-in-law:

– Through the Buddha’s spiritual power, my wife has now become as beautiful as a celestial maiden.

Upon hearing this, the king immediately sent someone to escort his daughter back to the palace. Seeing that she was extraordinarily beautiful, the king was filled with joy.

Afterward, the king brought the princess to see the Buddha and addressed him:

– I do not know what merit and virtue the princess cultivated in a former life that enabled her to be born into a wealthy and noble family, yet caused her to be so ugly.

The Buddha said:

– In the past, in the kingdom of Varanasi, there was an elder who regularly made offerings to a pratyekabuddha, but this pratyekabuddha had a very ugly body. When the elder’s daughter saw how ugly the pratyekabuddha was, she mocked him, saying, “What sort of person has skin so rough and ugly as this!” Because she disparaged the pratyekabuddha, the princess now received such retribution.

When the pratyekabuddha was about to enter nirvana, he manifested the eighteen kinds of spiritual transformation. After seeing them, the young woman reproached herself and earnestly begged for forgiveness and repented. Because she had formerly mocked the pratyekabuddha, she repeatedly received the retribution of an ugly body. Because she recognized her fault and repented in time, her body has now become beautiful again. Because she possessed the resolve to make offerings, wherever she is born she becomes a person of honor and enjoys wealth and happiness.”

The Sutra on the Arising of Conduct records: “In the past, Shakyamuni Buddha reviled Kashyapa Buddha with harsh words, saying, ‘How could that foolish, bald-headed shramana possibly possess the path to Buddhahood?’ Consequently, during his final lifetime, for six years he ate only one sesame seed, grain of rice, or large bean each day. Such was his ascetic practice.”

[138a] The Sutra on the Stage of Cultivating the Path^[84] contains this verse:

Wayward by nature, speaking recklessly,

Coarse and never gentle,

Speaking of this matter here and that matter there,

Never considering the benefit of others.

His words are unclear,

While his mind devises malicious schemes;

Like fire concealed beneath ashes,

It burns the foot of anyone who steps upon it.

One who often speaks gentle words,

Accords with the intentions of others;

His words and deeds are always consistent,

And he harms no one,

Like lovely blossoms upon a tree

That will surely bear sweet fruit.

As the Buddha taught,

The mind and mouth should always accord.

The Sutra of the Hundred Conditions records: “When the Buddha was in the world, there lived in the city of Rajagriha a wealthy elder whose money, treasures, and precious possessions were beyond calculation. His wife became pregnant, and after the full ten months had passed, the time for delivery came and her labor began, but she could not give birth.

Later, the elder’s wife became pregnant again. After the full ten months, she gave birth to a child, yet the fetus from her first pregnancy still remained within her right side. In this manner, she conceived nine times in succession, and each time she gave birth after the full ten months. Only the first fetus continued to remain within its mother’s womb.

One day, the elder’s wife became gravely ill. Although many kinds of medicine were administered, her illness did not improve. Knowing that nothing more could be done, she instructed her family, ‘The child in my womb is still alive. If I die, you must cut open my abdomen, save the child, and raise him.’

At that time, the mother could not overcome her grave illness and passed away. Her relatives therefore carried her body to the charnel ground and invited the physician Jivaka to cut open her abdomen and examine it. As expected, they found a baby boy. His body was very small, yet his hair and beard were completely white. He walked hunched over, looked around in every direction, and said to his relatives, ‘Do you know? Because in a former life I used vicious words to berate and insult the Sangha, I have now received the retribution of remaining in the womb and enduring such suffering for sixty years. It would be difficult to describe it fully.’

When his relatives heard the child speak, they all wept and choked with emotion, unable to utter a word.

At that time, the Buddha knew from afar that this child’s wholesome roots had matured. Accompanied by the bhikshus, he went to the corpse and asked the child:

– Are you the elder bhikshu?

The child replied:

– Yes, I am.

The Buddha asked a second and a third time, and each time the child answered, ‘Yes.’

The bhikshus accompanying the Buddha witnessed this exchange and were astonished. They immediately addressed him:

– Blessed One! What karma did this child create in his former life that he must now undergo the retribution of remaining in his mother’s womb, with white hair, walking hunched over, and conversing with the Tathagata in this manner?

The Buddha told the bhikshus:

– During the Bhadra Kalpa, a Buddha named Kashyapa appeared in the world. [138b] At that time, during the summer retreat, the Sangha dwelt together in retreat. They unanimously appointed an elderly bhikshu to serve as the Sangha’s karmadana. They also established this rule: ‘During the retreat, only those who attain the path will be permitted to perform the pravarana together with the Sangha; anyone who has not attained the path will not be permitted to perform the pravarana.’ At that time, only that karmadana had not attained the path, so the Sangha did not allow him to participate in the uposatha, pravarana, or formal acts of the Sangha. Because of this, he became sorrowful and resentfully said, ‘I have managed the affairs of the Sangha so that you could cultivate in peace, yet now you turn against me and do not allow me to participate in the pravarana, uposatha, or formal acts of the Sangha.’

The karmadana then became enraged and reviled the Sangha. The Sangha immediately seized him and confined him in a dark room. Growing even more resentful, he cursed them, saying, ‘I shall cause all of you to remain in a place of darkness and obscurity, unable to see the light, just as you have now confined me in this dark room!’”

Having said this, he took his own life. Immediately after death, he fell into hell and endured immeasurable suffering. Only now has he escaped, yet he must still undergo such painful retribution within the womb.

After the Sangha heard the Buddha's teaching, everyone carefully guarded the three kinds of karma and became weary of the path of birth and death. Some attained the four fruits of the śramaṇa; some aroused the aspiration to attain the fruit of a pratyekabuddha; and some aroused the aspiration to attain unsurpassed bodhi.

The elder then brought the child home and raised him. As the child grew and matured, they allowed him to follow the Buddha, enter monastic life, cultivate the path, and attain arhatship.

The Buddha told the bhikshus:

– Because in a past life this person made offerings to the Sangha and served as the karmadāna overseeing the Sangha's affairs, he has now been able to encounter the Buddha, enter monastic life, and attain the fruit.

After the bhikshus heard the Buddha's teaching, they joyfully practiced accordingly.”

The verse on direct retribution states:

Harsh words are like poisoned arrows;

Those they strike are wounded.

The gates of hell stand open, waiting;

One falls into cauldrons of boiling water.

The tongue is cut out, and one is forced to eat it;

The suffering is beyond all telling.

If there is no benefit,

Why not guard one's speech?

The verse on resultant retribution states:

Harsh words that offend others

Bring burning torment in hell.

If one is reborn as a human,

One will constantly hear cutting words.

Even when engaging in discussion,

One will incur still greater resentment from others.

Willingly accept the ripened retribution;

Abandon evil, and goodness will naturally arise.

Notes:

^[29] The six destinies (六道): according to Buddhism, sentient beings transmigrate through six paths in accordance with their wholesome or unwholesome karma: devas, humans, asuras, hungry ghosts, animals, and hell beings.

^[30] The ruler of Wei (魏君): namely, Marquis Wen of Wei, the founding ruler of the state during the Warring States period.

^[31] Luminous pearl 明珠: a radiant jewel.

^[32] Jade ring (白環): a ring of white jade.

^[33] Precious treasures 珍寶: a general term for pearls, ivory, and precious stones.

^[34] Juque 巨闕: the name of an ancient sword.

^[35] Ganjiang 干將: the name of a sword. During the Spring and Autumn period, in the state of Wu, there was a highly accomplished swordsmith named Gan Jiang; therefore, his name was used as the name of the sword.

^[36] Wuhao 烏號: a bow. In ancient times, there were mulberry and zhe trees whose wood was extremely tough. Whenever a bird perched upon one and was about to fly away, the branch bent downward without breaking. People commonly cut branches from these trees to make bows. Hence, such a bow was called a Wuhao bow.

^[37] Fanruo 繁弱: the name of a fine bow in ancient times.

^[38] Awaiting news (the original reads: 待信): waiting for news of a particular person or matter.

^[39] Xianyun 獫狁: the name of an ethnic minority inhabiting northern ancient China.

^[40] Er 陑: the name of an ancient mountain, now located in Yongji County, Shanxi Province, China.

^[41] Muye 牧野: the site where the Shang dynasty and the allied forces of the Zhou fought in 1045 BCE. Taking advantage of political turmoil within the Shang dynasty, the Zhou and several allied states launched an attack to destroy it. They were victorious and captured and killed the Shang king at the Battle of Muye.

5 Red Cliffs 赤壁: the site of a historic battle during the Three Kingdoms period, a battle decisive to the fate of both Eastern Wu and Western Shu.

^[43] Wu River 烏江: the name of a river northeast of He County, Anhui Province, China. Xiang Yu was encamped at Gaixia and surrounded by the Han army. He resolutely sang a song and then leaped into the river, taking his own life.

^[44] Wang Mang 王莽 (45 BCE–23 CE): Wang Mang, courtesy name Jujun, was a native of Chengyuan. He served as Grand Marshal and assisted Emperor Ping of the Han dynasty. In the Yichou year, the fifth year of the Yuanshi era, Emperor Ping died. Mang installed a fourth-generation descendant of Emperor Xuan on the throne under the title Ruzi. Mang served as chancellor for three years. In the seventeenth year, Mang was killed by Liu Xuan, courtesy name Shenggong, a seventh-generation descendant of Emperor Jing.

^[45] Dong Zhuo 董卓: a renowned official in Chinese history who lived during the final years of the Eastern Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. Dong Zhuo's courtesy name was Zhongying. He was a native of Lintao County, Longxi Commandery, corresponding to present-day Min County, Gansu Province.

^[46] Cloud banner 雲旗: a large banner bearing images of bears and tigers.

^[47] The four destinies (四趣): the four realms of suffering into which sentient beings who commit unwholesome karma are reborn. They are the realms of asuras, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings.

^[48] Saṅgha-mālya property 僧鬘物: objects offered directly to the Sangha. In ancient times, “Saṅgha-mālya property” referred to flowers and fruit.

^[49] The five heinous offenses (五逆): killing one's father, killing one's mother, killing an arhat, shedding the blood of a Buddha, and causing a schism in the harmonious Sangha.

^[50] The four grave offenses (四重): killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech.

^[51] The Auspicious Kalpa (賢刧): during this kalpa, a great many saints and sages appear in the world. Therefore, it is called the Auspicious Kalpa.

^[52] Caturdiśa Sangha 招提僧 (S: catur-diśa): monks who travel from place to place, spreading the teaching throughout the four directions without residing permanently in any one place.

^[53] The eight liberations 八背捨 (S: aṣṭau vimokṣāḥ; Ch.: 八解脫): eight methods of meditative contemplation practiced progressively from the shallow to the profound. By relying upon these eight gateways of meditative concentration, one can eliminate the afflictions of the three realms and attain liberation; hence they are called the eight liberations. They are called the eight renunciations because, by relying upon these eight gateways of meditative concentration, one can relinquish the objects of the five desires and become free from an attached mind.

^[54] Araṇya 阿蘭若 (S: araṇya): a secluded place in the mountains or forests, a desolate field, or a tranquil place beside a river or marsh, separated from villages and cities by one krośa or half a krośa.

^[55] The four yokes 四扼 (S: catvāro yogāḥ): the four kinds of afflictions that bind sentient beings within the three realms and prevent them from escaping. First, the yoke of sensual desire: the affliction that causes sentient beings continually to undergo suffering in the desire realm. Second, the yoke of existence: the affliction that continually causes sentient beings to undergo suffering in the form and formless realms. Third, the yoke of views: the affliction of erroneous views, which continually causes sentient beings to undergo suffering in the three realms. Fourth, the yoke of ignorance: the affliction of delusion, which causes sentient beings to undergo suffering in the three realms.

^[56] Distributing tally sticks (行籌): distributing numbered tally sticks to determine the number of Sangha members attending an assembly.

^[57] The Satyasiddhi Treatise (成實論; S: Satyasiddhi-śāstra): a treatise in sixteen or twenty fascicles, composed by Harivarman and translated by Kumārajīva around 411–412 during the Later Qin dynasty. It is included in volume 32 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This is the foundational scripture of the Satyasiddhi school.

^[58] Rag robe (糞掃衣; S: su-kūla): a robe made from torn garments and scraps of cloth discarded at rubbish heaps, cemeteries, and similar places, which are collected, washed clean, and sewn together.

^[59] Bao Si 褒姒: a famed Chinese beauty of the Zhou dynasty.

^[60] Li Ji 麗姬: a Chinese beauty whose charms so captivated Duke Xian of Jin that he ultimately lost his state.

^[61] Ekaśṛṅga 獨角: the one-horned sage whose magical powers caused a drought and who was tricked by a courtesan into carrying her upon his shoulders back to the royal court.

^[62] Śrutāvī 述伽婆: the story of the young fisherman.

^[63] Contemplative understanding 觀解: attaining illumination through observation and reflection upon ultimate truth. The Mahāyāna Compendium of Meanings states: “The initial practice of contemplative understanding is capable of subduing the afflictions.”

^[64] Subduing and severing 伏斷: suppressing the karmic afflictions so that they temporarily cease to arise is called subduing the afflictions; completely severing their causes so that they never arise again is called eliminating the afflictions.

^[65] Contemplative practice 觀行: practice conducted in accordance with the mind’s contemplation is called contemplative practice. That is, the mind contemplates principle, while the body practices in accordance with that principle.

^[66] Six sense-objects 六塵: the six objects of form, sound, fragrance, taste, touch, and dharmas. These six objects enter the mind through the six sense faculties—eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind—and cause defilement; hence they are called “dusts.” Because they constantly rob sentient beings of their wholesome minds, they are also called thieves.

^[67] Caṇḍāla 旃陀羅 (S: caṇḍāla): the lowest and most despised of the four classes of India. Here it means that the body of the five skandhas is truly filthy and base; it should not be cherished or indulged, but should instead arouse a resolve of disenchantment and detachment.

^[68] Luo River 洛川: the name of a river, now located in Henan Province.

^[69] Prince of Chen 陳王 (variant: Prince Si of Chen): the second son of Cao Cao, highly accomplished in literature and poetry. While passing by the Luo River, he encountered a beautiful woman and therefore had to stop there.

^[70] Bend of the Han 漢曲: the region around a bend at Mount Hangao. This mountain is in Hubei, northwest of Rangyang.

^[71] Jiao Fu 交甫: Zheng Jiao Fu. While strolling below the bend of Mount Hangao, he encountered two beautiful women. They traveled together among the mountains and waters, and the two women presented him with ornaments.

^[72] On the summit of Mount Wu, relying on clouds and rain to come and go (Vu sơn đài thượng thác vân vũ dĩ khứ lai 巫山臺託雲雨以去來): the preface to “Rhapsody on the Gaotang Terrace” by Song Yu of the Warring States period records: “Long ago, the former king often traveled to Gaotang. One night he dreamed that a beautiful woman came and said, ‘I am the daughter of Mount Wu and a guest of Gaotang. Hearing that Your Majesty was traveling here, I came to share your pillow and mat.’ Upon awakening, the king was greatly delighted, and after returning he recorded the dream in verse.”

^[73] Han Shou 韓壽 (also called: Liu Yiqing): a man of the Song dynasty, remarkably handsome and elegant. When he had a secret affair with a woman named Jia Chong, she possessed an unusual fragrance. The scent clung to his body and remained even after a month. Her daughter secretly stole the fragrance and went to Han Shou. Jia Chong detected that fragrance and immediately investigated the matter. Jia Chong then gave his daughter to Han Shou in marriage. Consequently, people used the expression “Jia Chong’s fragrance” to signify the fragrance of love between a man and a woman.

^[74] Xiangru 相如 (full name: Sima Xiangru): a renowned writer of the Han dynasty.

^[75] Saṅghāvaśeṣa 僧殘 (S: saṃghāvaśeṣa): the second gravest class of offenses among the five divisions and seven categories. When a monk commits this offense, his life in the Dharma is nearly extinguished, with only a small remnant remaining, like a person who has been struck down and is about to die, with only a faint breath left.

^[76] Māra Pāpīyān 魔波旬 (S: Mārapapiyan): another name for Māra, the demon king.

^[77] Contemplation of impurity (contemplation of the impure 不淨觀; S: a-śubhā-smṛti): the contemplation of impurity is one of the five contemplations for stilling the mind. There are two methods of contemplating impurity: contemplating impurity directly within one’s own body, and contemplating impurity in the bodies of others.

^[78] Summit Dharma 頂法 (also called: summit stage; S: mūrdhāna): one of the four wholesome roots. Of the four wholesome roots, warmth and summit are called movable wholesome states, while patience and the highest worldly Dharma are called immovable wholesome states. This stage is the highest among the movable wholesome states, just as the crown of the head is the highest part of a person; hence it is called the Summit Dharma.

^[79] The Sūtra of the Buddha’s Teaching on Sūrata (Phật thuyết Tu-lại kinh 佛說須賴經; S: Sūrata-paripṛcchā): a sūtra in one fascicle, translated during the Three Kingdoms period by Bai Yan, a native of the state of Wei; it is included in volume 12 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. The sūtra relates that in Śrāvastī, a city of ancient India, there lived an impoverished man named Sūrata who possessed exceptional virtue, steadfastly upheld the precepts, and practiced the Ten Wholesome Actions.

^[80] Sūtra on the Differing Recompenses of Karma (Nghiệp báo sai biệt kinh 業報差別經): a sūtra in one fascicle, translated during the Sui dynasty by Gautama Dharmaprajñā. Its content concerns the Buddha’s teaching to the elder Śuka that all sentient beings are bound by karma, depend upon karma, and revolve in accordance with karma.

^[81] Dharmapada Sūtra (Pháp cú kinh 法句經, S: Dhammapada): a sūtra in two fascicles, thirty-nine chapters, and 752 verses, compiled by Dharmatrāta of India and translated during the Three Kingdoms period by Vighna of the state of Wu; it is included in volume 4 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Its contents were compiled by gathering verses spoken by the Buddha in various sūtras.

^[82] Udānavarga Sūtra (Xuất diệu kinh 出曜經): a sūtra in thirty fascicles, compiled by the Venerable Dharmatrāta and translated by Zhu Fonian during the Later Qin dynasty of the Yao clan.

^[83] Kê-việt-trá 鷄越吒 (also called: Li-xa-bì; S: Licchavi, Lecchavi): a kṣatriya clan of Vaiśālī in Central India, forming one branch of the Vṛji people.

^[84] Sūtra on the Stages of the Path of Cultivation (Tu hành đạo địa kinh 修行道地經): a sūtra in seven fascicles and thirty chapters, composed by the śramaṇa Saṅgharakṣa and translated during the Western Jin dynasty by Dharmarakṣa. Its contents clearly explain the characteristics of the five skandhas and the practices of the Three Vehicles.