諸經要集

Chief Editor: Thích Nguyên Chơn

PREFACE

[01a] The Dharma body has but one characteristic, yet each sentient being sees it differently; the true Dharma has but one flavor, yet those who hear it do not share the same understanding. Thus, one who teaches the Dharma is impartial like rain falling from the heavens, but the disciples who hear it each understand differently. Because the Dharma is transmitted according to each person’s capacity, comprehension may be shallow or profound depending on one’s faculties.

As for the general purport of the twelve divisions of scripture^[1] and the vast meaning of the eighty-four thousand Dharma gates, even the scriptures stored in the dragon palace of the Western Regions could not record the entirety of the Buddha’s boundless knowledge, as abundant as the leaves of a verdant forest; how, then, could the teachings that the ancient worthies carried eastward on elephants convey all his words, which were but like the number of leaves held in his hand?

Therefore, unless one journeys upon the great ocean, one cannot behold the immensity of the sky; unless one raises one’s eyes to Mount Tai, one cannot behold mountains touching the clouds. Only upon obtaining the precious pearl of the chi^[2] dragon^[3] does one realize that fish eyes are not jewels; only upon hearing the sound of a great bell does one realize how faint is the sound of striking a basin. Thus, one should know that the Buddhist scriptures possess a profoundly far-reaching intent and are cherished by sages and ordinary beings alike.

They are truly the unique treasure of devas and humans, surpassing even the rarest doctrines of the Confucian and Mohist^[4] schools and others. Their majestic power shakes the great trichiliocosm, their radiance extends beyond myriad realms, their benefits reach throughout worlds as numerous as grains of sand, and their merit endures for ten thousand generations.

How magnificent is the Buddha’s method of universal deliverance! Yet when the proper time and conditions had not come together, stimulus and response did not correspond. Then, when “the morning forest changed color^[5],” as had been foretold in a dream during the night, the foundations of White Horse Monastery were laid; and gradually, by the Chiwu era^[6], the Buddhadharma had spread widely for more than six hundred years, bringing equal benefit to monastics and laypeople alike.

But alas! The True Dharma and the Semblance Dharma gradually passed away, and as time moved into the age of the Final Dharma, ordinary sentient beings became darkened by worldly passions, their minds and consciousnesses grew deluded and increasingly shallow, the noble path sank into obscurity, and the teachings declined. Consequently, passages and phrases became corrupted, scriptural teachings fell into oblivion, and the enormous body of texts became exceedingly difficult to search and read.

Therefore, during the Xianqing era^[7], I read through all the scriptures and, according to my own understanding, sought out their essential teachings. The principles that everyone can put into practice are precisely those concerning the karmic retribution of good and evil. I recorded one thousand instances, compiled them into thirty chapters, and bound them in two collections, hoping that monastics and laypeople would practice accordingly and that the transmission of the lamp would thereby have a reliable foundation.

I respectfully observe that the Buddhist scriptures are profound and wondrous, beyond the discernment of those of limited understanding; the supramundane path is hidden and subtle—how could those entangled in afflictions discuss it adequately? When one ventures upon the vast ocean, one feels that one’s boat is frail; when one climbs a lofty mountain, one feels that dust is insignificant. Wielding a knife to cut is easy; weaving brocade to completion is difficult.

Now, without considering the mediocrity of my own understanding, I have presumptuously discussed these profound and hidden scriptures and provisionally assigned titles to their subjects, which only adds to my shame.

This book is divided into thirty categories: The Three Jewels, Veneration of Stupas, Collected Mindfulness, Entering the Path, [01b] Prostration and Praise, Incense and Lamps, Accepting Invitations, Receiving the Fasting Meal, Breaking the Fast, Wealth and Honor, Poverty and Humble Status, Exhortation, Repaying Kindness, Releasing Living Beings, Performing Meritorious Deeds, Choosing Friends, Careful Reflection, The Six Paramitas, Karmic Causes, Lust and Desire, The Four Modes of Birth, Experiencing Retribution, The Ten Evils, Deception, Indolence, Alcohol and Meat, Physiognomy, Hells, Funeral Rites, and Miscellaneous Matters.

I. VENERATING THE THREE JEWELS

I.1. Venerating the Buddha

This comprises six sections: Universal Veneration of the Three Jewels, Recollection of the Buddhas of the Ten Directions, Recollection of Buddha Shakyamuni, Recollection of Buddha Amitabha, Recollection of Buddha Maitreya, and the Buddha-Recollection Samadhi.

I.1.1. Introduction

The Buddha possesses the characteristic of equality, while his disciples possess the virtue of praise. Thus, all Buddhas of the ten directions appear in worlds of “filthy mud,” while the Perfectly Awakened Ones endowed with the three bodies all abide upon precious lotus thrones. Whichever characteristic of the Buddha sentient beings recollect, they all obtain benefit.

From the time he first left the household life until he attained Perfect Awakening—and during the interval, when he sat beneath the bodhi tree and subdued Mara, then taught the Dharma at the Deer Park, and so forth—each event was replete with noble marks and excellent features radiating brilliant light. His pure form body was like refined gold, and his handsome countenance resembled the bright full moon. His teeth were white as jade and snow; his lustrous, curling hair resembled spiral shells.

His eyes were likened to blue lotuses, and his brows compared to green willows. His voice rang resonantly; his myriad features were serene and composed. His five eyes^[8] shone brightly, and his six superknowledges were transcendent.

His eloquence was like a cascading waterfall, and his instructions were always suited to the capacities of those before him. He perfected the Buddha body, complete in the three points^[9], and realized the Dharma essence, endowed with the five parts. Through provisional and true Dharma teachings, he rescued sentient beings; manifesting his true body and response bodies as appropriate, he transformed and delivered all people.

At times, he sent forth the breeze of loving-kindness and compassion throughout all places; at times, he poured down the torrential rain of the true Dharma, moistening the field of the body so that it might then send forth sprouts of unsurpassed awakening, from which a flourishing tree of mind would grow, dense with verdant leaves. The Tathagata comes without any characteristic of coming and manifests without any characteristic of manifestation; for the sake of sentient beings, he appears in response to conditions.

I vow to attend upon the one billion Tathagatas throughout the ten directions, to serve all the Buddhas in the great trichiliocosm, forever sowing fields of merit and extensively cultivating offerings; to uproot perversity, eradicate the roots of greed and anger, and cultivate the cause of recollecting the Buddha so as to experience the fruition of beholding the Buddha.

The Treatise on the Jewel Nature states: “Because the Three Jewels possess six qualities, they should be revered:

1. Rarity: They are like precious objects in the world, which the utterly poor cannot possess. The Three Jewels are likewise so: sentient beings of scant merit may pass through hundreds of thousands of myriad lifetimes without encountering them. Therefore, they are called jewels.

2. Freedom from defilement: Genuine precious objects in the world are without flaws. The Three Jewels are likewise so: because they are free from all afflictions, they are called jewels.

3. Power: Precious objects in the world possess great power to eliminate poverty and remove poison. The Three Jewels are likewise so: because they are endowed with the inconceivable powers of the six superknowledges, they are called jewels.

4. Adornment: Precious objects in the world may be used to adorn the body, making a person beautiful. The Three Jewels are likewise so: because they can adorn people with virtue and purify their bodies, they are called jewels.

5. Supreme worth: Precious objects surpass all other things in the world. The Three Jewels are likewise so: because they are superior to everything in the world, they are called jewels.

6. Immutability: Refined gold in the world may be burned, beaten, polished, and smelted, yet its nature remains unchanged. The Three Jewels are likewise so: because they are not altered by the eight worldly dharmas^[10], they are called jewels.

The Three Jewels should also be revered because they fully possess the following six meanings:

1. The Buddha is able to instruct all sentient beings, the Dharma is excellent medicine, and the Sangha is able to transmit the Buddha’s words; all of them bring benefit to us. To repay these kindnesses, we should therefore revere the Three Jewels.

2. In the evil age of the Final Dharma, transmitting the Dharma is not easy; we must rely upon the majestic power and protective aid of the Three Jewels. Therefore, they should be revered.

3. The Three Jewels cause sentient beings to give rise to faith and follow the teachings. Therefore, they should be revered.

4. The Buddha taught monks and nuns the rites for honoring the Three Jewels. Therefore, they should be revered.

5. The Three Jewels inspire people to delight in making offerings so that the true Dharma may remain in the world for a long time. Therefore, they should be revered.

6. Because the Buddha manifests supreme characteristics, the Three Jewels should be revered.”

Therefore, the Treatise on the Establishment of Truth states: “The Three Jewels possess the most auspicious characteristics; therefore, I place them at the beginning of the scripture.”

I.1.2. Recollection of the Buddhas of the Ten Directions

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha records: “In the distant past, countless lifetimes ago, a Buddha named King of Supreme Precious Majesty appeared in the world. At that time, a bhiksu and his nine disciples went to a stupa to bow before an image of the Buddha. Seeing a precious, beautiful, and pleasing image of the Buddha, they immediately bowed, gazed upon it, and spoke verses in praise.

Later, they passed away while seated in the lotus posture and were born by transformation within great lotus flowers in the Buddha-land of King of Supreme Precious Majesty. From then onward, they constantly encountered Buddhas and cultivated the pure brahma-conduct in their presence. [02a] They attained the Samadhi of Recollection of the Buddha and received predictions from the Buddha that they would all attain Buddhahood throughout the ten directions.

The Buddha Virtue of Goodness in the east was the teacher, while his nine disciples became Buddhas in the other nine directions: Buddha Sorrowless Virtue in the southeast, Buddha Sandalwood Virtue in the south, Buddha Bestower of Treasures in the southwest, Buddha Infinite Light in the west, Buddha Flower Virtue in the northwest, Buddha Mark of Virtue in the north, Buddha Practice of the Three Vehicles in the northeast, Buddha Virtue of the Vast Assembly above, and Buddha Luminous Virtue below.

Through the causes and conditions created in a past life by bowing before a stupa, contemplating an image, and reciting a verse in praise of the Buddha, these ten Buddhas have now attained Buddhahood in the ten directions.”

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha also records: “In the distant past, a Buddha named King of Emptiness appeared in the world. After he entered nirvana, four bhiksus studied his true Dharma, but their minds were filled with afflictions. Unable to safeguard the treasury of the Buddha-Dharma, they committed many unwholesome deeds and were about to fall into the evil destinies.

Suddenly, a voice from the sky said to those bhiksus: ‘Although the Tathagata King of Emptiness has entered nirvana and no one remains who can save you from the offenses you have committed, you can enter the stupa and contemplate the Buddha’s image. Doing so will be no different from seeing the Buddha while he was still in the world.’ After hearing the voice from the sky, they entered the stupa and contemplated the white urna mark^[11] of the Buddha’s image, thinking: ‘The bodily marks and radiance of the Buddha when he was in the world were no different from those of this image.

May the Buddha’s marks of a great being remove my offenses.’ Having formed this thought, they cast their five limbs forcefully to the ground like the collapse of Mount Tai and repented of their offenses. Through the causes and conditions of entering the stupa and contemplating the white urna mark of the Buddha’s image, they did not fall into the evil destinies for eighty asamkhya kalpas. Life after life, they constantly encountered the Buddhas of the ten directions and, in their presence, received and upheld the profound Dharma of the Samadhi of Recollection of the Buddha.

After attaining this samadhi, they again received predictions from the Buddhas throughout the ten directions, who appeared before them; today, they have all attained Buddhahood. The first bhiksu became the Buddha Aksobhya in the land of Abhirati in the eastern world. The second bhiksu became the Buddha Jeweled Mark in the land of Joy in the southern world.

The third bhiksu became the Buddha Amitayus in the Land of Ultimate Bliss in the western world. The fourth bhiksu became the Buddha Wondrous Voice in the land Adorned with Lotuses in the northern world. In accordance with these causes and conditions, practitioners should make the aspiration to contemplate the Buddha in this manner.”

The Kasyapa Sutra records: “In the distant past, asamkhya kalpas ago, a Buddha named Radiant Light appeared in the world. After he entered nirvana, there was a sixteen-year-old bodhisattva named Great Vigor, born into a Brahmin family, whose handsome appearance was beyond compare. At that time, a bhiksu painted an image of the Buddha upon a piece of white silk and gave it to Great Vigor.

Upon seeing the Buddha’s image, [02b] Great Vigor rejoiced greatly and said: ‘Even an image of the Tathagata is wondrously beautiful; how much more so must the Buddha’s true body be! May I, in a future life, also perfect such a wondrous body.’ Having said this, Great Vigor reflected further: ‘If I remain at home, I cannot attain such a body.’ He therefore asked his parents for permission to renounce the household life.

His parents replied: ‘We are now old and have only you. If you leave home, we shall die.’ Great Vigor said: ‘If you do not allow me to leave home, then from this day onward I shall neither eat nor drink, neither sleep nor rest, nor shall I speak.’ Having made this vow, Great Vigor fasted for one day, continuing until the sixth day. At that time, his parents, eighty-four thousand acquaintances, and many beautiful women all wept in grief.

His parents then permitted Great Vigor to leave home. After renouncing the household life, Great Vigor took the Buddha’s image into the mountains, made a seat of grass, and sat in the lotus posture before the image. With single-minded concentration, he contemplated it carefully and saw that the painted image was no different from the Tathagata.

The image of the Tathagata neither perceives nor knows; all dharmas are likewise—without marks, free from marks, and empty and quiescent in their essential nature. After contemplating in this manner for one day and one night, Great Vigor attained the five superknowledges, perfected unobstructed eloquence, realized the Samadhi of Universal Light, and emitted brilliant radiance from his body. With his purified divine eye, Great Vigor saw asamkhya Buddhas in the east; with his purified divine ear, he heard everything those Buddhas taught.

For a full seven months, he sustained himself on the nourishment of meditative joy, while all the devas scattered flowers in offering. Afterward, he left the mountains and went to the villages to teach the Dharma to the people. Twenty thousand sentient beings aroused the aspiration for bodhi; immeasurable numbers became established in the merits of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas; and his parents and relatives all attained irreversibility on the path to unsurpassed bodhi.

At that time, the Buddha told Kasyapa:

– The bodhisattva Great Vigor of former times was none other than I. Because I contemplated an image of the Buddha in this manner, I have now attained Buddhahood. If anyone can cultivate and study this contemplation, that person will certainly attain the unsurpassed path in a future life.”

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha records: “In the distant past, a Buddha named Sakyamuni appeared in the world. After he entered parinirvana, there was a prince named Golden Banner, who was arrogant, held wrong views, and did not believe in the Buddha-Dharma. At that time, a bhiksu named Mastery in Samadhi said to the prince:

– In this world, images of the Buddha are often beautifully adorned with precious objects. You should enter the stupa and behold the Buddha’s image!

The prince then followed the bhiksu into the stupa. Upon seeing the beautiful image, the prince said to the bhiksu:

– Even an image of the Buddha is so beautiful; how much more so must the Buddha’s true body be!

The bhiksu said:

– Now that you have seen the Buddha’s image, even if you do not bow, you should at least join your palms and say, ‘Namo Buddha.’

The prince immediately joined his palms and said, ‘Namo Buddha.’

After returning to the palace, he continued to recollect the Buddha’s image within the stupa. [02c] That night, the prince dreamed of the Buddha’s image. After this dream, the prince abandoned his wrong views and took refuge in the Three Jewels. Through the wholesome root of entering the stupa and saying, ‘Namo Buddha,’ when that prince died, he immediately encountered nine million kotis of nayutas of Buddhas and swiftly attained the Samadhi of Recollection of the Buddha in their presence.

Because he attained this samadhi, those Buddhas appeared before him and bestowed predictions upon him. From then onward, throughout a million asamkhya kalpas, he did not fall into the evil destinies, and to this very day he has attained the profound Surangama Samadhi. That prince of former times is none other than the present bodhisattva Wealth Leader.

In accordance with these causes and conditions, those who understand should learn to recollect the Buddha in this manner.”

Furthermore, the Lotus Sutra contains this verse:

If persons with distracted minds

Enter a monastery or stupa

And once utter, ‘Namo Buddha,’

They have all attained the Buddha Way.

The Sutra of Parables records: “Long ago, there was a king who killed his father in order to ascend the throne himself. At that time, an arhat knew that the king would die within no more than seven days and, after death, would certainly fall into the Avici Hell^[12] and undergo suffering there for one kalpa. The arhat immediately went to guide and transform the king, exhorting him to single-mindedly recite ‘Namo Buddha’ without interruption for seven days.

As he was about to depart, he again reminded the king to take care not to forget this practice of recollecting the Buddha. Immediately afterward, the king joined his palms and single-mindedly recited the Buddha’s name throughout the day and night without rest. As soon as the seventh day arrived, the king suddenly died, and his spirit proceeded toward the Avici Hell.

Through the merit of his previous recollection of the Buddha, the moment he reached the gate of hell, the king’s spirit recognized that it was hell and at once cried aloud, reciting ‘Namo Buddha.’ When the sinners in hell heard this recitation of the Buddha’s name, they all simultaneously recited ‘Namo Buddha.’ The raging flames in hell immediately vanished, and all the sinners were liberated. The king alone was reborn as a human being.

Later, the arhat came again and taught the Dharma to him, whereupon he attained the fruit of stream-entry. On the basis of these causes and conditions, reciting the Buddha’s name brings immeasurably great merit, beyond all comparison.”

I.1.3. Recollection of Shakyamuni Buddha

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha records: “Long ago, while still dwelling in the world, the Buddha once expounded the Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha to his royal father and the assembly. The Buddha possessed the thirty-two noble marks and eighty excellent characteristics; his body was the color of pure gold, and his radiance shone brilliantly. At that time, beneath the Buddha’s Dharma seat were five hundred members of the Shakya clan. Because of their karmic obstructions, they saw his body as gray-black like ashes, resembling an emaciated brahmin. On seeing this, they wailed, tore at their hair, and threw themselves upon the ground until blood flowed from their noses. The Buddha consoled them:

– Do not wail! Listen to what I shall tell you. In a past age, there was a Buddha named Vipashyin. [03a] After he entered nirvana, during the Age of the Semblance Dharma, there was an elder named Chandra Virtue. He had five hundred sons who were intelligent, widely learned, and comprehended all things. That elder reverently believed in the Three Jewels and frequently explained the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma to his sons, but those sons held wrong views and had no faith. Later, when all those sons became gravely ill, the elder came before them, wept, joined his palms, and said: ‘My sons, you hold wrong views and do not believe in the Buddha-Dharma. Now that the blade of impermanence is cutting your bodies apart, upon whom can you rely? There is a Buddha, a Blessed One, named Vipashyin; you should recite his name.’ Out of respect for their father, after hearing his words, all the sons recited ‘Namo Buddha.’ The elder further told his sons to invoke the Dharma and the Sangha. After completing these recitations, the sons all died. Through reciting the Buddha’s name, they were born in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings. When their lifespan in heaven ended, because of their former karma of wrong views, they fell into hell, where the demons of hell blinded them by piercing their eyes with red-hot iron tridents. While enduring such suffering, they remembered their father’s former instruction and immediately recited the Buddha’s name. Through these causes and conditions, they escaped from hell and were reborn as human beings, where they endured poverty and lowly circumstances. Later, when Shikhin Buddha appeared in the world, they merely heard his name but were unable to behold his body. In the times of the later Buddhas Vishvabhu^[13], Krakucchanda^[14], Kanakamuni^[15], and Kashyapa, they likewise heard their names but could not behold even their forms or shadows. Because they heard the names of six Buddhas, they have now been born into the same clan as I. My body is as beautiful as Jambunada gold, yet you see me as resembling an emaciated brahmin, my complexion gray-black like ashes. This is entirely because of your wrong views in past lives. You should now bow your heads in homage and recite the names of the Buddhas of the past. At the same time, recite the name of your father, my name, and the name of Maitreya Buddha. After completing these recitations, you must prostrate yourselves upon the ground and openly confess and repent of your wrong views before the venerable Sangha and the great assembly.

Obeying the Buddha’s instruction, after they had repented, they all beheld the Buddha’s body as pure gold, like Mount Sumeru. They then said:

– We now behold the Buddha possessing the thirty-two noble marks and eighty excellent characteristics, with his radiance shining beyond measure.

As soon as they had spoken these words, they attained the fruit of stream-entry. Together they asked the Buddha for permission to leave the household life, and afterward they all attained arhatship, fully possessing the three knowledges^[16], the six superknowledges^[17], and the eight liberations^[18].

At that time, the Buddha told the bhikshus:

– After I enter cessation, anyone who recites my name and recites ‘Namo Buddha’ will gain immeasurable merit.”

The Great Compassion Sutra records: “The Buddha told Ananda:

– Look well. When the Tathagata travels along a road, he can cause high places on the ground to become low and low places to rise, so that all high and low places become level. After the Tathagata has passed, the ground immediately returns to its former state. All the trees incline toward the Tathagata, and the tree spirits manifest their forms, bowing in homage as the Tathagata passes. After the Tathagata has gone by, the trees return to their former state. All mounds, pits, filthy places, woods, tiles, gravel, and the like are cleared away, leveled, and cleansed; [03b] sweet fragrances pervade the air, and beautiful flowers are strewn over the ground for the Tathagata to walk upon. At that time, even insentient things incline before him; how much more, then, should sentient beings show reverence? Why is this so? Because long ago, while cultivating the bodhisattva practices, I always humbled myself, bowing in reverence to everyone. After attaining Buddhahood, through that wholesome karma, whenever the Tathagata walks, all sentient and insentient beings incline themselves and bow their heads in homage. In the past, I sincerely gave with my own hands pure, wondrous, and pleasing possessions to sentient beings. Through the karmic result of this, when the Tathagata walks, the ground becomes level, as though it had been sprinkled and swept clean, without bricks or gravel. At the countless dwellings of sages and noble ones, wherever they went, I swept the roads and put their lodgings in order. With an impartial mind that made no distinction between high and low, I swept and cleansed those places, constantly aspiring to bodhi and benefiting sentient beings. Through these roots of virtue, wherever the Tathagata goes, the roads naturally become clean, and the ground becomes as level as the palm of a hand. When the Buddha enters nirvana, even Mount Sumeru, king of mountains, which rises eighty-four thousand yojanas high and extends deep into the great ocean, and Mount Cakravada, which is one hundred and sixty-eight thousand yojanas high and made of adamantine hardness, both incline themselves and bow their heads in reverent homage. Never do they seek to withdraw and refuse to incline themselves!”

The Sutra of Universal Splendor records: “Because the Tathagata’s mind was pure in the past, free from defilement, and because he did not harm sentient beings, when he walks, his feet are not soiled and no insects are injured.”

The Sutra of Various Matters records: “When the Tathagata walks, his feet do not touch the ground, for three reasons: first, to cause practitioners to lessen their desires; second, to reveal the wheel marks upon the soles of his feet; and third, to bring joy to those who behold him. When the Buddha walks, his feet always remain four inches^[19] above the ground, for three reasons: because the Buddha sees insects and other creatures upon the ground; because grasses and plants grow upon the ground; and because the Buddha manifests spiritual transformations.”

The Buddha also wished to make the minds of all people upright; therefore, wherever the Buddha walked, every uneven place on the ground became level, for three reasons:

1. The Buddha had originally practiced the four immeasurable minds^[20], and therefore wished all sentient beings to dwell in peace and security. All spirits, insects, ants, and other creatures dwelling upon the ground, upon the water, or beneath the water, when touched by the Buddha’s feet, became peaceful and secure, their minds calm and even. Therefore, beneath his feet, low places became high and high places became low.

2. Devas, ghosts, and spirits cultivated merit by sweeping and clearing the ground for the Buddha to walk upon; consequently, uneven places became level.

3. When he was still a bodhisattva, the Buddha opened roads and provided bridges and ferries to assist people. Consequently, he attained the merit whereby uneven ground became level whenever he set foot upon it. The Buddha wished the minds of all people to become likewise.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “The Blessed One possesses a body adorned with excellent marks. His skin is thin and smooth, and dust and earth do not adhere to it, just as dust and water do not cling to a lotus leaf. If the bodhisattva walks upon a mountain of dry earth, the earth still does not cling to his feet. Even if a violent wind should blow that mountain of earth apart into countless clouds of dust, [03c] not even a single tiny mote of dust would adhere to the Buddha’s body. When the bodhisattva places food into his mouth, ambrosia immediately flows from both sides of his throat, blending the various flavors of the food into a single pure flavor. Therefore, this is called attaining the supreme flavor among flavors.”

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra states: “Those whose minds lack reverence for the Buddha will be reborn as dragons or snakes. Those who have only recently been reborn from the dragon or snake realms of past lives still fail to revere the Buddha in the present, sleep excessively, and are foolish.”

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya contains this verse:

Whoever reveres the elders

Is one who well protects the Dharma;

In this life, that person gains renown,

And in the future is born in a wholesome realm.

I.1.4. Recollection of Amitabha Buddha

Question: Why is it called the Pure Land?

Answer: That which is clean and radiant is called pure, and a purified dwelling place is called a Pure Land. Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha states: “A land free from the five turbidities^[21], pure as sphatika crystal, is called a pure land.” The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra states: “A dwelling place where sentient beings are free from afflictions is called a pure land.” There are four distinct kinds of pure land:

1. The Land of Dharma-Nature: Its essence is suchness. Therefore, the Liang translation of the Mahayana-samgraha^[22] states: “The king of lotuses serves as an analogy for the Pure Land, while the suchness of the Dharma-realm constitutes its essence.”

2. The Land of True Recompense: The Mahayana-samgraha states: “This land takes the twofold emptiness as its gateway, the three wisdoms^[23] as its path of entry and departure, samatha^[24] and vipasyana^[25] as its vehicle, and fundamental non-discriminating wisdom^[26] as its function.” This explains the essence of this land in terms of the recompense arising from merit.

3. The Phenomenal Pure Land: This land is made of the seven most precious treasures; that is, the five sense-objects—forms, sounds, fragrances, flavors, and tangible objects—constitute the nature of this land. Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha states: “It is a dwelling place made of the seven treasures and filled with the Buddha’s radiance.” The Avatamsaka Sutra also states: “Within the realms of the Buddhas, many kinds of beautiful treasures are interwoven as adornments.” Therefore, the Treatise on the Pure Land states: “The Pure Land is replete with every kind of precious treasure and endowed with wondrous beauty.” The Great Bodhisattva Treasury Sutra (new translation) states: “Suppose a great fire were to consume everything throughout the worlds above;

yet if the Tathagata were again to manifest walking, standing, sitting, and lying down in those worlds, water endowed with the eight qualities^[27] would appear in those places.”

4. The Transformed Pure Land: The five sense-objects made of the seven treasures, manifested by the Buddha, belong to the Transformed Pure Land. Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “Through the Buddha’s spiritual power, the ground became soft and yielding, without mounds, heaps, sand, gravel, or stones;

[04a] everything resembled the Land of Ultimate Bliss of the Buddha of Infinite Life in the west.” Furthermore, the Treatise on the Great Adornment states: “Through mastery of wisdom, the Buddha can, in accordance with the wishes of sentient beings, manifest worlds made of crystal, vaidurya, and so forth.” The Vimalakirti Sutra states: “When the Buddha pressed his toe against the earth, the ground immediately displayed purified phenomena.” The Sutra of the Ten Stages states: “In accordance with what sentient beings delight in seeing, the Buddha manifests…” Thus, these sutras and treatises all explain the Pure Land as something manifested through transformation.

It exists because the Buddha manifests it through spiritual power, and when he withdraws it, it ceases to exist. Therefore, it is called a Transformed Land.

In summary, although the Pure Land has just been explained as having four kinds, in essence there are two: the Land of Recompense and the Transformed Land, also called the land of principle and the land of phenomena.

The Land of Recompense: In the land where a Buddha appears in the world, the essence of all wholesome qualities is undefiled and does not belong to the Three Realms. Therefore, the Treatise on the Pure Land states: “It is observed that the characteristics of that world surpass the Three Realms.” The Treatise on Wisdom also states: “There is a wondrous Pure Land beyond the Three Realms.” Yet the Buddha’s dwelling place is a non-dwelling place, transcending the worlds of the ten directions.

Alternatively, a Pure Land is established on the basis of the Dharma-body. Therefore, the treatise states: “Sakyamuni Buddha also possesses a purified world resembling the land of Amitabha Buddha. Amitabha Buddha likewise possesses both magnificently purified worlds and worlds that are not magnificently purified, resembling the land of Sakyamuni Buddha.” Furthermore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “In truth, I have never departed from Jambudvipa.” The Lotus Sutra also contains this verse:

I am always on Vulture Peak^[28],

And in other dwelling places.

When sentient beings see the kalpa ending

And a great fire consuming the world,

This land of mine remains peaceful and secure,

Ever filled with devas and humans;

Gardens, forests, pavilions, towers, and halls

Are adorned with every kind of treasure.

Furthermore, the Avatamsaka Sutra states: “The Tathagata’s Pure Lands may be situated upon the Tathagata’s jeweled crown, upon his earrings, upon his jeweled necklaces, within the patterns of his robe, or within his pores.” Thus, even his pores contain entire worlds. Therefore, the Treatise on the Ten Abodes states: “When the Buddha takes a single step, he passes beyond innumerable trichiliocosms.”

The Transformed Land: The Transformed Land has no separate location. It is only on the basis of the Land of Recompense that the Buddha gives rise to coarse appearances, either throughout the ten directions or directly within this realm, in order to receive and guide devas and humans belonging to the Three Vehicles. Thus, the Blessed One Amitabha Buddha established a land in order to receive and guide ordinary beings and followers of the Lesser Vehicle from this Saha world.

Alternatively, he may manifest a Pure Land within a defiled land, as when pressing his toe upon the ground causes a Pure Land to appear. Such a Pure Land is no different from a heavenly palace. Or that land may be brought forth by the seeds of the container world, perceived through the shared characteristics of sentient beings, [04b] within which defiled or pure realms appear differently according to the differing perceptions of beings in the six realms.

All these arise because the causes perfuming the externally designated seeds of words bring the consciousness-seeds to maturation, causing an image of the container world to appear. This image is the objective aspect of the fundamental consciousness^[29], formed through causes and conditions consisting of seeds of shared characteristics and images, with consciousness manifesting appearances. That is, through the power of the dominant condition of internal retribution, these shared characteristics bring about such diverse experiences of suffering and happiness.

The Avatamsaka Sutra states: “At that time, the great bodhisattva Mind King said to the bodhisattvas:

– O Buddha’s son, one kalpa in the Sahā world of Buddha Śākyamuni is equal to one day and one night in the Land of Bliss of Buddha Amitābha. One kalpa in the Land of Bliss is equal to one day and one night in the world called Banner of the Subjugation of the Noble Ones, of Buddha Vajra. One kalpa in the world called Banner of the Subjugation of the Noble Ones is equal to one day and one night in the world called Irreversible Wheel of Sound, of Buddha Wholesome Bliss, Radiant Purity, and Blossoming. One kalpa in the world called Irreversible Wheel of Sound is equal to one day and one night in the Stainless World of Buddha Dharma Banner. One kalpa in the Stainless World is equal to one day and one night in the world called Excellent Lamp, of Buddha Lion. One kalpa in the world called Excellent Lamp is equal to one day and one night in the world called Excellent Radiance, of Buddha Vairocana Treasury. One kalpa in the world called Excellent Radiance is equal to one day and one night in the world called Transcendence, of Buddha Dharma Radiance, Purity, and Blossoming Lotus. One kalpa in the world called Transcendence is equal to one day and one night in the world called Adornment of Wisdom, of Buddha Universal Radiance. One kalpa in the world called Adornment of Wisdom is equal to one day and one night in the world called Sphere of Radiance, of Buddha Moon of Awakening. O Buddha’s son! Proceeding successively in this way through worlds numbering a million asaṃkhyeya kalpas, one kalpa in the final world is equal to one day and one night in the world called Supreme Lotus, of Buddha Bhadramukha, throughout which dwell great bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra and others.”

Furthermore, the Upadeśa Treatise^[30] contains these verses:

Contemplate the characteristics of that world,

Surpassing all within the three realms;

Ultimately, it is like empty space,

Vast and without boundaries.

The true path of great compassion

Gives rise to supramundane wholesome roots;

It is suffused with pure radiance,

Like the sun, the moon, and a clear mirror.

Ordinary beings and followers of the Two Vehicles in defiled lands can see Buddha Amitābha, while bodhisattvas in the Pure Land also see Buddha Amitābha. On the basis of these two points, the Reward Land is always wholly pure, whereas the Response Land contains both defilement and purity.

[04c] Therefore, the Treatise on the Pure Land records: “There are five kinds of lands:

1. The wholly pure land: this realm is reserved solely for those who have realized the fruit of Buddhahood.

2. The land of purity and defilement: a realm with much purity and little defilement, belonging to bodhisattvas of the Eighth Bhūmi and above.

3. The land in which purity and defilement are equal: the realm of bodhisattvas from the First through the Seventh Bhūmi.

4. The land of defilement and purity: a realm with much defilement and little purity, belonging to bodhisattvas prior to the Ten Bhūmis.

5. The mixed and defiled land: the realm of ordinary beings who have not yet entered the lineage^[31].

Persons of the fifth class can see only the last land and cannot see the preceding four. Persons of the fourth class can see the last two lands but cannot see the preceding three. Persons of the third class can see the last three lands but cannot see the preceding two. Persons of the second class can see the last four lands but cannot see the first. Those of the first class—the Buddhas—can see and know all five lands.”

The Amitābha Buddha Drum-Sound King Dhāraṇī Sūtra records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhikṣus:

– In the west, in the Land of Bliss, there presently dwells a Buddha named Amitābha. If any bhikṣu, bhikṣuṇī, upāsaka, or upāsikā is able to properly uphold the name of that Buddha, then through this merit, when that person approaches the end of life, Buddha Amitābha and the noble assembly will appear before them and enable them to behold them, arousing a joyful mind and causing their merit to increase manyfold. Through these causes and conditions, wherever that person is born, they will forever leave behind birth from an impure womb and will instead be spontaneously born by transformation within a beautiful precious lotus, possessing all six supernormal powers and radiant light, and dwelling together with Buddha Amitābha and the śrāvakas. The land of that Tathāgata, Worthy One, Perfectly and Fully Awakened One, is called Pure Peace. The king of that land dwells within a walled city measuring ten thousand yojanas in both length and breadth, and within that city are very many people of the kṣatriya caste. The father of Buddha Amitābha is the wheel-turning sage-king Moon Above; his mother is named Exquisitely Beautiful Countenance; his son is named Moonlight; his attendant disciple is named Stainless Renown; his disciple foremost in wisdom is named Worthy Radiance; and his disciple foremost in diligent cultivation of supernormal powers is named Great Transformation. At that time, the māra king is named Unsurpassed, and Devadatta is named Tranquil.”

The Infinite Life Sūtra also records: “The Buddha told Maitreya:

– Even if the trichiliocosm were engulfed and consumed by a fierce conflagration, because one is mindful of the name of Buddha Amitābha, entering into it would present no difficulty.”

The Amitābha Buddha Sūtra records: “The Buddha told the bhikṣus:

– King Ajātaśatru and these five hundred sons of elders will all, after innumerable kalpas, become Buddhas like Buddha Amitābha. King Ajātaśatru and the five hundred sons of elders have abided in the bodhisattva path for innumerable kalpas up to the present, [05a] and each of them has already made offerings to forty billion Buddhas; now they have come again to make offerings to me. At the time of Buddha Kāśyapa, King Ajātaśatru and these five hundred sons of elders were all my disciples, and now we meet again in this assembly.”

I.1.5. Mindfulness of Buddha Maitreya

The Sūtra of the Questions Concerning Bodhisattva Maitreya’s Original Vow records: “Ānanda addressed the Buddha:

– Maitreya attained the Dharma patience so long ago; why has he not swiftly proceeded to the path of unsurpassed bodhi and become the Supremely Perfectly Awakened One?

The Buddha told Ānanda:

– Because of four matters, that bodhisattva did not assume the station of Perfect Awakening. These are purifying the land, protecting the land, purifying all beings, and protecting all beings. Long ago, when seeking Buddhahood, Bodhisattva Maitreya did not assume the fruit of Buddhahood because of these four matters. In the past, when I sought Buddhahood, I too had these four matters. Maitreya brought forth the aspiration for bodhi thirty-two kalpas before I did. Nevertheless, during this Auspicious Kalpa, through exceedingly vigorous diligence, I advanced beyond him by nine kalpas, realized the unsurpassed, true, and authentic path, and became the Supremely Perfectly Awakened One. Because of ten matters, I swiftly became the Supremely Perfectly Awakened One. They are:

1. I begrudged nothing whatsoever.

2. I did not begrudge my wife.

3. I did not begrudge my children.

4. I did not begrudge my hands or feet.

6. I did not begrudge my country.

7. I did not begrudge wealth or jewels.

8. I did not begrudge my marrow or brain.

9. I did not begrudge my blood or flesh.

10. I did not begrudge my life.”

Question: What wholesome karma should laypeople and monastics among ordinary beings in the Desire Realm cultivate in order to receive the karmic result of birth in Tuṣita Heaven within the Desire Realm?

Answer: The Sūtra of Unprecedented Things records: “For the ten wholesome actions of the lower grade, one recollects them for a single thought-moment; for the ten wholesome actions of the middle grade, for the duration of one meal; and for the ten wholesome actions of the highest grade, from morning until noon. If the mind remains mindful of the practice of the ten wholesome actions and ceases the ten evil deeds, one will attain rebirth there. Therefore, a jackal that aroused a mind mindful of the ten wholesome actions and went without food for seven days was born in Tuṣita Heaven.”

The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Rebirth Above records: “After I enter parinirvana, if the fourfold assembly^[32] and the eight classes of beings^[33] wish to be born in the fourth heaven, they must, for one to seven days, constantly remain mindful of that heavenly realm, uphold the precepts established by the Buddha, contemplate the ten wholesome actions, and practice the path of the ten wholesome actions. They should then dedicate that merit and vow to be born in the presence of Buddha Maitreya. By practicing in this way, they will attain rebirth according to their vow.”

Seven days is merely a brief period, yet it can still bring about the karmic result of birth in that heavenly realm; how much more so would a lifetime of cultivation fail to attain it?

The Sutra on Rebirth Above states: “If anyone reverently pays homage to Maitreya Buddha, the offenses of birth and death accumulated over ten billion kalpas will be eliminated, and in a future life that person will encounter Maitreya Buddha beneath the dragon-flower tree.” The sutra also states: “After I enter nirvana, if members of the fourfold assembly or the eight classes of beings hear the name of this bodhisattva and pay homage to him, upon death they will be reborn in Tusita Heaven. [05b] If a man or woman has violated the precepts and committed evil karma, but hears the name of this bodhisattva, the Greatly Compassionate One, and sincerely repents of all evil karma, that person’s mind will swiftly become purified.

If anyone takes refuge in Maitreya Bodhisattva, that person will attain non-retrogression. When Maitreya Bodhisattva becomes a Buddha, upon seeing his radiance, that person will immediately receive a prediction of future Buddhahood.

“After the Buddha’s nirvana, if anyone diligently cultivates merit, observes the proper deportment without deficiency, sweeps and repairs Buddha stupas, offers incense and flowers, practices the samadhis, and reads and recites the scriptures, such a person, though not yet free of the afflictions like one who has attained the six superknowledges, should concentrate the mind on contemplating Maitreya Buddha’s image and reciting his name.

If that person undertakes the Eightfold Fasting Precepts and cultivates pure karma for even a single thought-moment, upon death that person will immediately be reborn upon a lotus dais in Tusita Heaven. At the appropriate time, that person will see the light emitted from the Buddha’s white urna and will immediately transcend the offenses of birth and death accumulated over nine billion kalpas. In accordance with wholesome conditions from previous lives, that person will hear the Buddha expound the wondrous Dharma and thereby attain the stage of Non-retrogression.”

The Ekottarika Agama states: “Sentient beings whose three modes of action have produced evil will, at the time of death, certainly leave the evil realms and be reborn in heaven if they recollect the virtues of the Tathagata. Even if an extremely evil person recollects the Buddha, that person will also be reborn in heaven.”

The Mahasamnipata Sutra states: “If anyone cultivates the mind of loving-kindness, when relinquishing the body and life, that person will see the Buddhas of the ten directions extend their hands and stroke that person’s head. Because the Buddhas’ hands touch that person, the mind will become peaceful and joyful, and that person will immediately be reborn in a pure Buddha-land.”

The Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra states: “If anyone, throughout the six periods of day and night, pays homage to the Buddhas of the ten directions, recites the Mahayana scriptures, and contemplates the profound ‘emptiness of the ultimate truth,’ that person will, in a single instant, eliminate the offenses of birth and death accumulated over innumerable kalpas. One who practices this Dharma is truly a child of the Buddha, born from the Buddhas. The Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the ten directions all serve as that person’s preceptors. Such a person is endowed with the bodhisattva precepts, attaining them naturally without the need for a karman ritual, and is worthy of receiving offerings from all devas and humans.”

The Lotus Sutra states: “If anyone receives, upholds, reads, and recites a Mahayana sutra, recollecting and correctly understanding its meaning, at the time of death a thousand Buddhas will extend their hands to welcome and guide that person, causing that person to be free from fear and not fall into the evil realms. That person will immediately be born in the presence of Maitreya Bodhisattva in Tusita Heaven. Maitreya Bodhisattva possesses the thirty-two noble marks and is surrounded by bodhisattvas, with hundreds of thousands of millions of heavenly maidens as attendants.

Rebirth there brings such merit and benefit. Therefore, those who understand should single-mindedly copy the sutra themselves or have others copy it, receive, uphold, read, recite, and correctly recollect it, and practice in accordance with its teachings.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “If a good man is able to practice this profound prajnaparamita, [05c] one should know that he has come from the human realm or from Tusita Heaven. Why is this? Because the three evil realms contain much suffering caused by offenses, beings there cannot practice the profound Dharma of prajna.

The devas of the Desire Realm are attached to the pure and exquisite five desires^[34], and their minds are obscured, so they cannot practice prajna. The devas of the Form Realm are deeply absorbed in meditative concentration, so they do not practice prajna. The devas of the Formless Realm have no physical form, so they cannot practice prajna.

Because Tusita Heaven always has a bodhisattva who is One Birth Away from Buddhahood, its devas constantly hear prajna expounded. Thus, although they possess many of the five desires, the power of the Buddha-Dharma is stronger. Therefore, these two realms are the most excellent.

If a person has been reborn here from another Buddha-land, that person is even more excellent.”

In the Sutra on Dwelling in the Womb, the Buddha spoke this verse to Maitreya:

The people of your three assemblies^[35],

Were formerly transformed by me;

Nine billion six hundred million people

Received the five precepts from me.

Next came those who received the Three Refuges,

Nine billion two hundred million people;

Those who once uttered homage to the Buddha

Will all attain the Buddha Way.

The Sutra on Places states: “The Buddha said:

– Maitreya Bodhisattva does not descend to be born for the following four reasons:

1. His merit and virtue are presently bearing fruit in that realm.

2. The minds of people in this realm are coarse and inferior, and they cannot receive and uphold the scriptures.

3. His merit and virtue are not yet complete.

4. There are still people in the world capable of expounding the Buddha’s scriptures.

“In the future, after more than five billion seven hundred and six million years, Maitreya Bodhisattva will descend to be born. During the age of Maitreya Buddha, people will be able to see as far as four thousand miles. People will receive such karmic blessings because of ten causes and conditions from previous lives:

1. They did not obstruct another person’s light.

2. They did not injure another person’s eyes.

3. They did not cover another person’s eyes.

4. They did not conceal another person’s good deeds.

5. They did not watch the killing of living beings.

6. They did not watch acts of theft.

7. They did not watch acts of sexual misconduct.

8. They did not scrutinize another person’s private affairs and faults.

9. They did not look upon evil deeds.

10. They lit incense and lamps at temples where the Buddha was enshrined.”

The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Time of Maitreya’s Coming states: “Before Maitreya Buddha appears in the world, all the grasses and trees upon the ground and mountains of Jambudvipa will be completely burned away. At present, the land of Jambudvipa has a circumference of six hundred thousand miles. When Maitreya Buddha appears, that realm will extend four hundred thousand miles from east to west and three hundred and twenty thousand miles from north to south.

Five kinds of fruit will grow upon the earth. There will be no hills, mountains, caves, or ravines, and the land will be as level as the surface of a whetstone. The trees will be tall and great; people will have little greed, anger, or delusion; and the populace will dwell in numerous villages.

At that time, there will be a city named Pham-la-na-di. In that city will live a brahmin named Tu-pham, the father of Maitreya Bodhisattva, and the bodhisattva’s mother will be named Maha Viet-de. [06a] Maitreya will be fully endowed with the marks and characteristics, stand sixteen zhang tall, be able to see ten thousand miles, and have a halo around his head that shines for four thousand miles. Maitreya Bodhisattva will attain enlightenment while seated beneath the dragon-flower tree.

This tree will be thirty miles tall, and its canopy of leaves will spread forty miles.” The Sutra on the Great Attainment of Buddhahood states: “The flowering branches of that tree resemble dragons’ heads, and therefore it is called the dragon-flower tree. Another account states that the tree’s seed came from the dragon palace, and therefore it is called the dragon-flower tree. Maitreya Bodhisattva will attain enlightenment on the eighth day of the fourth month, when the morning star rises.

However, only after another six billion years, when the human lifespan is six hundred thousand years, will Maitreya Buddha descend to be born.”

The Record of Travels in the Western Regions by Wang Xuance states: “In the second year of Xianqing during the Tang dynasty, the emperor issued an edict commissioning Wang Xuance and others to convey a kasaya to the Western Regions. They reached the village of Poluodu, southwest of the kingdom of Nepal. East of that village was a depression containing the Lake of Water and Fire.

Whenever fire was brought near the lake, flames arose and burned upon its surface; when water was poured on them to extinguish them, they burned even more fiercely. Envoys of the Han had once stayed there and suspended a pot above the flames of the lake to cook rice. An envoy questioned the king of that country.

The king replied: ‘I once had a pole thrust into that lake, and it struck a golden chest. I ordered men to pull it up, but the more they pulled, the deeper it sank. Tradition says that the chest contains the celestial crown^[36] of Maitreya Buddha, that a fire-dragon guards it, and that the fire in the lake is the dragon’s fire.’”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “While still a householder, bodhisattva Maitreya was named Bāvarī and possessed three noble marks: the mark of a white tuft of hair between the eyebrows; the mark of a tongue that covers the entire face; and the mark of concealed male organs^[37]. These marks are not necessarily acquired merely by becoming a bodhisattva.”

The newly translated version of the Vibhāṣā Treatise^[38] states: “It is said that at that time Venerable Kāśyapa entered the city of Rājagṛha to beg for alms for the last time. After finishing his meal, he ascended Mount Kukkuṭapāda. That mountain had three peaks shaped like the upturned foot of a chicken.

The venerable one entered the mountain, sat in the full lotus posture, and earnestly made this vow: ‘May my body, together with my robe, bowl, and staff, remain continually without decaying for fifty-seven koṭis and six hundred thousand years, until the appearance of Tathagata Maitreya, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, whom I shall then attend.’ When the venerable one had completed his vow, he immediately entered nirvana.

The three peaks then closed together into a single peak and completely concealed him; thus the venerable one remained majestically within. When Maitreya Buddha appears in the world, he will lead immeasurable devas and humans up that mountain and say to them: ‘Do you wish to see the great disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha who was foremost in the merit of the dhūta practices?’ They will all reply: ‘We wish to see him.’ Tathagata Maitreya will then raise his right hand and strike the summit of Mount Kukkuṭapāda. [06b] At that very moment, the mountain will separate once more into three peaks, and Venerable Kāśyapa, bearing his robe, bowl, and staff, will emerge from within and soar into the air.

When immeasurable devas and humans behold this miraculous transformation, they will praise it as an unprecedented event, and their minds will become gentle and receptive. At that time, the World-Honored Maitreya will teach the Dharma, and they will all attain the vision of the truths^[39].”

If there were no preservation of a transformation body, how could such a thing occur? Therefore, one teaching holds that a transformation body can be preserved.

Question: If so, why did the World-Honored One not preserve a transformation body so that, after entering nirvana, he could continue teaching the Dharma at will?

Answer: Because the Buddha had completed everything that had to be done. That is, the Buddha had delivered all those who needed to be delivered, while those not yet delivered would be delivered by his noble disciples. Therefore, another teaching holds that there is no preservation of a transformation body.

Question: If so, how is the account of Venerable Kāśyapa to be explained?

Answer: The venerable one’s body is preserved by the deities who revere him.

Another teaching says that Venerable Kāśyapa did not enter nirvana at that time but waits until the age of Maitreya Buddha to pass into final extinction.

This is unreasonable. It is preferable to say that there is no preservation of a body for teaching than to say that the venerable one merely remains silent for such a long period. To say so would itself imply the preservation of a body for teaching, which is unreasonable. Therefore, Venerable Mahākāśyapa has already entered nirvana.

Ordinary beings in the Sahā world are weak in mental strength and commit many evil deeds. When they first study this Dharma, there is a danger that their resolve will regress. They should therefore constantly make the great vow to uphold this practice until death, so that their minds will not be obstructed by afflictions. In accordance with the wholesome roots they have planted, they should vow to be freely reborn together with sentient beings as members of Maitreya Buddha’s inner assembly^[40], to come before the Buddha, cultivate and learn in accordance with their recollection, and attain the stage of non-retrogression. They should not vow to be reborn among the outer assembly^[41], lest they become infatuated with the five sensual pleasures and fail to attain liberation.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Someone cultivates a small amount of meritorious karma and, hearing that there is a blessed realm, vows to be reborn there. At death, that person is born in that realm.”

The Treatise on the Great Adornment states: “Birth in a Buddha-land is a great matter. Therefore, cultivating alone cannot bring merit to fulfillment; one must rely upon the power of vows. A bull may have the strength to pull a cart, but it still requires a driver in order to reach its destination. Thus, a pure Buddha-land is realized only when guided by vows. Through the power of vows, merit and virtue increase, are neither ruined nor lost, and one constantly encounters Buddhas.”

The Treatise on the Ten Abodes states: “If someone lifted the great trichiliocosm with one finger and raised it into empty space, that still would not be considered difficult. But if anyone vows, ‘I wish to become a Buddha,’ that person is truly rare. Why? Because the minds of worldly people are weak and lack great aspiration.”

The Treatise on Arousing the Bodhi Mind sets forth ten great vows that must constantly be cultivated:

1. I vow that whatever wholesome roots I planted in previous lives and in this life shall all be given to every sentient being, and that I shall dedicate this merit to the path of Buddhahood. May this vow of mine increase with every thought, [06c] never be forgotten in any place where I am born, life after life, and always be protected by dharanis.

2. I vow that, through these wholesome roots, wherever I am born I shall encounter Buddhas and always be able to make offerings to them, never being born in a land without a Buddha.

3. I vow to draw near to all Buddhas and attend upon them as a shadow follows its form.

4. I vow that, having drawn near to all Buddhas, I shall also hear them expound the Dharma, enabling me to perfect the five superknowledges.

5. I vow to comprehend the conventional truth of provisionally designated names in common circulation^[42], realize the ultimate truth, and attain the wisdom of the true Dharma.

6. I vow, with a mind that never wearies, to explain and teach sentient beings what is beneficial and joyful, enabling them all to understand.

7. I vow, through the Buddha’s spiritual power, to reach all worlds throughout the ten directions, make offerings to all Buddhas, hear the true Dharma expounded, and universally aid all sentient beings.

8. I vow to follow the pure Dharma wheel, so that all sentient beings who hear my Dharma or hear my name may abandon every affliction.

9. I vow to accompany sentient beings in order to assist them and bring them peace and happiness, relinquishing my life and possessions to undertake responsibility for the true Dharma and eliminating whatever is of no benefit.

10. Although I cultivate the true Dharma, I vow to cultivate all practices without conceiving in my mind that there is any cultivation. For the sake of teaching and transforming sentient beings, I vow never to forsake this true vow.

I vow to extend these ten great vows throughout the realm of sentient beings, gathering and sustaining all their innumerable vows. Only if no one remained in the realm of sentient beings would my vows come to an end. Yet because the realm of sentient beings can never be exhausted, these great vows of mine can likewise never be exhausted.

I further vow universally to deliver all sentient beings throughout boundless worlds. Whatever wholesome roots I cultivate, I dedicate them all to unsurpassed perfect enlightenment, so that I may be born in the age of Maitreya Buddha, hear the pure Dharma, and awaken to the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas. I vow to dedicate all wholesome roots cultivated throughout my life—while walking, standing, sitting, or lying down—together with all sentient beings of the Dharma realm, toward Maitreya’s Buddha-land, there to attain the stage of non-retrogression in his presence.

(In addition, the methods for cultivating recollection and contemplation in order to behold Amitabha Buddha, Maitreya Buddha, and others are fully presented in the ten-fascicle Collection on the Gate of Dhyana. Here, only passages from the scriptures are cited to teach rebirth in the Pure Land.)

Dharma Master Xuanzang said:

– Both monastics and laypeople in India cultivate Maitreya’s pure karma, because cultivation is easier to accomplish when one remains within the Desire Realm. Monastics of both the Mahayana and the Hinayana accept this Dharma method. As for Amitabha’s Pure Land, it is feared that ordinary beings, defiled and burdened with many afflictions, would find its cultivation difficult to accomplish.

According to the scriptures and treatises of the older translations, bodhisattvas from the Tenth Bhumi upward may behold, according to their degree of attainment, the Pure Land of a Reward-body Buddha. According to the meaning of the scriptures and treatises in the newer translations, bodhisattvas at the Third Bhumi may behold the Pure Land of a Reward-body Buddha. [07a] How, then, could inferior ordinary beings attain rebirth in Amitabha’s Pure Land?

This is an intention concerning rebirth at another time and cannot yet be regarded as certain. Therefore, Mahayana followers in India accept this method of cultivation—Amitabha’s Pure Land—but Hinayana followers do not. For this reason, throughout his life the Dharma Master constantly cultivated Maitreya’s pure karma, and as death approached, he vowed to be reborn in Tusita Heaven to behold Maitreya Buddha face-to-face.

At that time, he asked the assembly to chant this verse together:

Namo Maitreya Tathagata,

Worthy One, Perfectly Enlightened One.

May we, together with all sentient beings,

Soon attend upon the Buddha.

Namo Maitreya Tathagata,

Who dwells among the assembly in the inner palace.

May we, after relinquishing this body,

Certainly be reborn there.

I.1.6. Buddha-Recollection Samadhi

Ordinary beings constantly entertain inverted thoughts, obstinately cling to erroneous views according to their own ideas, and are further disturbed by the six sense objects, causing them to revolve through the five realms. Truly, because they are bound by the cords of karma, it is difficult for them to escape painful retribution. Therefore, the Buddha, moved by loving-kindness and compassion for sentient beings, guides and receives them according to their capacities, reveals the wondrous Pure Land, and exhorts everyone to contemplate the Tathagata’s sublime marks, practicing earnestly without indolence and giving rise to a mind of joyful aspiration and reverence.

They should contemplate from above downward and from below upward, contemplating the object in full or in brief according to their minds, so that they understand that good and evil arise from the mind. If wholesome karma is perfected, the day will come when they behold the Buddha, and at death they will rejoice and take rebirth in accordance with their recollection. If sentient beings have not previously cultivated this meritorious karma, when impermanence suddenly arrives, they will be bewildered and afraid.

Their minds will face a vast and uncertain path, they will possess no pure karma, and they will not know where to seek refuge. Once their eyes close, they must follow their karma and undergo suffering and adversity. Thus, although committing offenses and cultivating merit are both undertaken with oneself in mind, nothing is equal to cultivating goodness.

By cultivating goodness, one may encounter the Buddha; by doing evil, one must undergo suffering. Therefore, the Avatamsaka Sutra contains this verse:

I would rather endure every suffering,

If only I might hear the Buddha’s voice;

I would not crave any pleasure

If it meant never hearing the Buddha’s name.

The reason that for immeasurable kalpas

I have undergone these many torments,

Revolving within birth and death,

Is that I did not hear the Buddha’s name.

The Sutra of Infinite Life states: “Even if the trichiliocosm were ravaged by a blazing conflagration, having to remain within it in order to hear the name of Amitabha Buddha should not yet be called a calamity.”

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha states: “At that time, the bodhisattva Maitreya addressed the Buddha:

– World-Honored One, I earnestly beseech the World-Honored One, out of great loving-kindness and great compassion, to have mercy upon all sentient beings. In the future age, when many sentient beings create unwholesome karma and the Buddha no longer abides in the world, upon whom should they rely to eradicate their offenses?

[07b] The Buddha told Maitreya:

– After the Tathagata enters nirvana, many sentient beings will commit karmic offenses because they cannot encounter the Buddha. Such people should contemplate an image of the Buddha. Contemplating an image of the Buddha is no different from contemplating My body.

When the Buddha spoke these words, the Buddhas of the ten directions, from the midst of space, all raised their voices in praise:

– Excellent! Now is indeed the proper time. Harbor no doubts!

The Buddha told the bodhisattva Maitreya:

– The Tathagata will now explain the method for eradicating the offenses of those sentient beings who undergo the five sufferings^[43], bhiksus who violate the precepts, evildoers, those who commit the five heinous offenses, those who slander the Buddha, and those who engage in the sixteen kinds of evil conduct in the future age.

At that time, Ananda asked:

– What method for eradicating offenses does the World-Honored One teach?

The Buddha told Ananda:

– While I still abide in the world, taking refuge in Me is called taking refuge in the Buddha, taking refuge in the Dharma, and taking refuge in the Sangha. Those who wish to contemplate an image of the Buddha should first enter a Buddha stupa and spread fine fragrant clay and clean earth over the entire ground to make it pure. Then, according to their means, they should burn incense and scatter flowers as offerings before the Buddha image, confess their offenses, and bow before the Buddha in repentance. Having thus disciplined the mind for one to seven days, they should then enter the community and sweep away the excrement and refuse within the monastery, confess before the Sangha, and bow their heads at the feet of the Sangha. They should continue making offerings in this manner for another seven days without allowing their minds to grow weary. If they are monastics, they must attend their parents with filial devotion, respectfully serve their teachers and elders, and maintain a gentle and harmonious mind. If the mind is not gentle and harmonious, they must restrain and regulate it until it becomes compliant. Then, in a quiet and secluded place, they should burn various kinds of fragrant incense, bow before Sakyamuni Buddha, and say: ‘Namo Great Virtuous One, Worthy One, Perfectly and Universally Enlightened One, Greatly Compassionate World-Honored One, my Great Preceptor! Please compassionately shelter and protect this disciple.’ After saying this, they should weep and prostrate themselves with all five limbs touching the ground, bowing before the Buddha image. Next, they should rise, arrange their robes properly, sit in the full-lotus posture, and concentrate their thoughts. According to whichever class of sentient being they belong to, as described previously, they should fix the mind upon the tip of the nose, the forehead, the toes, or another such place. They may concentrate their thoughts in any of these ways, but the mind must remain focused upon a single place. They must not allow it to scatter and become agitated. If the mind becomes agitated, they should raise the tongue to the palate, close the mouth, open the eyes, join the palms, and sit upright. They should practice in this manner for one to seven days until the body becomes settled and at ease; only then should they contemplate the Buddha image.

If they prefer contemplation in reverse order, they should contemplate progressively upward, beginning with the toes. First, they should visualize the toes of the Buddha image, focusing their minds upon its five toes for one to seven days, until they can clearly see the toes of the Buddha image whether their eyes are open or closed. Next, they should contemplate the two hands of the Buddha image and then proceed upward in sequence until reaching the usnisa.

After that, they should contemplate the image’s face. [07c] If they cannot see it clearly, they should repent again and redouble their efforts. Because they uphold the precepts in purity, they will clearly behold the face of the Buddha image shining like a mirror of pure gold. Then they should contemplate the white hair-mark between the eyebrows, resembling a jewel or crystal and curling to the right.

When they behold this mark, they will see the eyes and eyebrows of the Buddha image as though painted by a celestial artist. Having contemplated and beheld them in this way, they should next clearly contemplate the radiance above the crown of the Buddha image’s head. Contemplating the marks in this manner is called contemplation in reverse order.”

If one prefers to contemplate in the forward sequence, one should begin with the spiraling curls of hair on the Buddha’s head, which resemble coils of black silk curling to the right. Next, contemplate the face of the image, then the body, gradually proceeding downward to the feet. Contemplate back and forth in this manner fourteen times, examining it carefully until the entire body of the image is seen with perfect clarity.

Once the contemplation has been fully accomplished, whether entering or emerging from samadhi, the practitioner will constantly see the Buddha image standing before them. After seeing one image clearly, contemplate until two images are seen, then three images, and so forth, up to ten images; all should be contemplated until they are seen distinctly. Once ten images can be seen clearly, contemplate Buddha images filling an entire room, leaving no empty space.

After contemplating Buddha images filling an entire room, apply even greater diligence: burn incense, scatter flowers, sweep the stupa, clean the stupa grounds, and make offerings for the bathing of the Sangha. After making offerings to the Sangha and to one’s parents, one should make this vow: ‘Now, as I contemplate the Buddha image, may I not seek through this merit to become a human being, a heavenly being, a sravaka, or a pratyekabuddha, but seek only the path of bodhi.’

After making this vow, one should further seek the Mahayana Dharma, practice repentance, entreat the Buddhas to teach and remain in the world, rejoice in merit, and dedicate the merit. Then sit upright, maintain mindfulness directly before oneself, and contemplate the Buddha realm gradually expanding until an entire monastic compound is filled with Buddha images. See the Buddha’s golden body standing sixteen feet tall, with lotus flowers supporting his feet, a halo around his head extending one fathom, and light also radiating from his entire body.

Further contemplate the transformation Buddhas and the Buddha’s attendants, all endowed with brilliant radiance. After contemplating Buddha images filling an entire monastic compound, contemplate Buddha images filling one tract of land…, one hundred tracts, and one hundred yojanas, with every Buddha image displaying radiant marks and excellent characteristics. Once this contemplation has been accomplished, further contemplate Buddha images filling the entire continent of Jambudvipa, and then contemplate the other three continents^[44], all likewise filled with Buddha images.

At that time, with body and mind filled with joy, one should redouble one’s diligence, reverently bow to the twelve divisions of the scriptures, and sincerely prostrate with all five limbs touching the ground in repentance before the Prajnaparamita Sutra.

After accomplishing this contemplation, the practitioner closes the eyes, joins the palms, sits upright, enters samadhi, and extends the contemplation farther and wider. Contemplate all the Buddha images filling the worlds of the ten directions as being made entirely of pure gold. Every pore throughout the Buddhas’ bodies emits light; each ray contains countless jewel colors, and within every color are immeasurable variegated hues, as wondrous realms spontaneously appear.

This contemplation is called the contemplation of standing images. One who practices this contemplation eradicates the offenses of birth and death accumulated over six billion kalpas. This is also called contemplation of the Buddha. [08a] In a future life, that person will encounter the one thousand Buddhas of the Bhadrakalpa as teachers, successively enter the monastic life within the Buddhadharma, hear the Buddhas expound the Dharma, and remember it without ever forgetting.

That person will receive a prophecy directly from the Buddha Radiant Light in the future Constellation Kalpa. Even one who contemplates in this coarse manner gains such immeasurable merit; how much more so one who concentrates on contemplating the light of the white hair between the Buddha’s eyebrows!

The Buddha then expounded for sentient beings the contemplation of a seated image:

– One should contemplate a Buddha image seated upon a precious lotus throne. When the Buddha is seated, the earth naturally manifests pure and pleasing white light resembling the radiance of lapis lazuli. Within those rays of light are ten billion bodhisattvas, white as snow. Contemplate a bodhisattva emerging from every pore of the Buddha image, while every pore on the bodhisattvas’ bodies emits an intensely powerful ray of golden light that shines everywhere, causing all the worlds of the ten directions to blaze with a single golden hue. If any sentient being contemplates a seated Buddha image, that person will eradicate the offenses of birth and death accumulated over fifty billion billion kalpas, encounter one thousand Buddhas during the Bhadrakalpa and one hundred thousand Buddhas during the Constellation Kalpa, uphold the teachings of each Buddha, remain peaceful and secure in body and mind without distraction, and receive from each Buddha a direct prophecy of attaining Buddhahood after a specified number of kalpas.

At that time, the Buddha told Ananda:

– If any sentient being has contemplated a seated Buddha image, that person should next contemplate an image of the Buddha walking. The practitioner contemplates walking Buddha images filling the worlds of the ten directions and sees each Buddha image, whether in the sky or upon the ground, rise from its throne. As each Buddha image rises, innumerable rays of light issue from each of five hundred billion precious lotus thrones. Within every ray, according to the practitioner’s mental contemplation, appear countless transformation Buddhas; each transformation Buddha emits golden light that shines upon the practitioner’s body. At that time, upon entering samadhi, the practitioner sees the thirty-six impure substances within their own body exposed. When these impure substances appear, they should be swiftly eliminated. One should contemplate that these impurities are born of craving and are false and unreal. Through this contemplation, cause the impure substances to transform into white jade, and see one’s own body as a white jade vessel, empty and unobstructed both within and without. While performing this contemplation, one should take medicine and pure milk and not allow the stomach to remain empty. One should further invite the Buddha images to stroke one’s head with their hands and emit brilliant light that illuminates one’s body. The practitioner will then see their own body as being the color of pure gold.

After accomplishing this contemplation, the practitioner emerges from samadhi, joyfully bows in reverence to the Buddhas, cultivates various merits, and dedicates them to bodhi. At that time, the Buddhas, though speaking with different mouths, proclaim the Dharma to the practitioner in a single voice.^[45] Although the practitioner has not yet attained the path, they are able to see the Buddhas, hear the Dharma, and remember everything without forgetting.

This is the samadhi of mindfulness of the Buddha for ordinary beings. Upon attaining this samadhi, the practitioner constantly sees the Buddhas within the span of a single instant and, in the course of one day and one night, fully comprehends all the Mahayana Dharma taught by the Buddhas. [08b] Each Buddha bestows this prophecy: ‘Because you have been mindful of and contemplated the Buddha, you will attain Buddhahood during the Constellation Kalpa, possessing bodily marks and radiance no different from mine.’ When the Buddhas have spoken these words, eight billion Buddhas simultaneously emit light, within which are immeasurable transformation Buddhas, all speaking in the same manner.

The Buddha told Ananda:

– To accomplish the samadhi of mindfulness of the Buddha, one must possess five causal conditions: observing the precepts without transgression; not giving rise to wrong views; not being arrogant; not becoming angry, resentful, or jealous; and practicing with vigorous diligence. These five things must be practiced with the urgency of extinguishing a fire on one’s head. Because mindfulness of the Buddha helps the mind not regress, one should make offerings to the Buddhas of the ten directions. How should such offerings be made? After emerging from meditative concentration, the practitioner should enter a stupa, reverently behold the Buddha image, and recite and uphold the sutras. When bowing to one Buddha, one should think: ‘The Perfectly and Universally Enlightened Buddhas possess unobstructed minds. In bowing now to one Buddha, I am bowing to all Buddhas.’ When recollecting one Buddha, one sees all Buddhas; before each Buddha is a practitioner who is one’s own body, bowing with one’s head at His feet, presenting flowers as an offering, and thinking: ‘The Dharma bodies of the Buddhas possess immeasurable merit and virtue. They neither abide nor perish, but eternally abide in tranquil quiescence. I now respectfully offer flowers to the Buddhas; may they accept them.’ One should further reflect that the flowers one holds have arisen from grasses and trees, and that by offering these flowers one may be kept in the thoughts of the Buddhas. One should visualize countless clouds of flowers and clouds of incense smoke and fragrance emerging from every pore of one’s body, spreading throughout the worlds of the ten directions and performing Buddha-work, then converging again to form a golden dais before the practitioner. If an ordinary person makes offerings, that person should hold an incense burner and flowers and make this vow: ‘May the fragrance of these flowers pervade the worlds of the ten directions and be offered to all Buddhas, transformation Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and countless shravakas. May they accept these clouds of flowers and fragrance and transform them into platforms of light broader than innumerable realms, thereby performing immeasurable Buddha-work. From every pore may banners and canopies, countless kinds of music, beautiful and precious garments, a hundred varieties of food and drink, and all forms of offerings appear, each conforming to the Dharma described above.’

The Buddha told Ananda:

– In future ages, whenever any being attains this gateway of the samadhi of mindfulness of the Buddha, that person should be instructed to carefully guard body, speech, and mind, not to give rise to wrong views and not to become arrogant. If that person gives rise to arrogance and makes a living through evil occupations, you should know that such a person is possessed of overweening pride, destroys the Buddhadharma, causes sentient beings to give rise to unwholesome thoughts, disrupts the harmonious Sangha, performs strange acts to delude people, and is a companion of evil demons. Although such a person may practice mindfulness of the Buddha, that person will not attain liberation. Because of an arrogant mind, wherever that person is born, the body will always be small, and that person will be born into a lowly and impoverished family and undergo the retribution of countless evil karmas. [08c] One should restrain oneself so that such evils never arise.”

A verse says:

The Dharma body has neither form nor appearance;

The ultimate teaching transcends words and speech.

It manifests responsively according to capacities,

And is transmitted according to mindfulness.

Out of compassion for those submerged and drowning,

This wondrous gateway is widely proclaimed.

The object and the mind respond to each other,

Bringing aid to those in darkness.

The water possesses eight qualities;

There are rows of seven-jeweled trees.

Auspicious birds circle above the ponds,

Uttering wondrous, subtle sounds.

Dharma drums resound in harmony,

And auspicious winds guide the way.

Reverently listen to the wondrous words,

And respectfully study the profound, esoteric Dharma.

How splendid is Tusita!

How lofty and remote is the Compassionate Honored One!

His light illuminates the celestial palace,

His majesty shakes the realm of sentient beings.

Celestial flowers flutter through the air,

Filling the jeweled palace.

The merit accrued through offerings

Moistens and nourishes the solitary.

Gather together and take refuge in that realm,

And do not betray your vows.

The dust of dreams has already settled into stillness;

May this also aid all sentient beings.

Copy it and transmit it,

That it may endure as long as heaven and earth.

Though the words may be deficient,

How could the mind of vows ever fail?”

Notes:

^[1] The twelve divisions of the scriptures (十二部經; S: dvādaśāṅga-buddha-vacana): twelve categories of scripture distinguished according to their forms of presentation and the contents of their teachings. They are: sutra, geyā, vyākaraṇa, gāthā, udāna, nidāna, avadāna, itivṛttaka, jātaka, vaipulya, adbhuta-dharma, and upadeśa.

^[2] Chi 螭: the name of an animal resembling a dragon but golden in color.

^[3] Long 龍: dragon.

^[4] Mohist school 墨家: the school of thought founded by Mozi.

^[5] The morning grove changed color (晨林變彩): when the Buddha entered nirvana, the entire grove of twin sala trees turned white.

^[6] Chiwu 赤烏: an era name used by Sun Quan of Wu (238–251).

^[7] Xianqing 顯慶: an era name used by Emperor Gaozong of Tang (656–660).

^[8] Five eyes 五眼 (S: pañca cakṣūṃṣi): the five kinds of vision. They are the physical eye, heavenly eye, wisdom eye, Dharma eye, and Buddha eye.

^[9] Three points 三點: the three characteristics—principle, wisdom, and phenomena—of the Buddha’s Dharma body.

^[10] Eight worldly conditions (eight winds 八風): gain, loss, defamation, praise, acclaim, ridicule, suffering, and happiness.

^[11] The white tuft mark (白毫相): the mark of white hair between the Buddha’s eyebrows.

^[12] Avici hell (阿毗地獄; S: Avīci; also called the Uninterrupted Hell): the hell at the very bottom of the eight hells stacked one beneath another deep below the earth of the continent of Jambudvipa. After death, anyone who has committed one of the five heinous offenses will fall immediately into Avici hell without passing through an intermediate existence and will undergo uninterrupted suffering for an entire kalpa.

^[13] Buddha Suiye (隨葉佛; S: Viśvabhū or Viśvabhuk): recorded as Buddha Viśvabhū in the Mahāpadāna Sutra of the Dīrgha Āgama.

^[14] Buddha Julouqin (拘樓秦佛; S: Krakucchanda-buddha): recorded as Buddha Krakucchanda in the Mahāpadāna Sutra of the Dīrgha Āgama.

^[15] Buddha Junahan (拘那含佛; S: Kanakamuni; also called Buddha Kanakamuni): the seventh of the seven Buddhas of the past, or the second of the one thousand Buddhas of the Auspicious Kalpa.

^[16] Three knowledges 三明 (S: tri-vidyā): the three realized knowledges, consisting of the knowledge and realization of past lives, knowledge of the births and deaths of beings, and knowledge and realization of the exhaustion of the outflows; that is, the unobstructed wisdom that fully comprehends the three matters of past lives, the heavenly eye, and the complete exhaustion of the outflows.

^[17] Six superknowledges 六通 (S: ṣaḍ abhijñāḥ): the six extraordinary powers of the noble beings of the three vehicles, namely the heavenly eye, heavenly ear, knowledge of others’ minds, supernatural powers, knowledge of past lives, and knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows.

^[18] Eight liberations 八解脫 (S: aṣṭau vimokṣāḥ): eight powers of meditative concentration that help practitioners relinquish desire and attachment within the form realm and formless realm: while inwardly retaining perceptions of form, one contemplates external forms to attain liberation; while inwardly free of perceptions of form, one contemplates external forms to attain liberation; one abides having personally realized and fully accomplished the liberation of purity; transcending perceptions of form, extinguishing perceptions of resistance, and not attending to perceptions of diversity, one enters the sphere of infinite space and abides fully in that liberation;

transcending the entire sphere of infinite space, one enters the sphere of infinite consciousness and abides fully in that liberation; transcending the entire sphere of infinite consciousness, one enters the sphere of nothingness and abides fully in that liberation; transcending the entire sphere of nothingness, one enters the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception and abides fully in that liberation; transcending the entire sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, one enters the cessation of perception and feeling and abides fully in that liberation.

^[19] Four cun (四寸): in China, one cun is equivalent to 3.3 centimeters.

^[20] Four immeasurable minds 四等心 (S: catvāry apramāṇāni): the four qualities that Buddhas and bodhisattvas must possess in order to deliver immeasurable sentient beings universally and help them leave suffering and attain happiness: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity.

^[21] The five defilements (五濁; S: pañca kaṣāyāḥ): the five forms of impurity in the Degenerating Kalpa, comprising: the defilement of the kalpa—when the human lifespan declines to thirty years, famine occurs; when it declines to twenty years, epidemics occur; when it declines to ten years, warfare occurs, and all sentient beings suffer harm; the defilement of views—the true Dharma has perished, false teachings arise, wrong views greatly increase, and people do not cultivate wholesome dharmas; the defilement of afflictions—sentient beings are filled with sensual desire, greed, and stinginess; they delight in contention, flattery, and deceit and follow false teachings, causing their minds to become troubled and confused;

the defilement of sentient beings—sentient beings are habitually cruel, neither filial nor respectful toward their parents and elders, do not fear the consequences of evil, do not create merit, do not practice generous giving, and do not observe the fasting precepts; the defilement of lifespan—because evil karma increases, the human lifespan in the present age gradually declines, and few people live to be one hundred.

^[22] The Liang Mahāyānasaṃgraha Treatise 梁攝論 (also called the Mahāyānasaṃgraha Treatise): a treatise in three fascicles, translated by Paramārtha during the Chen dynasty.

^[23] The three kinds of wisdom 三慧: wisdom arising from hearing, wisdom arising from reflection, and wisdom arising from cultivation.

^[24] Śamatha 沙摩他 (S: śamatha): that is, calming; a method of cultivation that steadies the mind upon a single object and eliminates afflictions and delusive thoughts.

^[25] Vipaśyanā 毘鉢舍那: that is, contemplation; a method of cultivation that gives rise to right wisdom with which to contemplate its object and accord with suchness.

^[26] Nonconceptual wisdom 無分別智 (S: nir-vikalpa-jñāna): that is, fundamental wisdom.

^[27] The eight qualities (the water of eight meritorious qualities 八功德水): the water in the lotus ponds of the Pure Land possesses eight excellent qualities: it is clear, cool, sweet, soft and light, moistening, peaceful and harmonious, relieves hunger and thirst, and nourishes the faculties.

^[28] Vulture Peak 靈鷲 (S: Gṛdhrakūṭa): a mountain northeast of the city of Rājagṛha in Magadha, Central India. Because the mountain is shaped like a vulture’s head and many vultures dwell there, it is called Vulture Peak.

^[29] Root consciousness 本識 (S: mūla-vijñāna): the fundamental consciousness underlying the seven consciousnesses, such as eye-consciousness and ear-consciousness; namely, the ālaya-vijñāna.

^[30] Upadeśa 優波提舍 (S: upadeśa): one of the twelve divisions of scripture, meaning “instruction according to circumstances.” It is a commentary upon or exposition of the teachings spoken by the Buddha that makes their meaning clearer; it is also one of the forms of catechetical discussion found in the sutras.

^[31] Those who have not yet entered the stage of the lineage (未入性地): ordinary beings who have not yet entered the stage of the Ten Abodes; that is, ordinary beings at or below the Ten Faiths.

^[32] The fourfold assembly 四衆 (S: catasraḥ parṣadaḥ): the four assemblies of the Buddha’s disciples, namely bhikshus, bhikshunis, upāsakas, and upāsikās.

^[33] The eight classes 八部: the eight classes of beings, comprising devas, nāgas, yakshas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kiṃnaras, and mahoragas.

^[34] The five desires 五欲 (S: pañca kāmāḥ): the five forms of desire arising from attachment to the five sensory objects: desire for forms, sounds, fragrances, flavors, and tangible objects.

^[35] The three assemblies 三會: the three Dharma assemblies of the Buddhas. When the future Buddha Maitreya descends and is born into the world, he too will hold three Dharma assemblies to teach and transform those sentient beings whom Śākyamuni Buddha did not liberate.

^[36] Celestial crown 天冠: a crown worn by devas.

^[37] The mark of the concealed male organ (馬陰藏相; S: kośopagata-vasti-guhya): the male organ is hidden and does not appear externally; one of the Buddha’s thirty-two marks of a great man.

^[38] The Vibhāṣā Treatise 婆沙論 (full title: Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāstra; S: Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāstra): a treatise in two hundred fascicles, translated by Xuanzang during the Tang dynasty in China and included in volume 27 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This treatise comments upon the Abhidharma Jñānaprasthāna Treatise by the Indian master Kātyāyanīputra, clearly explaining the meanings of the dharmas and comprehensively enumerating the various doctrines.

^[39] Seeing the truths 見諦: realization of the truth by śrāvakas who have attained stream-entry or above and by bodhisattvas who have reached the First Bhūmi or above.

^[40] The inner assembly 內衆: sentient beings reborn in the inner court of Tuṣita Heaven, where the bodhisattva Maitreya teaches the Dharma.

^[41] The outer assembly 外衆: sentient beings reborn in the outer court of Tuṣita Heaven.

^[42] Dissemination 流布: propagation far and wide.

^[43] The five sufferings 五苦: five kinds of suffering. These are the suffering of devas, the suffering of the human realm, the suffering of animals, the suffering of hungry ghosts, and the suffering of hell beings; alternatively, the suffering of birth, aging, sickness, and death; the suffering of separation from those one loves; the suffering of encountering those one hates; the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks; and the suffering of the raging five skandhas.

^[44] The three continents 三天下: the three continents surrounding Mount Sumeru, namely Pūrvavideha in the east, Jambudvīpa in the south, and Aparagodānīya in the west.

^[45] Different mouths, one voice 異口同音: many people uttering the same words simultaneously.