阿彌陀經疏鈔
Chinese title:阿彌陀經疏鈔
General Explanation of the Title (divided into two parts)
1. Meaning of the title: the meaning of this sutra.
2. The translator: the person who translated it into Chinese.
1. Meaning of the Title
From the meanings set forth in the preceding eight approaches, the general purport of the entire sutra has already become known. Now, before explaining the text itself, the general title must first be discussed so that the progression of the text may have an orderly framework. Therefore, the general explanation of the title follows.
THE SUTRA SPOKEN BY THE BUDDHA ON AMITABHA
Commentary: The meaning of the title has four parts: 1. the Buddha who is able to speak; 2. the act of speaking itself; 3. the Buddha who is spoken of; and 4. the concluding identification of the speaker named in the title.
That is, in this land, Buddha Shakyamuni spoke this sutra, describing the magnificent circumstantial and direct rewards of the land of Amitabha Buddha in that other realm, and teaching that through faith and vows one attains rebirth there. This is a general statement of the main purport; it will now be divided and explained in sequence as follows.
Subcommentary: “A general statement” means that the entire text is first outlined briefly so that its progression may be coherent and its meaning complete; afterward, each point is explained separately in sequence. Why does the title mention only the Buddha’s name, while the passage above also speaks of circumstantial and direct rewards, and so forth? The Contemplation Sutra teaches: “To speak of the Buddha is sufficient; therefore, speaking of the Buddha encompasses everything.”
Commentary: The explanation in sequence is as follows: The complete Sanskrit form of the word “Buddha” is Buddha, meaning “the Awakened One.” In Chinese it is translated as “One Who Awakens,” because he possesses the three meanings of awakening. It is also translated as “the Wise One,” because there is nothing he does not know. Furthermore, Buddha is one of the ten epithets, beginning with Tathagata and Worthy of Offerings and continuing through World-Honored One.
The Ten Stages Sutra also says: “The word ‘Buddha’ has ten meanings.” Tiantai Master Zhizhe said: “The word ‘Buddha’ has six meanings,” while the Avatamsaka Sutra states: “The Buddha possesses ten bodies.” Therefore, the Buddha is said to be the Deva above all devas and the Sage above all sages. Wherever the single word “Buddha” is used by itself, it refers directly to our Original Teacher, Shakyamuni Buddha.
Subcommentary: “Sanskrit” means pure. In contrast to Chinese, the term “Sanskrit” denotes a language complete in both literary refinement and substance.
“Complete” means fully stated. In its complete Sanskrit form, it is Buddha. The syllable “dha” is not stated here because the expression has been abbreviated. When translated into Chinese, it is read as “the Awakened One,” for he is called awakened in contrast to deluded sentient beings. Awakening, however, has three meanings: 1. self-awakening, which distinguishes him from ordinary beings; 2. awakening others, which distinguishes him from those of the Two Vehicles; and 3. perfect awakening, which distinguishes him from bodhisattvas.
Because the three kinds of awakening are complete, he is said to possess self-awakening, the awakening of others, and perfect awakening.
Furthermore, freedom from the deluded mind is self-awakening; freedom from objective forms is the awakening of others; and freedom from both the deluded mind and objective forms is called perfect awakening. These are also the meanings of the three kinds of awakening. He is also called the Wise One, for wisdom itself has the meaning of awakening.
The statement “there is nothing he does not know” is explained in the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom: “He knows all sentient beings and all that is not included within the category of sentient beings, the permanent and the impermanent (1). Because there is nothing his wisdom does not know, he is extolled as the One Who Has Attained Wisdom of All Modes,” which is the meaning of perfect awakening....
Regarding the “ten epithets”: the World-Honored One possesses all the myriad virtues, which cannot be fully expressed. Here, only the epithets from Tathagata through Buddha are briefly stated, making ten epithets in all, and Buddha is precisely one among these ten. Because he possesses these ten virtues and is the revered sovereign of both the mundane and supramundane worlds, he is called the World-Honored One.
The ten meanings of Buddha are as follows: he possesses the two kinds of wisdom—fundamental wisdom (2) and subsequently attained wisdom (3); he severs the two obstructions—the obstruction of afflictions (4) and the obstruction to knowledge (5); he awakens to ultimate truth (6) and conventional truth (7); he accomplishes the two benefits—benefiting oneself and benefiting others; and there are two analogies—awakening from a dream and the opening of a flower. Together, these constitute ten meanings.
The word “Buddha” has six meanings: the first is the Buddha in principle—that all sentient beings inherently possess Buddha-nature—and the last is the ultimate Buddha—the stage of Wondrous Awakening. At the beginning, awakening is wholly present but is completely obscured by delusion throughout the intervening stages. There is awakening, but it is not yet genuine awakening; only at the end is awakening genuine and complete, with nothing left unawakened. Here, the word “Buddha” refers directly to the ultimate, fully awakened Buddha (8).
The Buddha’s ten bodies extend from, first, the Buddha of Perfect Awakening through, tenth, the Buddha Who Accordingly Delights. They are explained in full in the chapter “Detachment from the World.” These ten bodies of the Buddha are taught only in the Avatamsaka Sutra (9).
Yet, to summarize their essential meaning, however many bodies there may be, they do not go beyond the meaning of perfect awakening. Therefore, when the ten bodies are perfected, the state of Perfect Awakening is accomplished, and this is called the Perfectly Fulfilled Buddha.
“The Deva above all devas” means that there are four classes of devas: 1. worldly devas: the kings of nations; 2. devas by birth: the devas of the three realms—the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm; 3. pure devas: the sages who have attained the four fruits and pratyekabuddhas; 4. devas in meaning: the bodhisattva sages of the Ten Abodes.
Because the Buddha surpasses all four classes of devas described above, he is said to be the Deva above all devas.
“The Sage above all sages” means that shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas, though they have attained the fruits of sagehood, have not yet reached the supreme state. The Buddha alone has attained the ultimate fruit; therefore, the Buddha is called the Sage above all sages.
“That is, Shakyamuni” means: why not identify a Buddha of the past or future? Because Shakyamuni Buddha was then seated at the place of enlightenment, he alone is designated. Within a single world there are not two Buddhas, just as, under the imperial dynasties of ancient times, only one reign-title could be proclaimed, and under the government of the present age, only one person is directly addressed as the Supreme Ruler. This is likewise because one nation cannot have two kings or two sovereigns.
Thus, it should be clearly understood that wherever the single word “Buddha” appears, it refers directly to Prince Siddhartha, who cultivated the path and attained Buddhahood under the name Shakyamuni, the fourth Buddha of this present Auspicious Kalpa.
Commentary: The word “spoken” means pleasing, a joyful delight within the heart. The exposition through the four kinds of unobstructed eloquence, extending from the twelve divisions of the canon through the four siddhantas, is entirely encompassed by the meaning of “spoken.”
Subcommentary: What is meant by “a joyful delight within the heart”? In accordance with his fundamental vow to liberate sentient beings, the Buddha teaches the Dharma in response to their capacities, and thus rejoices within his heart. As the Longer Sutra says: “When the World-Honored One wished to expound this sutra, even before he spoke, all his faculties became radiant, and his countenance was joyful and extraordinarily resplendent.” How much greater, then, must his delight have been when teaching this Dharma method of upholding the Name and being mindful of the Buddha, which perfectly accords with the capacities of beings.
The four kinds of unobstructed eloquence are: unobstructed eloquence in meaning, unobstructed eloquence in Dharma, unobstructed eloquence in expression, and unobstructed eloquence in joyful exposition. Because all four are unobstructed, it is called “speaking.”
The Treatise on the Middle Way says: “The Buddhas rely upon the Two Truths—ultimate truth and conventional truth—to teach the Dharma for sentient beings.” There is unobstructed wisdom of expression, because worldly wisdom is used to explain distinctions; and there is unobstructed wisdom of joyful exposition, because wisdom of the supreme meaning is used to explain what is skillful and wondrous.
The first two—eloquence in meaning and eloquence in Dharma—are not mentioned here because the latter two encompass them. Unobstructed eloquence in expression and unobstructed eloquence in joyful exposition already include unobstructed eloquence in meaning and unobstructed eloquence in Dharma.
The twelve divisions of the canon—the categories of the teaching—and so forth are the Dharma that is spoken.
The term “siddhanta,” combining the Chinese and Sanskrit meanings, signifies “universal bestowal.” Through the four approaches—the worldly, the individual, the counteractive, and the supreme meaning—the four benefits are bestowed upon sentient beings: bringing joy, giving rise to goodness, eliminating evil, and entering the Path.
The twelve divisions of the canon and all Dharmas are taught according to circumstances through immeasurable skillful means. Yet, in summary, they do not go beyond the worldly approach and the four siddhanta teachings, which enable people to obtain the four benefits of joy and so forth. To discern capacities and impart the appropriate Dharma involves extensive and abundant teachings that cannot be fully recounted in brief.
Commentary: “Spoken by the Buddha” distinguishes the Buddha from the five kinds of speakers.
Commentary: The five persons are the Buddha (1), bodhisattvas (2), devas (3), immortals (4), and transformation-beings (5). All five of these can expound sutras. Yet here it is made clear that this sutra consists of words established by the Supreme Sage, spoken directly from his golden mouth. It is unlike the words of bodhisattvas who are still at the stage of cultivating the cause. Devas belong to the class of ordinary beings, immortals are intermingled with followers of non-Buddhist paths, and transformation-beings are not real persons.
By analogy, how could an imperial edict issued by the Son of Heaven be the same as the words of civil and military officials or prime ministers, or those of the rulers of small kingdoms?
Subcommentary: “Amitabha” identifies the Buddha of that land. The Sanskrit “A” is translated as “Immeasurable.” The Sanskrit “mita” is translated as “measure.” This means that his merit and virtue cannot be fathomed to their utmost; therefore, he is called “Immeasurable.” As stated in the sutra, “His lifespan is immeasurable, and his light is immeasurable.” Among the immeasurable qualities, only a few are mentioned, encompassing all his other merits and virtues.
Commentary: “Immeasurable” has two meanings:
1. So numerous that they cannot be counted.
2. So vast that they have no limit.
It also has two further meanings:
A. “Immeasurable” is one of the ten great numbers (all of which are given in the Avatamsaka Sutra).
B. “Immeasurable” means utterly inexhaustible.
That only a few matters are mentioned means that what is immeasurable is not limited to lifespan and light alone. This is explained clearly in the text below.
Subcommentary: The word “sutra.” The Sanskrit term is Sutra, translated into Chinese as “a discourse consonant with truth and capacity.” It has the two meanings of general and specific. “Consonant” also has two meanings, while “sutra” has many meanings. Although “sutra” has many meanings, they do not go beyond these four: threading, gathering, constancy, and Dharma.
Commentary: “General” and “specific” mean that all teachings spoken by the Buddha are generally called Sutra; this is the general meaning. When divided into categories, however, Sutra refers to discourses, Vinaya to discipline, and Abhidharma to treatises; this is the specific meaning.
“Consonant” has two meanings: 1. Consonant with principle: the words accord with the truth. 2. Consonant with capacities: the teaching accords with the capacities of beings. Here, the word “consonant” is omitted and only “sutra” is used, merely to abbreviate the wording.
“Sutra” also has many meanings. In the commentary on the Avatamsaka Sutra, a citation from the Miscellaneous Mind Treatise gives five meanings: 1. Producing; 2. Revealing; 3. A gushing spring; 4. A carpenter’s inked line; 5. A flower garland.
The Treatise on the Buddha Ground gives two meanings: 1. Threading together; 2. Gathering and retaining.
In this land of China, it has four meanings: 1. Constancy; 2. Dharma; 3. A path; 4. A canon. Thus, it is said to have many meanings.
The statement that they “do not go beyond four meanings” refers to the four terms threading, gathering, constancy, and Dharma. This is because in the Western Regions, the word “sutra” is translated as “thread.” A thread has the meaning of threading and retaining. “Threading” means linking together the teachings that are expounded.
“Retaining” means gathering and preserving the beings who are taught so that they do not fall into the lower realms. These two meanings fully encompass the five meanings of producing, revealing, and so forth given above. Yet the scriptures of this land of China are also called jing.
Jing carries the meaning of “thread.” Since China did not esteem the word “thread,” however, it retained only the word jing and added the word “consonant.” “Constancy” means that the ancients regarded it as correct and authoritative. It also means that it has remained unchanged from ancient times to the present. “Dharma” means that it is equally revered by people near and far.
“Constancy” means that it is followed and practiced throughout the ages; in a general sense, this is a path.
“Dharma” means a true and proper standard possessing definite meaning; it is therefore called a canon, or model. These two meanings, constancy and Dharma, also fully encompass the other four meanings: constancy, Dharma, path, and canon. Thus, what is called threading and gathering in India corresponds to what is called constancy and Dharma in China. Taken together, “each of these four terms fully contains the meaning of sutra.”
Subcommentary: Furthermore, “sutra” has both a general and a specific meaning. The single word “sutra” is general, while the five words “The Buddha Speaks of Amitabha” are specific. The same applies to teaching, practice, and principle, each of which also has general and specific meanings. These three—teaching, practice, and principle—correspond to the three virtues of Dharmakaya, prajna, and liberation, perfectly interfused and completely present. As the Master of Tiantai said, “Upon merely hearing the title of a sutra, one’s merit and virtue are already immeasurable.” If correlated with the three greatnesses, “Buddha” is greatness of essence, “Infinite Life” is greatness of attributes, and “Infinite Light” is greatness of function, as explained in the section on the teaching.
Commentary: Teaching, practice, and principle mean that, fundamentally, the teaching is established on the basis of principle; relying on the teaching, one cultivates the practice; and through cultivation, one realizes the principle. All sutras contain teaching, practice, and principle; hence this is called the “general” meaning. When referring specifically to this sutra, the two words “the Buddha speaks” are the teaching; the four words “uphold the Name single-mindedly” are the practice; and the three words “Amitabha Buddha” are the principle. Since this differs from the foregoing, it is called the “specific” meaning of this sutra.
Their correspondence to the three virtues is: 1. Principle is the Dharmakaya; 2. Teaching is prajna; 3. Practice is liberation.
Furthermore, since principle pervades both practice and teaching, the Dharmakaya is itself prajna and liberation. Likewise, practice pervades both principle and teaching, and teaching pervades both principle and practice. To speak of one is therefore to speak of all three. This should be understood by comparison with the preceding explanation.
Essence, attributes, and function: “Essence” means the total essence. That is, when “Buddha” is spoken, everything is thereby understood; hence “Buddha” is taken as the essence.
“Attributes” means that all attributes are inherently complete within the essence. Since the essence is inexhaustible, its attributes are likewise inexhaustible; hence “Infinite Life” is taken as the attributes.
“Function” means that function arises from within the essence. Wherever the essence illuminates, its function also illuminates; hence “Infinite Light” is taken as the function. The general and specific meanings may likewise be understood by comparison with the foregoing.
Subcommentary: In establishing their titles, sutras most often employ all three categories: persons, Dharmas, and analogies. Some sutras employ one, while others employ two. This sutra employs only a person. Yet there are two persons, because they are persons who attained the fruit in two different lands. In truth, all three—person, Dharma, and analogy—are perfectly interfused.
Commentary: The use of one, two, or three categories is illustrated as follows. The title Great and Vast Buddha Avatamsaka Sutra contains all three: person, Dharma, and analogy. The title Sutra of the Buddha’s Great Skillful Means for Repaying Kindness contains person and Dharma but no analogy. The title Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma contains Dharma and analogy but no person. The title Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Jeweled Necklace contains person and analogy but no Dharma. The title Great Prajnaparamita Sutra contains Dharma but neither person nor analogy. The title Brahma’s Net Sutra contains analogy but neither person nor Dharma. The present sutra contains only person, with neither Dharma nor analogy. Other sutras may all be understood by comparison with these examples.
The persons who attained the fruit in two different lands are the bodhisattva at the causal stage and the Tathagata at the resultant stage; hence a Buddha is called a person of fruition. Here, Shakyamuni Buddha in this land, the Saha world, introduces Amitabha Buddha of that land, the Land of Ultimate Bliss.
“Perfectly interfused” means that to speak of one is to speak of all three. Although this Amitabha Sutra is specifically classified under the category of person alone, only through a person can the Dharma be taught, and only through a person can an analogy be established. Although the wording emphasizes one category, its meaning is complete. Their mutual identity and unobstructed interpenetration naturally accord with principle.
Subcommentary: The original title of this sutra was “The Sutra Praising the Inconceivable Merits and Virtues Protected and Kept in Mind by All Buddhas.” Kumarajiva revised it for two reasons: 1. The word “Buddha” encompasses inexhaustible meanings. 2. The name of that Buddha is what people delight in hearing.
Commentary: “Encompasses inexhaustible meanings” is as stated above: the word “Buddha” is complete in itself, for all merit and virtue arise from the Buddha, and the Buddha is inconceivable. Furthermore, “Amitabha” is the great Name containing the ten thousand virtues, loved and revered by all beings throughout the ten directions and the three periods of time. Above, all Buddhas praise it; below, even hungry ghosts and animals yearn for and take refuge in it. This is precisely inconceivable merit and virtue.
Subcommentary: What are the subcommentary and commentary? The subcommentary explains the meaning of the sutra, while the commentary further explains the meaning of the subcommentary so that it may be easily understood.
Commentary: “Subcommentary”: The ancients said that it has two meanings: distinct exposition and recollection. Here it means that the meaning of this sutra is clearly revealed rather than concealed, and remembered without omission or forgetfulness. “Annotations,” according to the ancients, has two meanings: to gather the essentials and to record them in writing.
To gather the essentials is to set forth the crucial points distinctly. To record them in writing is to preserve them clearly in memory. The word “record” conveys an aspiration.
In general, when the meaning of a sutra is difficult to understand, it is elucidated through a subcommentary. When the words of the subcommentary are difficult to understand, they are made perfectly clear through annotations, in the hope that everyone may clearly understand the meaning of the sutra!
Subcommentary: In accord with principle, the intrinsic nature of Awakening is the meaning of the word “Buddha.” The intrinsic nature of immeasurable awakening is the meaning of “Amitabha.” The intrinsic awakening of both the Original and the Initial is the meaning of the two persons who attained fruition in the two lands. The intrinsic essence of awakening, universally illuminating, is the meaning of the preaching of the sutra. Subsequent passages should likewise be understood according to this pattern.
Commentary: “In accord with principle” means that phenomena are themselves principle. What is said to encompass the myriad kinds of beings is precisely the one mind; therefore, how could the dependent and primary recompenses not be the intrinsic nature? Furthermore, phenomena are themselves principle because phenomena are formed in dependence upon principle. As the Vimalakirti Sutra says: “As the mind is pure, so is the Buddha-land pure.” This sutra now speaks of “one-pointedness without confusion,” which is the Amitabha of one’s intrinsic nature and the Pure Land of mind alone. This is the central tenet of this sutra. In brief, its words accord with principle, and therefore it is called “in accord with principle.”
“Awakening” is the general meaning. Within the essence of awakening, vast, expansive, and utterly without limit, knowing the Original and the Initial has two meanings. Speaking in terms of before and after: Amitabha Buddha is an ancient Buddha, while Shakyamuni Buddha is a Buddha who attained buddhahood more recently.
Thus, that Buddha is the Original and this Buddha is the Initial. That is, the Buddha inherently present in the intrinsic nature from the beginning is the “Original”; when obscured by ignorance, one now breaks through delusion and realizes wisdom—this is the “Initial.” Speaking in terms of cause and fruition: this Buddha, Shakyamuni, teaches beings to attain rebirth before they can behold Amitabha Buddha. Thus, this is the Original and that is the Initial.
That is, the wisdom of buddhahood inherently present in the intrinsic nature is the Original. Relying upon original wisdom to seek the wisdom of the Buddha and only then attaining buddhahood is the mutual interpenetration of the Original and the Initial. Ever awakened and never deluded, it illumines all heaven and shines throughout the earth, penetrating past and present, constantly preaching sutras in hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of millions of Dharma assemblies.
Such is its meaning.
Question: The subcommentary and annotations on this sutra are expressly intended to elucidate the merit of upholding the Name and universally exhort everyone to seek rebirth in that land. Why, then, is every point traced back to the intrinsic nature? Would this not turn the practice of upholding the Name into an ultimate teaching that is too lofty? If the Pure Land is clearly the mind, why must one leave this place and aspire to go there?
Answer: This teaching precisely embraces those of both capacities and dispels both kinds of delusion, as was already explained in the preceding preface. Those of dull faculties cling to phenomenal appearances and consider them sufficient. Reading this sutra causes them to understand that within phenomena there is also principle, so they should not cling to phenomena and abandon principle. Those of keen faculties esteem the nature of principle but cling to emptiness. Reading this sutra causes them to understand that principle is still found within phenomena, so they should not abandon phenomena and seek only principle.
Furthermore, this sutra fundamentally borrows the two words constituting that Buddha’s name in order to reveal one’s own mind. This also accords with the meaning of the Sutra of the Sixteen Contemplations. Therefore, those who wish to awaken to their own minds must precisely recite the Buddha’s name and seek rebirth.
Furthermore, bodhisattvas must still draw near to the Buddha, as was explained above in the section on the Arising of the Teaching. Thus, those who have awakened to their own minds must also precisely recite the Buddha’s name and seek rebirth. What is there to doubt?
Furthermore, the Vimalakirti Sutra says: “Although one knows that the lands of all Buddhas and sentient beings are empty and provisionally exist through causes and conditions, one nevertheless constantly cultivates the Pure Land and teaches and transforms sentient beings.” Therefore, one should be concerned only that one has not awakened to one’s own mind. If one has already clearly awakened to one’s own mind, then not a single dharma exists outside that mind. At that time, mind itself is the object, and the object itself is mind. To attain rebirth in the Pure Land and behold Amitabha Buddha neither obstructs the teaching of mind-only nor conflicts with the intrinsic nature!
Another question: The ancients said that the Avatamsaka Sutra is the ultimate teaching of the Supreme Vehicle. It is understandable that all its Dharma-gates may be clarified by cultivating contemplative practices; but how can the sutras from the Vaipulya teachings downward, including those of the Lesser Vehicle, also instruct one to cultivate contemplative practices?
An ancient virtuous master answered: The sutras of definitive meaning, belonging to the Mahayana, and the sutras of provisional meaning, belonging to the Lesser Vehicle, are all of definitive meaning, for there is only the one mind.
Accordingly, for those of perfect capacity, which teaching among all the scriptural teachings is not perfect? For those who have realized the principle of mind, when they encounter phenomena, which phenomenon does not accord with principle?
2. The Translator
Translated during the Yao Qin dynasty by Tripitaka Dharma Master Kumarajiva
Subcommentary: “Yao Qin” indicates the dynasty. “Tripitaka” reveals his virtue. “Kumarajiva” is his name. The single word “translated” concludes by identifying the person capable of translating.
Commentary: The origins of the Master have already been fully presented from beginning to end in the preceding text and are therefore not recorded again here. The ancients said that Kumarajiva had served as a Dharma Master who translated sutras throughout the time of the past seven Buddhas. Yet this is also only an abbreviated statement, using the seven Buddhas as a concise expression.
Strictly speaking, from Vipashyin Buddha through Shakyamuni Buddha, only two great kalpas—the past Adornment Kalpa and the present Worthy Kalpa—have elapsed in succession. During the preceding nine kalpas, countless tens of thousands of Buddhas had already appeared, and there is no Buddha in the six directions who does not praise this sutra. Thus, within the time of the past ten thousand Buddhas, surely all of them also taught this sutra, and surely there were also translators in every age.
Moreover, when the sutra speaks of the “Mother of the Buddha,” it means: “Whenever any Buddha descended into birth in any age, I, Lady Maya, was his mother.” The Buddha’s son likewise said: “Whenever any Buddha appeared in the world, I, Rahula, was his son.” From this comparison, one may know that Kumarajiva served as a Dharma Master translating sutras not merely during the times of seven successive Buddhas! Thus, one may have still greater faith that this sutra has circulated for an exceedingly long time.
Subcommentary: In accord with principle, the brilliantly unobstructed interpenetration of the intrinsic nature is the meaning of translating Sanskrit into Chinese.
Commentary: When Sanskrit is rendered into Chinese, the manifest is not apart from the esoteric. Chinese itself has never been other than Sanskrit; this is the meaning of the esoteric remaining within the manifest. Within darkness there is light, and within light there is darkness. Darkness and light mutually interpenetrate layer upon layer, entering the wondrous essence of unobstructed interpenetration, neither identical nor different.
Separate Explanation of the Text and Its Meaning (divided into three parts)
1. The Introductory Section (the introduction to the sutra).
2. The Main Doctrinal Section (the principal section of the sutra).
3. The Circulation Section (the section on circulation).
1. The Introductory Section (divided into two parts)
A. The Five Statements Establishing Authenticity.
B. The Assembly Establishing Authenticity (enumeration of the assembly).
The Five Statements Establishing Authenticity
(The words related by Ananda before the assembly)
Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was dwelling in the kingdom of Shravasti, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, in the Garden of Anathapindika.
Subcommentary: Separate explanation of the text and its meaning: Having understood the general purport of the title, we still do not know what the wording is like from beginning to end. We shall now divide it passage by passage and explain it sentence by sentence, causing the prajnaparamita expressed in written words to penetrate the principle of the prajnaparamita of true reality. This is because finite words are provisionally employed to disclose, in brief, the infinite principle. Of the three sections, the present passage belongs to the Introductory Section, the opening portion of this sutra.
“Introduction” means a narration and an initial thread. That is, before entering the main text, it first narrates the initial thread of this sutra. There are two kinds of introduction: the Introduction Establishing Authenticity and the Introduction Initiating the Teaching.
Here there is only the Introduction Establishing Authenticity. Every Introduction Establishing Authenticity fully contains the six fulfillments. Following the text here and considering the relative length of its passages, it is again divided into two parts: first, the Five Statements Establishing Authenticity; second, the Assembly Establishing Authenticity.
Combined, these constitute the six fulfillments. Here again, the general purport is first presented according to the preceding pattern; only afterward is the text divided and explained.
This means: “Thus have I heard this Dharma from the Buddha. At one time, Śākyamuni Buddha taught the Dharma at Jeta Grove in the kingdom of Śrāvastī.” Because these were the Buddha’s words, he instructed Ānanda to speak thus. The phrase “Thus have I heard” has three meanings: 1. Dispelling doubt. 2. Ending disputes. 3. Distinguishing the false in order to reveal the true.
Commentary: “Literary prajnaparamita” means that the true principle of prajnaparamita cannot be expressed in words, yet it may now be clarified through speech; therefore, the Buddha used written words to expound the sutras. We now rely upon written words to explain them. Nevertheless, written words are fundamentally empty; they are themselves true suchness and the true mark of reality. Thus, the three kinds of prajnaparamita—literary prajnaparamita, contemplative illumination, and the true mark of reality—interpenetrate one another without obstruction, and there is no impediment arising from written words.
“To present them briefly” means that words cannot exhaust their meaning; hence it is said, “Briefly, there are six kinds of fulfillment.” “Dividing them into two categories” follows the pattern of the five skandhas and the six sense faculties: one may combine form and elaborate upon mind, or combine mind and elaborate upon form, according to what is appropriate, without being fixed to any single Dharma. “The Buddha instructed” means that the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “When the Buddha was about to enter nirvana, he instructed Ānanda: ‘At the beginning of every sutra, place the words: Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was dwelling in such-and-such a country, at such-and-such a place.’” Thus, Ānanda was complying with the Buddha’s final instruction.
“Dispelling doubt” means that when Ānanda compiled the canon, three doubts arose within the assembly: 1. They wondered whether the Buddha had returned to life. 2. They wondered whether Ānanda had attained Buddhahood. 3. They wondered whether a Buddha from another direction had come and entered into Ānanda. When they heard the words, “Thus have I heard,” all three doubts were immediately dispelled.
“Ending disputes” means that the words “I have heard” indicate that Ānanda did not fabricate the teaching himself.
“Distinguishing the false” means that the word “Thus” differs from the expression “A-u” used by non-Buddhist teachings. As stated in the Treatise on the Buddha Grounds: “Such is the Dharma. I previously heard it.” This wording was intended to avoid the faults of additions, omissions, and deviations, and it also carries the meaning of preventing mutual disputes.
Subcommentary: The words “Thus” constitute the Fulfillment of Faith. As stated in the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom: “The two words ‘Thus’ may further be understood in two senses.” There are many ways of explaining them. If their meaning is determined according to the tenets of this school—the Pure Land school—then “single-mindedness without confusion” is “suchness,” while remaining continuously so without error is “thus.”
Commentary: The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “The great ocean of the Buddhadharma can be entered through faith.” When one believes something, one says that it is thus; when one cannot believe it, one says that it is not thus.
Master Sengzhao explained: “‘Thus’ is an expression of faithful acceptance.” Therefore, when people in the world believe and accept something, they also say that it is thus. “Further understood in two senses” means that the two words forming “thus” are separated and each is explained individually. “There are many ways of explaining them”: One explanation says, “When a sage expounds the Dharma and clearly reveals the true principle, this is ‘suchness’; only the true principle as it is, is ‘thus,’” as Master Liu Qiu stated.
Another says, “The word ‘such’ denotes speech that accords with principle, while ‘thus’ denotes speech that is not erroneous,” as Master Sengzhao stated. Another says, “The Tathagata responds and manifests in accordance with beings’ capacities—this is ‘suchness’; all sentient beings are moved to reverence—this is ‘thus,’” as Master Rong stated. Another says, “The principle of the true mark of reality never differs from beginning to end—this is ‘suchness’; to teach precisely in accordance with that principle—this is ‘thus,’” as the Tiantai master stated.
Another says, “The word ‘such’ denotes the principle of true emptiness, while ‘thus’ denotes the principle of wondrous existence,” thereby refuting the two non-Buddhist attachments to eternalism and annihilationism, as Master Qingliang’s balanced interpretation and the explanations of various commentators have stated. Other explanations are not quoted here, lest they become burdensome. The foregoing explanations of the two words forming “Thus” all possess meaning.
In general, they are alike; although their details differ considerably, they do not contradict one another.
Thus, the meaning of the two words forming “thus” is determined according to the tenets of the particular school. This sutra takes the single mind as its essential principle.
Through upholding the Name single-mindedly and without confusion, the single mind is unborn and undying, neither coming nor going, quiescent, lucid, and eternally abiding; therefore, it is called “suchness.” Furthermore, this single mind is free from the four faults (10) and eliminates the hundred errors (11); therefore, it is called “thus.” Anything stated in contradiction to this cannot be called “thus.”
Subcommentary: The words “I have heard” constitute the Fulfillment of Hearing. “I” means that I myself heard it; “heard” means that I heard it in person. “I myself heard it in person” means that it was neither something privately received from another person nor a mere reading of the words of the ancients (12).
Commentary: “I myself heard it in person”: The word “myself” distinguishes oneself from others, while “in person” means that one was not absent; that is, one was personally present to receive the golden words transmitted and taught by the World-Honored One.
“Privately” refers to Mencius’s statement: “I did not have the good fortune to become a disciple of Confucius. I only privately studied the Way through others.”
This means that Mencius did not actually meet Confucius. He studied under Zisi, Confucius’s grandson, and privately received that Way in order to cultivate himself.
“A mere reading of the words of the ancients” refers to the occasion when Duke Huan of Qi was reading a book in the upper hall, and a wheelwright commented that what the duke was reading was no more than the dregs and refuse of the ancients.
This means that Duke Huan was not himself face-to-face with the ancients. The ancients had long been dead, and he was now merely reading the words they had left behind.
Ānanda, however, personally met the Supremely Holy One and did not privately receive the teaching from anyone else. This corresponds to the words “I myself” above.
Ānanda heard the supreme teaching with his own ears; he did not merely read the words of the ancients. This corresponds to the words “heard it in person.” Everyone should therefore accept it with faith, and no one should dare raise further objections, for Ānanda received the teaching directly from the Buddha.
Subcommentary: A sage is without self; why, then, does he now say “I”? The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom gives three reasons: 1. To accord with worldly convention. 2. To refute wrong views. 3. Not to cling to selflessness.
For these three reasons, there is no impediment in saying “I.” Furthermore, the Buddha’s Dharma-body is the True Self, so the word “I” may also be used.
Commentary: What follows again separates the two words “I have heard” and explains each individually, as before.
1. To accord with worldly convention means that, within worldly dharmas, the word “I” is used; it does not refer to the True Self in the ultimate truth. It is now spoken merely in accordance with worldly convention and fundamentally has no real substance; therefore, it does not contradict the self of the ultimate truth.
2. To refute wrong views means distinguishing the false self from the nominal self. Ordinary people possess the first two kinds of self. Practitioners of the Way possess the latter two kinds. Sages retain only the final kind. When sages accord with worldly convention and say “I,” it is merely a nominal self, not truly a self arising from wrong views or conceit; therefore, there is no fault.
3. Not to cling to selflessness. The sages know that all dharmas are empty and that the principle of the true mark of reality is selfless, yet they do not cling to emptiness or to selflessness.
Furthermore, the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise gives four meanings, which are generally the same as these. Its third meaning states: “If it were definitively asserted that there is no self, then who would cultivate and study? People would surely become afraid.” Therefore, one does not cling to selflessness and continues to say “I.”
The commentary on the Contemplation Sutra also states: “If there were no self, there would be no hearing; if there were no hearing, the work of teaching and transforming beings would cease.” In order that the transmission of the teaching may continue without interruption, a provisional designation is borrowed and one temporarily says “I.”
The Buddha’s Dharma-body is the True Self. From the perspective of Original Enlightenment, Ānanda, too, partakes of the self of the Dharma-body. This is because within the Dharma of selflessness there is the True Self, namely, the self of the Dharma-body. Just as there is the virtue of Self among the four virtues of Eternity, Bliss, Self, and Purity in the Nirvana Sutra, how could this be incompatible with selflessness?
Subcommentary: “Heard” means that the ear faculty gives rise to ear-consciousness. Setting aside the particular and following the general, one therefore says, “I have heard.”
In the Mahayana teachings, there are three meanings: 1. According to the meaning of the Initial Teaching, there is no hearing. 2. According to the meaning of the Final Teaching, one hears but does not cling to hearing. 3. According to the meaning of the Sudden Teaching, there is no hearing, yet nowhere is there an absence of hearing.
If discussed in accordance with the true purport of this school, then when the noble one transmitted the Dharma, he employed the nonduality of true self and no-self. The wondrous faculty of hearing, being neither identical to nor different from the sense faculty and its object, hears the unobstructed Dharma-gate linking the Saha World and the Land of Ultimate Bliss—nothing more than this.
Commentary: To set aside the particular and follow the general means that it does not say “the ear heard,” but instead says “I heard.” This is because the word “I” encompasses all the sense faculties, consciousnesses, and so forth. Since the general includes the particular, it says: “I heard.”
The phrase “the Initial Teaching,” and so forth, is like saying: Since the self is not truly a self, even though there is hearing, no one hears. This is the general purport of the Initial Teaching, the preliminary gateway of the Mahayana.
It is also said: “Because things are provisionally formed through causes and conditions, they are empty.” Yet this does not destroy their provisional names; thus, one hears without hearing, and although hearing, does not cling to hearing. This is the general purport of the Mahayana Final Teaching.
It is also said: “Subject and object are both quiescent; the hearer and the Dharma that is heard are both still.” There is no hearing, yet nowhere is there an absence of hearing. Apart from thought and conceptualization, the general purport of the Mahayana Sudden Teaching reveals itself clearly.
The phrase “self and no-self” means that there is birth, yet no notion of birth; there is no notion of birth, yet birth occurs universally. This is precisely the Dharma-body.
“The sense faculty and its object” refers to hearing the words “Amitabha Buddha”: the one capable of hearing and the object heard—Amitabha Buddha. They are nondual, yet neither identical nor different.
“The Saha World and the Land of Ultimate Bliss” means that the dependent and primary recompenses of the Saha World are entirely within the self-mind of the Land of Ultimate Bliss. Because this sutra contains an aspect belonging to the Perfect Teaching, it must therefore be referred back to the Dharma-nature.
Commentary: Someone asked: The Buddha had already attained enlightenment long before Ananda entered the monastic life, so how could he say, “I heard”?
The ancients replied that there are four meanings according to which saying “heard” presents no difficulty. Moreover, there were three Anandas. If this Ananda did not hear it, another Ananda did, so there is likewise no difficulty.
Subcommentary: The doubter says: The Buddha had already been teaching the Dharma for twenty years before Ananda entered the monastic life, and it was another ten years before the Buddha appointed him as his attendant. Although he was then able to attend closely upon the Buddha, how could he have heard the sutras the Buddha had taught during the preceding thirty years, so that all could be introduced with “I heard”?
The four meanings given by the ancients are:
1. Hearing successively from others: As the Sutra of Requiting Kindness says: “As for the sutras you have not heard, follow the bhiksu masters and hear them again,” or celestial princes recounted them to him, as in the transmission passage for Bodhisattva Hongguang cited by the Buddha in the Nirvana Sutra.
2. The Buddha repeated them: As recorded in the Sutra of Requiting Kindness: “When the Buddha instructed Ananda to become his attendant, Ananda requested three things. The third was that, for any sutra he had not heard, he asked the Buddha to teach it again”...
3. Ananda understood them on his own: As the Vajra Wisdom Sutra says: “Ananda had realized the Samadhi of Sovereign Enlightenment of the Dharma-nature; therefore, he could recollect and retain by himself the sutras he had not heard.” The Nirvana Sutra also says that whether he was present in the Dharma assembly or absent from it, he could naturally understand everything clearly.
4. Master Qingliang critically reconciled the three explanations above, saying: “Ananda was in fact a great provisional bodhisattva who appeared in response to circumstances to propagate the teachings.” As the Sutra of the Inconceivable Realm says: “Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, Ananda, and the others were all great provisional bodhisattvas manifesting as sravakas.” Why cling to minor names and appearances and say that he did not hear?
The three Anandas are:
1. One named Ananda, “Joy.” He compiled the treasury of the sravaka scriptures.
2. One named Ananda-Bhadra, “Virtuous Joy.” He compiled the treasury of the pratyekabuddha scriptures.
3. One named Ananda-Sagara, “Ocean of Joy.” He compiled the treasury of the bodhisattva scriptures.
Thus, Ananda employed great and wondrous spiritual powers to teach sentient beings according to their capacities. Therefore, one should understand that throughout the Tathagata’s entire lifetime of teachings, if this Ananda did not hear a teaching, another Ananda heard it. Why cling to hearing and not hearing and thereby create an obstruction?
Commentary: The words “at one time” constitute the fulfillment of time. When master and disciples came together, and the speaker and listeners had completed the teaching and the hearing, this was called “one time.” Because the speaker and listeners were not fixed, no particular year, month, day, or hour is stated. The reckoning of time differs throughout the ten directions, and the first day of the first month is not the same in the two lands of India and China.
When discussed according to the true purport of this sutra, then while the speaker taught and the listeners heard, mind and objects ceased, noble ones and ordinary beings united, dependent and primary recompenses interpenetrated, and the one and the many were equal. This was the time when all dharmas that otherwise stand in paired opposition were completely united as One; therefore, it is called “one time.”
Subcommentary: “The speaker and listeners were not fixed” means the following: If the speaker had realized the Dharma of dharani, the power of total retention, then in a single instant, through a single word, he could teach all Dharma-gates completely. If a listener had attained purity of the ear faculty, then in a single instant, upon hearing one word, he could hear and comprehend everything completely, however extensive it might be, without obstruction.
Or a short time for the speaker might become a long time for the listener. Or a long time for the speaker might become a short time for the listener. Through spiritual power, the speaker could lengthen or shorten the time as appropriate, while the capacities of listeners varied in acuity and dullness.
An ancient master said: In the perceptions and understanding of those of the Three Vehicles, the six classes of ordinary beings, and the four classes of noble ones, the Dharma-body, reward-body, and transformation-body, together with the length or brevity of years and lifespans and whether Buddhahood was attained long ago or recently, each appear differently. Therefore, here it merely designates the occasion when the Buddha and his disciples, master and followers, met through the mutual response of capacities and teaching; when the speaker had finished speaking and the listeners had finished hearing, this was called “one time.”
“The reckoning of time throughout the ten directions”: The phrase “ten directions” encompasses all vertical and horizontal dimensions. Vertically, it extends to the heavenly realms—a single day in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings is equivalent to fifty years in the human realm below. Horizontally, it extends throughout the four continents—the third watch of the night in Jambudvipa corresponds to noon in Uttarakuru. Thus, time cannot be fixed.
“The first day of the year in the two lands” means that the first day of the year is called the “first day of the first lunar month.” China and the Five Regions of India did not follow the same calendar. The Zhou dynasty established the first month of the year in the Rat month, the eleventh lunar month. The Xia dynasty established the first month in the Tiger month, corresponding to our first lunar month.
At that time, China was under the Zhou dynasty (1134–247 BCE), while the Buddha was in Sravasti, India. Sravasti established its first month in the Tiger month, which also corresponded to the first month of the Xia dynasty (2205–1786 BCE). Consequently, the first month in the Five Regions of India was the third month in China, and India’s second month corresponded to the Zhou dynasty’s fourth month. Even in China at that time, the calendar could not be fixed consistently. Therefore, the text merely says “at one time.”
Dependent and primary recompenses: The Buddha, together with mind and objects, abides in single-mindedness without distraction, because there is neither a mind that is capable of recollecting nor an object that is recollected. Ordinary beings and noble ones assemble in one place together with beings of superior heavenly and human rank, while the waters, birds, and forest trees all proclaim the wondrous Dharma.
The one and the many: When one Buddha teaches the sutra, the Buddhas of the six directions praise and affirm it together.
As described above, each pair of mutually opposed dharmas unites into the single flavor of purity. Taking that occasion as one time, it is therefore called “one time.”
Commentary: The word “Buddha” constitutes the fulfillment of the teacher. The meaning of the word “Buddha” was clearly explained in the preceding passage. Because sentient beings together revered him throughout that period, he was called the teacher. Moreover, he occupies the foremost position among the six fulfillments.
Commentary: “Together revere” means that when a Buddha appears in the world, it constitutes an era. During that era, beings of the six ordinary realms, the sages of the Three Vehicles, and all sentient beings together revere the Buddha as the Lord of the Dharma, just as all the people and officials of a nation submit to a single sovereign.
“The principal among the six fulfillments”: Looking back, the time when the assembly attended upon the principal is the “Fulfillment of Time.” Hearing the words of the principal is the “Fulfillment of Hearing”; accepting the teachings of the principal is the “Fulfillment of Faith.” Looking forward, the place where the principal dwells is the “Fulfillment of Place.” Those taught and transformed by the principal constitute the “Fulfillment of the Assembly.” These are the six fulfillments, yet they all ultimately center upon the Buddha; this also expresses the meaning that the Buddha encompasses them all.
Subcommentary: The phrase “at Prince Jeta’s Grove in Anathapindika’s Park in the country of Shravasti” is the “Fulfillment of Place.” Regarding the word “at,” the Tiantai Master explained it as having the sense of “abiding,” which is divided into four kinds: 1. heavenly abiding; 2. Brahma abiding; 3. noble abiding; and 4. Buddha abiding. The Buddha abides wherever appropriate. Even when there is heavenly abiding—abiding in the heavens—the Buddha’s body is, in truth, neither fixed in any single place nor absent from any place.
Commentary: “At” has the meaning of “abiding.” The Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise says: “Wherever the Buddha stays, whether temporarily or for a long time, the meaning of ‘at’ is established.” Here, regardless of whether he stayed for a long or short time, the very place where the Buddha expounded the sutra is called the place where he was “at.”
For example, in the world, wherever a sovereign goes, he is said to be “at” that place.
The four kinds of abiding mean that, in delivering sentient beings, the Buddha abides according to what is appropriate. He may manifest a body abiding in the heavens. That is, for those with the causes for rebirth in the Six Desire Heavens, he abides by teaching the Dharma of generosity, observance of precepts, and wholesome intentions.
Or he may manifest noble abiding in the Brahma heavens. That is, for those with the causes for rebirth from the First Dhyana Heaven up to the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, he abides by teaching the Dharma of the Four Immeasurable Minds (13). Or he may manifest a body abiding in the realms of the noble ones.
That is, for those of the Three Vehicles, he abides by teaching the three kinds of samadhi. Or he may manifest a body abiding in the Buddha realm, where, employing the Shurangama Samadhi and the hundred samadhis, he abides while teaching the Dharma of the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, and the eighteen distinctive qualities.
In the first three realms, he abides responsively according to the dispositions of others; in the last realm alone, the Buddha abides according to his own intent.
Question: Why does the Buddha still abide in the heavens?
Answer: He conceals his exalted body in a lowly place for the sake of delivering sentient beings. He abides nowhere, yet there is nowhere he does not abide, because his essential nature is nowhere absent; because his essential nature is perfectly unobstructed, there is nowhere he does not abide. The Avatamsaka Sutra says: “The Buddha’s body does not arrive, yet there is nowhere it does not arrive.
Why is this? Because empty space has no body. The Tathagata is likewise.
He pervades all dharmas and all lands of all sentient beings; he does not arrive, yet there is nowhere he does not arrive.” Because his essence is like the pure, quiescent mind and resembles empty space, it is fully present everywhere. Nevertheless, although the Buddha was in the country of Shravasti, he manifested the body of an inferior responsive manifestation to deliver those of lesser capacities; hence it is called heavenly abiding.
Yet, speaking according to ultimate reality, could not Shravasti itself also be called “Brahma abiding,” “noble abiding,” or “Buddha abiding”?
Subcommentary: The Sanskrit name Shravasti is also rendered Shilafashidi, translated into Chinese as “Renowned Things,” because the country was named after its virtues. It is also said to mean “Renowned,” because the country was named after a person.
Commentary: “Virtues” means that the country possessed four virtues in abundance: 1. the virtue of sense objects, because the objects of the five senses included many beautiful things; 2. the virtue of wealth, because none of the seven precious substances and rare treasures was lacking; 3. the virtue of the noble Dharma, because the sacred teachings of the Tripitaka were all present in full; and 4. the virtue of liberation, because many people attained liberation and were not defiled by the five desires. Therefore, its praise resounded throughout the five regions of India, and it was called the country of Renowned Things.
What does it mean that “the country was named after a person”? Because there were many virtuous and worthy people, the country esteemed the name of a person.
Subcommentary: “Prince Jeta’s Grove in Anathapindika’s Park”: Jeta is Sanskrit and is also rendered Shida. Saying only Ji without the syllable Da is an abbreviated form. The two syllables Jida are translated into Chinese as “Victorious in Battle.” “Provider for Orphans and the Solitary” identifies the virtue of Sudatta. “Park” is translated phonetically from the Sanskrit sangharama, rendered into Chinese as “Park of the Assembly,” equivalent in Vietnamese to “a place where the Sangha dwells.”
Prince Jeta donated the grove, and the Provider for Orphans purchased the park. Because the names of both men were combined, it is called “Prince Jeta’s Grove in Anathapindika’s Park.”
Commentary: “Victorious in Battle”: When King Prasenajit’s prince was born, the king was waging war against a foreign country and won the battle. Rejoicing, he gave that name, “Victorious in Battle,” to his son.
Sudatta is Sanskrit, translated into Chinese as “Delighting in Giving.” He was a chief minister of King Victorious Army, whose army was victorious in battle. Because he delighted in practicing generosity, he acquired the auspicious name “Delighting in Giving.”
“Provider for Orphans and the Solitary” means that a young person without parents is an “orphan,” while an elderly person without children is “solitary.” Thus, those who have nowhere to rely upon and no one to support them are called orphans and the solitary.
Regarding the words “orphans and the solitary” alone, Confucius said: “It is most urgent for the noble person to extend benevolence universally and provide aid.” Master Meng related: “When King Wen governed the region of Qi, he first assisted the orphans.” Was this not because his compassion naturally extended universally? Yet those in urgent need were helped first, while those whose need was less pressing were helped afterward.
The dwelling place of the assembly was called a “park” because its dense grove was cool and refreshing, and those cultivating the Way could find refuge and lodging there.
“One donated the trees, and the other purchased the park”: The Nirvana Sutra says that an elder named Sudatta, originally from the country of Shravasti, initially did not know the Buddha. On an occasion when he traveled to arrange a marriage, he entered the city of Rajagriha and stopped at the home of Sandana. Upon seeing the Buddha, he gave rise to faith and invited the Buddha to the country of Shravasti.
The Buddha sent Shariputra to select a dwelling place for the assembly. He chose the grove belonging to Prince Jeta. When the elder asked its price, the prince jestingly replied: “If you cover the ground with gold, I shall sell it to you.” The elder agreed and brought gold to spread over the ground.
Moved and full of admiration, the prince sold him the land, while the trees in the park, which remained the prince’s property, were also donated by him to the Buddha for the establishment of a monastery. The elder and the prince vied with one another in bringing forth the resolve to accomplish this good deed; therefore, the names of both men are mentioned together.
Subcommentary: If explained explicitly according to the doctrine of this sutra, each element has a symbolic significance, following the customary methods used in commenting on the Lotus Sutra and the Avatamsaka Sutra.
Commentary: “Explained according to this sutra” means the following: Shravasti was an exceedingly excellent country, symbolizing that this Pure Land Dharma-gate is vast and boundless because its Dharma is supremely exalted. Master Cien himself said: “Rajagriha is an exceedingly excellent city. This city surpasses other cities because it symbolizes that the Lotus Sutra is a Dharma surpassing all other dharmas.” What follows is likewise explained by analogy with this.
Prince Jeta’s grove was an exceedingly beautiful grove, symbolizing that the Pure Land provides cool shade, constantly sheltering sentient beings from oppressive heat. Anathapindika’s park was an exceedingly lovely park, symbolizing that the Pure Land brings sentient beings peace and security, so that they forever enjoy every happiness. Prince Jeta was of excellent lineage, symbolizing that those born in the Pure Land ultimately attain Buddhahood and perpetuate the flourishing lineage of the Buddhas.
The elder Sudatta was an exceedingly excellent person, symbolizing that all who are born in the Pure Land enter the assembly of those assured of awakening and gather together with beings of the highest virtue. The Avatamsaka Sutra likewise uses many different phenomena to symbolize the Dharma and reveal the principle of the One Mind; all such teachings bear this same meaning.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the intrinsic nature, open and penetrating throughout the ten directions, is the meaning of Venerable Ananda hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma. The intrinsic nature not departing from the intrinsic nature is the meaning of the Buddha dwelling in Prince Jeta's Grove, in Anathapindika's Garden.
Subcommentary: The mind that hears throughout the ten directions is Venerable Ananda, “Celebration of Joy,” now compiling the teachings. The true Buddha sits within the house—within the mind; Shakyamuni Buddha was never confined merely to Western India. Turn hearing around to hear one’s own nature; turn the Buddha around to realize one’s own Buddha. Only then does one know that the assembly in Jeta Grove solemnly remains undispersed—not only the assembly on Vulture Peak!
B. Listing the Assembly as Witnesses (divided into three parts)
1. The assembly of shravakas: the noble shravakas.
2. The assembly of bodhisattvas: the noble bodhisattvas.
3. The assembly of humans and devas: the various classes of humans and devas.
1. The Assembly of Shravakas (divided into three parts)
A. Clarifying their class and number.
B. Indicating their rank and virtues.
C. Giving their names and titles.
A. Clarifying Their Class and Number
Together with an assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty great bhikshus.
Commentary: From this sentence down to the words, “together with the great assembly of devas,” is the accomplishment of the assembly.
The word “together with” has the same meaning as “in company with.”
“Great” distinguishes them from the “lesser,” and possesses three meanings: great, learned, and eminent, thereby distinguishing them from other bhikshus. The Treatise on the Buddha-Bhumi also gives three meanings.
“Bhikshu” is Sanskrit and is explained here as having three meanings: 1. Mendicant. 2. One who frightens Mara. 3. One who destroys evil.
“Sangha,” given in full according to the Sanskrit, is Sangha; the expression is abbreviated in the text. Sangha is translated into Chinese as “the harmoniously united assembly.”
“One thousand two hundred and fifty” refers to the three Kashyapas, together with Maudgalyayana and Shariputra, making five teachers. All the disciples of these five, counted together, amounted to that number—1,250. First the text states their class, the shravakas, and then states their number.
“Assembly” corresponds in meaning to “together with” in the preceding passage.
Subcommentary: Concerning the meaning of “together,” the Tiantai school explains it through seven kinds of unity: unity of place, unity of time, unity of mind, unity of precepts, unity of the path, unity of views, and unity of liberation. Although seven are named, they are all one.
That the Buddha and the great assembly were together at Jeta Grove is the main purport of this sutra, as extensively explained above.
“Distinguishes them from the lesser” means that these were not bhikshus who had only recently aroused the aspiration; they were those described later in the text as elders and so forth.
“Great, learned, and eminent” means: devas, kings, and great persons all revered them. Because their virtue was not slight, they were called great.
There was no part of either the inner canon or the outer texts that they had not thoroughly mastered. Because their learning was not meager, they were called learned.
They surpassed the ninety-six schools of non-Buddhist paths. Because their faculties were not inferior, they were called eminent. They were all supreme among followers of the Lesser Vehicle.
“The Treatise on the Buddha-Bhumi gives three meanings” means: 1. Because they possessed the sharpest faculties and the disposition for the paramitas, they were called great. 2. Because they had all attained the fruit of one beyond learning (14), they were called great. 3. Because they had formerly attained the lesser fruit but had now advanced to the fruit of great bodhi, they were called great. These statements apply generally to those of the Great Vehicle.
Bhikshu has three meanings:
1. Mendicant: this means one who begs for food and begs for the Dharma. To beg for food is to seek alms, thereby remaining far removed from the four forms of wrong livelihood and conforming to the four forms of right livelihood. One conducts no business, has no need to accumulate possessions, cuts off the myriad conditions, and single-mindedly concentrates upon cultivation. Members of the Sangha must live in this manner to nourish the body of precepts and the life of wisdom. Therefore it is said that begging for food nourishes the body.
Begging for the Dharma means seeking the Dharma: approaching teachers and questioning spiritual friends, diligently enduring hardship with utter sincerity, studying and seeking the wondrous Dharma, and aspiring to attain the noble fruit. Therefore it is said that begging for the Dharma nourishes the mind.
2. One who frightens Mara: when a person arouses the aspiration to leave the household life, the kings of the maras hear of it and become afraid. This is because they delight in attachment to the path of birth and death, whereas one who has left the household life renounces desire and is determined to reach the fruit of non-arising. The maras fear losing members of their retinue and therefore become frightened.
3. One who destroys evil: this means being able to destroy the afflictions of the mind and completely sever all ninety-eight tempters.
If the two meanings of pure precepts and pure livelihood are added, there are five meanings of bhikshu. Only three are given here because the meaning of begging for food already includes pure livelihood, while the meaning of destroying evil already includes pure precepts.
“The harmoniously united assembly” means that from four persons upward, even to an immeasurable number, all perform the same Dharma of karman and do not contend with one another. Like milk and water mingling, they are called the harmoniously united assembly.
The three Kashyapas were: 1. Uruvilva Kashyapa, who cultivated in the cave of the fire-dragon and had five hundred disciples. 2. Gaya Kashyapa, who cultivated on Mount Elephant Head and had three hundred disciples. 3. Nadi Kashyapa, who cultivated beside the Nairanjana River and had two hundred disciples.
Later, all the teachers and their disciples took refuge in the Buddha, thus making an assembly of one thousand.
Furthermore, Maudgalyayana and Shariputra had two hundred and fifty disciples, who likewise took refuge in the Buddha, bringing the number to 1,250.
Another account says that the Buddha liberated Yashas together with his teacher and fellow disciples, fifty persons in all, as well as the five brothers headed by Ajnata Kaundinya; together they made up that number.
Commentary: Why are only 1,250 people mentioned? Because this assembly constantly accompanied and dwelt together with the Buddha.
Subcommentary: “Constant attendants” means this: when the Buddha appeared in the world, he liberated immeasurably many bhikshus who attained the fruit of arhatship. Why, then, are only these people mentioned? It is because these 1,250 were the first to take refuge in the Buddha and, moreover, constantly remained with him until the Buddha entered nirvana. Therefore the 1,250 are specifically mentioned. The other disciples traveled throughout the four directions to propagate the Dharma. Although they could “converse face-to-face across a thousand miles,” according to the historical events recorded in writing, this was the customary manner of expression.
Consider the disciples of the Venerable Zhongni, Confucius: three thousand worthy and accomplished disciples are enumerated, so why are only seventy-two specifically mentioned? It is likewise because these disciples constantly remained with him beside the Si River and accompanied him through the states of Chen and Cai. They too were an assembly of constant attendants.
B. Indicating Their Rank and Virtues
They were all great arhats, known and recognized by the assembly.
Commentary: The preceding phrase indicates their rank; the following phrase indicates their virtues.
“Great” distinguishes them from shravakas who had attained only the lesser fruits. The Sanskrit arhat is translated here with three meanings: 1. Worthy of offerings. 2. Slayer of thieves. 3. Free from birth. These correspond respectively to the three fruits of being a mendicant, frightening Mara, and destroying evil, as explained above.
“Known and recognized” means that hearing of their renowned virtue is “knowing,” while seeing their persons and reverently attending upon them is “recognizing.”
Another explanation says that seeing their outward appearance is “knowing,” while seeing their minds is “recognizing.” Yet another explanation says that “knowing” is identical to “recognizing,” because they could be known and recognized by the assembly and were also those who guided the assembly.
Subcommentary: “Distinguishes” means that the first through the fourth noble fruits are all attainments of the shravakas. Here, “great arhats” indicates those who had attained the fourth shravaka fruit.
“Worthy of offerings” means this: ordinary beings lack the virtue of precepts. Those who have attained the first three noble fruits possess the virtue of precepts, but it remains limited, and they cannot yet be called “worthy of offerings.” Now their excellent practice was complete, and they had transcended the three realms. They were worthy to receive offerings from humans and devas. Therefore the Abhidharma-kosha Treatise says: “Those who make offerings to an arhat obtain blessings and reward in the present life.” Such a person is a fertile field in which humans and devas may plant the fruits of merit. Receiving offerings without shame, he is therefore called “worthy of offerings.”
As stated earlier, when he took up the alms bowl, he pledged to enable sentient beings to gain merit. Now that he has realized the path, it is proper for him to receive offerings; therefore this is called the fruit of the mendicant.
Yet the Buddha is also called Worthy of Offerings. An arhat, however, is worthy of offerings only from the human and heavenly realms. The Buddha is not only worthy of offerings from humans and devas, but is also worthy of offerings from shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas.
“Slayer of Thieves” means: The thieves of affliction plunder the wealth of merit and virtue and destroy the life of wisdom.
Although those who have attained the first three fruits of sainthood have severed the delusions of views, the delusions of thought still remain. With this fourth fruit, not only are the delusions of thought severed, but all seventy-two grades are also completely eliminated, and body and mind attain peace and tranquility. It is like eliminating all bandits, whereupon the realm enjoys great peace; hence the name Slayer of Thieves.
To reiterate, formerly evil acted as a thief; now that evil has been extinguished, this is called the fruit of Destroying Evil.
“Unborn” means: Ordinary beings undergo birth and death countless times. Those at the first fruit, stream-enterers, still undergo birth and death seven times. Those at the second fruit, once-returners, are reborn in the Desire Realm one more time. Those at the third fruit, non-returners, are not reborn in the Desire Realm, but are still born in the Form Realm. Now, with this fourth fruit, arhatship, the conditions for birth have been exhausted, and one no longer receives a body in a subsequent existence; hence it is called “unborn.”
To reiterate, formerly, when they vowed to escape birth and death, they caused Mara to become fearful. Now that they have realized the fruit of the Unborn, this is called the fruit of Frightening Mara. “Hearing the name and seeing the form” constitutes a pair concerning body and appearance. “To know” means that when people hear of an arhat, their hearts admire him and they wish to see him. “To recognize” means that when people see him face-to-face, they serve him without opposition.
“Seeing the form and seeing the mind” constitutes a pair concerning the superficial and the profound. Here, “to know” means directly beholding his physical appearance. “To recognize” means silently understanding what is within his mind through the power of knowing others’ minds. For example, two teachers set out to see the Buddha, but one died along the way. The Buddha said that the one who died had seen him first; this illustrates the meaning of seeing the mind.
“To know is to recognize” is also like saying, “Knowing and recognizing one another.” Because their virtue in the precepts is lofty, their renown is great, and their reputation resounds throughout the world, everyone has heard of and knows them; hence the phrase “known and recognized by the assembly.”
Another explanation says: Among the entire assembly, these venerable ones were known and recognized by many. They were fit to serve as the eyes and ears of humans and devas and were called guides of the assembly. The present designation “good spiritual friend” also has two meanings: 1. It is spoken in contrast to evil, for among those whom we know there are both good and evil people, whereas this person is solely a good spiritual friend. 2. This person possesses clear understanding and exceptional ability beyond the reach of others; hence he is called the most excellent among those who know and understand.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the intrinsic nature being undefiled is the meaning of arhat; the intrinsic nature being free from delusion is the meaning of one who knows and understands.
Subcommentary: When the source of mind is originally quiescent, all defilements are wholly absent; when the essence of mind remains luminous, how could any delusion exist? The Lotus Sutra calls this a true arhat. The Treatise on the Awakening of Faith calls this “true knowing and understanding.”
Those people of the Lesser Vehicle who cling to emptiness as quiescence and know only after a thought has arisen are called “arhats in name only” and “those of false knowing and understanding.” Therefore, wrong views and right views share the same essence; good and evil enter through the same gate. Only when the deluded mind is brought to an end can one penetrate the true source and perhaps become a shramana.
C. Presentation of the Names (divided into two parts)
1. Names of the Assembly: The individual names of those in the assembly.
2. General Conclusion: The concluding statement.
1. Names of the Assembly
The elders were: Shariputra, Mahamaudgalyayana, Mahakashyapa, Mahakatyayana, Mahakaushthila, Revata, Chudapanthaka, Ananda, Rahula, Gavampati, Pindola Bharadvaja, Kalodayin, Mahakapphina, Bakkula, and Aniruddha.
Commentary: An elder is one whose virtue is great, whose practice is lofty, and whose seniority in the precepts is advanced. Furthermore, one who possesses either virtue or seniority alone may also generally be called an elder; this applies throughout to the sixteen venerable ones named below...
Subcommentary: “Seniority” is reckoned from receiving the Complete Precepts; one year is called one year of seniority. Because the completion of one full year yields one year of seniority, it is also called one summer retreat, which has precisely the same meaning. “Generally called” means that, as stated above, one whose virtue and seniority are both eminent is naturally honored with the title “elder.” Here it is also said that one whose virtue surpasses the assembly, or whose seniority precedes that of others, may likewise be called an Elder.
For example, the Vibhasha Treatise distinguishes the following categories: the elder in Dharma-nature, referring to age in the Way, and the elder in years of life, referring to worldly age. Moreover, the Tang-dynasty translation of this sutra renders the title as “Endowed with Longevity,” meaning complete in both virtue and seniority. The Wei-dynasty translation renders it as “Wisdom-Life,” referring specifically to virtue.
Although one possessing virtue alone or seniority alone may be called an Elder, surely it is better to possess virtue without seniority than merely to possess seniority without virtue!
“Throughout those named below” means that the designation “elder” applies not only to Shariputra alone, but also to Aniruddha and all the others. They are all called Elders and were all foremost disciples of the Buddha.
Commentary: Shariputra is a Sanskrit name. The Sanskrit word “Shari” is translated into Chinese as “autumn egret.” The Sanskrit word “putra,” which we pronounce “Phất,” is translated into Chinese as “son.” Thus his name means “Son of the Autumn Egret.” He is also called “Son of the Body” and “Son of the Pearl”... Among the Buddha’s disciples, he was foremost in wisdom. Calling him foremost indicates only one of his virtues. The Analects says, “The noble person is not a mere utensil”; how much more is this true of an arhat, who possesses many exceptional abilities through the transformations of the six superknowledges!
Subcommentary: “Son of the Autumn Egret”: His mother had a well-proportioned and beautiful figure, and her eyes were as clear as those of an autumn egret. Because he was named after his mother, he was called the son of Lady Autumn Egret, or the son of Lady Shari...
“Son of the Body” means that he possessed a well-proportioned and handsome body.
“Son of the Pearl” means that his eyes were bright and clear. He had many other names, but since they are not pertinent here, they are not extensively cited. The venerable ones named afterward are to be understood in the same way: each had many individual names and virtues, of which only one or two are cited here.
“Wisdom”: While he was still in his mother’s womb, his presence enabled her powers of debate to surpass those of her younger brother. At the age of eight, he ascended the debating seat, and the debaters of the sixteen great kingdoms could not surpass him. After studying the Buddha-Dharma for seven days, he had already penetrated it thoroughly; hence he was called “foremost in wisdom.”
“Indicating only one virtue” means that it is not the case that, apart from the Son of Shari, all the other arhats were deficient in wisdom. Nor was the Son of Shari alone endowed with wisdom while the others were not!
Rather, only one virtue is mentioned for each venerable one in order to reveal that the Buddha’s Dharma-gates are immeasurable. It also serves to indicate the particular ability in which each excelled.
For example, a sutra relates that Shariputra sat silently in meditation. Maudgalyayana wished to break his meditative concentration, so he stood up and exerted all his spiritual power, yet he could not move even the corner of Shariputra’s robe.
From ancient times to the present, everyone has commonly praised Maudgalyayana as foremost in spiritual powers, yet who would have imagined that Shariputra’s spiritual powers were so great!
“The noble person is not a mere utensil” means: Confucius said, “A boat cannot travel on land, and a cart cannot run through water; such things are utensils. A noble person possesses many abilities and is not as limited as a mere utensil. How, then, could one say that Master Yan Hui and Master Min Ziqian lacked literary accomplishment, or that Master Ziyou and Master Zixia were deficient in virtuous conduct?” If this is true even of noble persons, how much more must it be true of those who have transcended the ordinary and entered sagehood, in whom the Dharma of the Three Knowledges (15) shines brilliantly and the Dharma of the Six Superknowledges (16) is perfectly penetrating, and who are called arhats who have exhausted the outflows? Therefore it is said, “Only one virtue is indicated.”
Commentary: Shariputra is named first because only those endowed with wisdom can understand and believe this sutra.
Commentary: The sutra says: “The Buddha, for the sake of sentient beings, expounded this Dharma that is difficult to believe.” Since it is difficult to believe, only those of profound wisdom can believe without doubt; therefore, he is mentioned first.
Someone may raise this objection: In the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra, the Buddha addressed Sariputra alone, which shows that his wisdom clearly comprehended the principle of emptiness, not the Dharma of the Pure Land. Alas! Form is precisely emptiness, and emptiness is precisely form. Does this not also mean that the Pure Land is precisely emptiness, and emptiness is precisely the Pure Land? If one rejects the Pure Land, that is not true emptiness; if one does not understand the principle of true emptiness, one is not a person of right wisdom. How much less could Sariputra’s wisdom ever be like that!
Explanation: Maha Maudgalyayana: “Maha” is translated as Great. “Maudgalyayana” is translated as Descendant of the Bean-Eating Clan. Another rendering is Kolita. He was foremost in supernormal powers.
Commentary: Maudgalyayana was his clan name, and Kolita was his personal name. Kolita was the name of a kind of tree. Following custom, his parents prayed to the deity dwelling in that tree and, as a result, he was born; therefore, they named him Kolita after the tree. Moreover, because many people shared this clan name, the word Great was added to distinguish him.
“Supernormal powers” refers to such deeds as these: When the Buddha ascended to the Trayastrimsa Heaven to expound the Dharma, a venomous dragon exhaled poisonous breath to obstruct him. The bhiksus asked to subdue the venomous dragon, but the Buddha did not permit them. Maudgalyayana transformed his body, making it immense, minute, and so forth.
The venomous dragon became terrified and submitted (17). Again, when a group of non-Buddhist ascetics exercised their arts to move a mountain, he restrained it and prevented it from moving (18). He gathered the entire Sakya clan from within a city into his alms bowl and carried them to the Brahma Heaven (19).
There were also such deeds as seizing Jivaka’s chariot and setting fire to Sakra’s celestial palace (20), and so forth. All these deeds were performed through supernormal powers; therefore, he was said to be foremost in supernormal powers.
Explanation: Maha Kasyapa is translated here into Chinese as Great Turtle Clan. Another rendering is Light-Drinker. He was foremost in the practice of dhutanga.
Commentary: Great Turtle Clan means that in a former life, while studying the Way, he encountered a numinous turtle emerging from a river bearing a diagram upon its back; he therefore took this as his clan name. His personal name was Pippala, which was also the name of a tree, because his parents had prayed for a child at that tree. The word Great was added to distinguish him from others with the same name, such as the other three Kasyapas.
Light-Drinker means that in a former life, when he was a craftsman of gold and silver wares, he and a pure woman together brought forth the resolve to cover a Buddha image with gold. As karmic recompense, in life after life his body possessed a golden hue. Its brilliant golden radiance outshone and enveloped all other colors; therefore, he was named Light-Drinker—his light swallowed all other lights.
The Sanskrit term “dhutanga” is translated into Chinese as “shaking off,” or as “casting away and refining.” There are twelve dhutanga practices: 1. Aranya: dwelling in a secluded place. 2. Always going on almsround, and so forth, through the twelfth practice, possessing only three robes. Through these ascetic practices, one sweeps away all defilements of worldly entanglement and purifies body and mind.
Although Kasyapa had grown old, he did not abandon the dhutanga practices. The Buddha, out of concern for his frailty, advised him to rest, yet he continued to maintain the dhutanga practices just as before. The Buddha praised him highly, saying: “Only when the dhutanga practices remain will my Dharma long endure.” Therefore, he was said to be foremost in dhutanga.
Explanation: Maha Katyayana was his clan name, translated into Chinese as Literary Adornment. Another rendering is Unfixed; another is Fan-Cord; and another is Transcending Existence and Nonexistence, and so forth. He was a brahmin from southern India and was foremost in debate.
Commentary: Literary Adornment means that his speech possessed literary grace and fluency. In general, although a debater may inwardly understand the principle, if he speaks only in commonplace language devoid of refinement, or if his sentences are disjointed and unpolished, his words will fail to convey his meaning. Such a person is not a skilled debater!
Unfixed refers to the quick wit of a skilled debater: whether presenting a proposition directly or arguing it in reverse, his words were equally coherent and skillful.
Fan-Cord refers to the fact that his mother wished to remarry but was bound by her young son—namely, him—just as a fan is held by its cord and prevented from being blown away by the wind. Fan-Cord also means dispelling oppressive heat and straightening what is crooked. It likewise signifies neither clinging to annihilationism—the view of nonexistence—nor falling into eternalism—the view of existence, but revealing the principle of the Middle Way in order to escape the two afflictions of attachment to existence and attachment to nonexistence.
For example, non-Buddhist ascetics asked: Since people who have died are never seen returning, we conclude that there is no afterlife. If the dead were suffering, they ought to return and inform us! Yet they remain there enduring it and do not return; therefore, it is certain that there is no afterlife.
He replied: Consider a criminal imprisoned in a dungeon—would he be able to return?
They further asked: Then why do those reborn in the heavens also fail to return?
He replied: Suppose someone fell into a cesspit and then managed to climb out. Would that person be willing to descend once more into that filthy place?
In this manner, he was able to explain each and every subtle principle. In the Ekottara Agama Sutra, the Buddha praised him as one skilled in discerning various meanings and expounding the teachings of the Way; therefore, he was said to be foremost in debate.
Explanation: Maha Kausila, translated into Chinese as Great Knees, was Sariputra’s maternal uncle. He was foremost in answering questions.
Commentary: Great Knees was a name based on his physical appearance. Whose uncle was he? He was the younger brother of Sariputra’s mother. Formerly, he had been more skilled in debate than his elder sister. When she became pregnant with Sariputra, however, her powers of reasoning and eloquence grew so swift that he could no longer match her. Great Knees became indignant and departed to study so diligently that he had no leisure even to cut his fingernails. He mastered the eighteen categories of scriptures and treatises...
His ability to answer questions arose because his exceptional diligence enabled him to attain the four kinds of unhindered eloquence. Whenever anyone asked him a question, he could answer immediately; therefore, he was said to be foremost in answering questions.
Explanation: Revata is translated into Chinese as Constellation. Another rendering is the Lunar Mansion Śatabhiṣaj. He was foremost in being “free from confusion and disorder.”
Commentary: Constellation means that, following custom, his parents prayed for a child to this star, and after he was born, they named him after it. The Lunar Mansion Śatabhiṣaj means that among the twenty-eight lunar mansions, Śatabhiṣaj is the thirteenth. Perhaps his parents had performed rites and prayed to this star. “Free from confusion and disorder” means that because his mind was upright, it was not inverted, and because his mind was concentrated, it was not scattered. Therefore, he was said to be “foremost in being free from confusion and disorder.”
Explanation: Cudapanthaka is translated into Chinese as Successor on the Road. Another rendering is Younger One Born by the Roadside. Having memorized only half a verse, he awakened and attained the fruit of arhatship.
Commentary: Successor on the Road means that when his mother was pregnant with him, according to Indian custom she had to return to her parents’ home to give birth. She gave birth to him halfway there; because the journey had dragged on while she was on the road, he was named Successor on the Road.
Younger One Born by the Roadside means that his mother bore two sons, each of whom was born along the road. He was therefore called Younger One Born by the Roadside to distinguish him from his elder brother, the Elder One Born by the Roadside.
“Half a verse” means that after he left the household life, his faculties were dull and obscure. Although he remained at the monastery for a very long time, he learned nothing at all. His elder brother, who had entered the Way before him, rebuked him for his ignorance and expelled him to return to lay life. He leaned against the monastery gate, lamenting and weeping. Seeing this, the Buddha took pity on him, accepted him back, and taught him the two words: “Sweep, broom” (21). Every day he recited these two words, but when he remembered one, he forgot the other. After reciting them for a long time, he suddenly awakened: his defilements were cleansed, his delusions eliminated, and he attained the fruit of arhatship.
Explanation: Nanda is translated into Chinese as Good Joy. He was Nanda the Cowherd.
Commentary: Nanda the Cowherd (22): There were three persons named Nanda: 1. Ananda; 2. Sundarananda; and, together with this one, three in all. The designation Cowherd was used to distinguish him from the other two.
Commentary: Ananda is translated into Chinese as “Rejoicing,” and also as “Unstained.” He was the son of the Buddha’s paternal uncle. He was foremost in learning.
When this sutra was taught, Ananda, together with the great assembly, heard the teaching of the Pure Land Dharma-gate. Yet he alone possessed the power of complete retention, remembering it for a long time without forgetting, and he compiled it into the Sutra-pitaka.
Subcommentary: He was called “Rejoicing” because the day of his birth coincided with the day the Buddha attained enlightenment. The king, the officials, and the people heard, on the one hand, that Prince Siddhartha, the son of the king’s elder brother, had become a Buddha, and, on the other, that a prince had been born in the palace to the king’s younger brother. Both events were auspicious and difficult to encounter, yet both occurred at the same time. The entire country rejoiced, and so he was named Rejoicing. Furthermore, whoever saw his appearance, heard his voice, or beheld his dignified bearing invariably rejoiced.
“Unstained” means that when he followed the Buddha up to the heavenly palaces and down to the dragon palaces, his mind did not delight in or become attached to them. This was also one of his distinctive qualities.
“The son of the Buddha’s paternal uncle”: The Buddha was the son of King Suddhodana, while Ananda was the son of King Suklodana; the two kings were blood brothers.
“Learned”: Ananda served as the Buddha’s attendant for thirty years, and of all the teachings spoken by the Buddha, he did not forget a single word. The Nirvana Sutra praises him as foremost in learning. Mahakasyapa also praised him, saying, “The Buddha’s Dharma is like the waters of the great ocean, all flowing together into Ananda’s mind!”
“They heard together, but he alone remembered”: This specifically indicates that his prodigious memory surpassed that of the others; therefore, he is said to have been foremost in learning.
Commentary: Rahula is translated into Chinese as “Obstructing Cover,” and also as “Seizing the Sun.” He was foremost in hidden practice.
Subcommentary: “Obstructing Cover” is the name of an asura. Because Rahula was born when an asura was covering the light of the sun and moon with his hands, he was named Obstructing Cover and also Seizing the Sun. However, “obstruction” has two meanings: 1.
He obstructed the Buddha, preventing him from leaving the household life sooner. Since the prince—the future Buddha—did not yet have a son, when he asked permission to go forth, his royal father would not allow it. The prince had to point to his wife’s womb to indicate her condition.
Only when the king learned that she was pregnant did he permit the prince to fulfill his original aspiration. Thus, the Buddha was obstructed by Rahula. 2. In a previous life Rahula blocked a mouse hole for six days; consequently, in this life he received the retribution of remaining in his mother’s womb for six years.
Thus, he obstructed himself.
“Hidden practice”: The sutra says, “Only I, the Buddha, know Rahula’s hidden practices.” If only the Buddha knew them, it is evident that even the sravakas and bodhisattvas could not know them, much less ordinary beings. Because he possessed many virtuous practices unknown to others, he alone was said to be foremost in hidden practice.
Commentary: Kaundinya Gavampati is translated into Chinese as “Ox-Rumination.” He was foremost in receiving offerings from the devas.
Subcommentary: “Ox-Rumination” means that in a past life he mocked an old, toothless sramana whose mouth moved as he chewed. He therefore received the retribution in this life of having a mouth that moved like that of a ruminating ox. Moreover, he had undergone the retribution of being an ox for five hundred lifetimes. After eating, an ox repeatedly chews its cud. The residual retribution had not yet been exhausted, and so he was named Ox-Rumination.
“Offerings from the devas”: During the period when the Buddha and the Sangha underwent the retribution of eating horse fodder (23), he alone dwelt in the heavens, in the Sirisa Garden, where he received offerings from the devas. Moreover, ordinary people did not know how to discern and revere virtue. They saw only his ruminating appearance and often slighted him. Fearing that they would incur offenses by ridiculing him, the Buddha instructed him to dwell continually in the heavens. The devas revered and served him; therefore, he alone was said to be foremost in receiving offerings from the devas.
Commentary: Pindola Bharadvaja: the first three syllables are translated into Chinese as “Immovable,” his given name; the final three as “Sharp Faculties,” his family name.
Subcommentary: His given name precedes his family name because that clan had as many as eighteen branches. His given name was therefore placed first and his family name afterward to distinguish him from members of the other branches. The Vinaya says: “A wealthy elder named Jyotiska placed a sandalwood bowl atop a banner pole and made this pledge to the Sangha: ‘Whichever venerable one can obtain it by means of spiritual power, I shall offer that bowl to him.’ The venerable one manifested spiritual powers, flew up, and took the bowl.
When the Buddha heard of this, he reproached him and commanded him not to enter final nirvana, but to prolong his life and remain throughout the Dharma-ending age, serving as a great field of merit for benefactors. When sentient beings make offerings to him, this is called planting wholesome seeds.”
Commentary: Kalodayin is translated into Chinese as “Black Radiance,” meaning that his dark skin shone lustrously.
Subcommentary: He was called Black Radiance because his complexion was unattractive and dark. Yet his dark skin also shone with a luster unlike ordinary darkness. Consequently, when he went begging for alms at night, those who saw him were frightened. The Buddha therefore established a precept forbidding alms-rounds at night.
Commentary: Mahakapphina is translated into Chinese as “Phalguni Constellation.” He was foremost in knowledge of the constellations.
Subcommentary: The Phalguni Constellation is the fourth of the twenty-eight constellations. His parents prayed to this constellation and, as a result, gave birth to him. Another account says that when he had first gone forth and wished to visit the Buddha, rain overtook him midway. He stopped to eat and lodge overnight in a potter’s house. By coincidence, a bhiksu also came to lodge in the same house; this bhiksu was a manifestation of the Buddha. That night, he heard the bhiksu teach the Dharma and immediately attained the Way. Thus, “Phalguni Constellation” also carries the meaning of lodging overnight in a potter’s house.
“Knowledge of the constellations” means that without relying upon the celestial globe and jade sighting-tube, he thoroughly understood celestial patterns and stellar phenomena. Therefore, he was said to be foremost in knowledge of the constellations.
Commentary: Bakkula is translated into Chinese as “Excellent Countenance.” He was foremost in longevity.
Subcommentary: He was called Excellent Countenance because his features were upright and handsome. “Longevity”: Because he lived to the age of 160, he was said to be foremost in longevity. In a previous life he observed the precept against killing and thereby obtained a long life, free from premature death. For ninety-one kalpas, he enjoyed such longevity. Furthermore, in a previous life he once offered a haritaki fruit to an ill monk, and thereby received the recompense of five kinds of immunity from death.
When he was newly born, he displayed unusual signs. His mother thought he was a demon and placed him on a griddle to roast him to death, but he did not die. She then put him in a steamer to cook him to death, but he still did not die. She then cast him into a river, where a great fish swallowed him. The fish was subsequently caught in a net. When a fisherman cut open the fish with a knife, Bakkula emerged entirely unharmed. To restate them: 1. Fire could not roast him. 2. Boiling water could not cook him. 3. River water could not drown him. 4. Being swallowed by a fish could not kill him. 5. A knife could not harm him. These were called the five kinds of immunity from death.
Furthermore, he delighted in secluded places, had few desires, and restrained the six sense faculties. Therefore, after he entered nirvana, even his stupa refused to accept money offered by the king (24). Because in ordinary life he delighted in secluded places and would not remain amid crowds, fearing contamination by contentious talk of right and wrong, he was also acclaimed as foremost in this respect.
Commentary: Anuruddha, also called Aniruddha, is translated into Chinese as “Free from Poverty,” “Unceasing,” and “As Wished.” He was foremost in the divine eye.
Subcommentary: As for “Free from Poverty,” in a former life, during a famine, he offered a meal of millet to a pratyekabuddha. Consequently, for ninety-one kalpas he enjoyed blessings, his wealth overflowed abundantly, and even to the present his resources have never been exhausted. Whatever he sought was obtained according to his wishes.
Therefore, the three meanings—Free from Poverty, Unceasing, and As One Wishes—have all been translated. As for his being foremost in the divine eye: after he had gone forth, he was by nature fond of sleeping. Whenever the Buddha taught the Dharma, everyone else listened attentively, but he continued nodding off, knowing nothing of what was said.
The Buddha reproached him and compared him to snails and clams. Angry with himself, he immediately resolved to practice diligently for seven days and nights without closing his eyes, and both his eyes became blind. The Buddha then instructed him to cultivate the “Delightful Vision, Luminous Vajra Samadhi.” He immediately attained the divine eye, seeing throughout the great trichiliocosm as clearly as one sees a fruit placed in the palm of one’s hand.
Therefore, he was said to be “foremost in the divine eye.”
2. General Conclusion
Thus were all the great disciples.
Commentary: “Thus” concludes the preceding passage. “All” refers to those persons. “Great” encompasses the meanings of “great” in the preceding passage. “Disciples”: those who learn after the teacher are called disciples, and because their understanding is born from the teacher, they are called children. Regarding such a distinguished assembly, it may be said: “It is difficult to be the younger brother and difficult to be the elder brother; they skillfully carry on what was skillfully established.”
Subcommentary: “Concludes the preceding passage” refers to the enumeration of the others. First, the sixteen Venerable Ones were concluded; afterward, the one thousand two hundred and fifty persons were enumerated.
“Encompasses the meanings of ‘great’ in the preceding passage” means that the phrase “great disciples” here includes the preceding phrases “great bhiksus” and “great arhats.” Thus, the single word “great” here encompasses the meanings of both instances of “great” in the preceding passage.
“Learn after the teacher” means that the teacher knows first and the student knows afterward, just as an elder brother comes before and a younger brother afterward. “Understanding is born from the teacher” means that only through the teacher’s instruction and nurturing does one become a vessel of the Dharma. As it is said: “Born from the Buddha’s mouth, they shall perpetuate and cause the lineage of the Buddha to flourish.” It is like parents giving birth to children, who will continue to honor and succeed their ancestors.
“Difficult to be the elder brother and difficult to be the younger brother” refers to an ancient saying that Yuanfang was difficult to equal as an elder brother, while Jifang was difficult to equal as a younger brother. This means that both brothers possessed extraordinary talent and wisdom, with neither superior nor inferior to the other. Here, however, that meaning is not intended. It is merely an approximate analogy in which the Buddha is the elder brother and the arhats are the younger brothers, for both are difficult to encounter in the world, yet both are now encountered.
“They skillfully establish and skillfully carry on” refers to the ancient account in which King Wen and Wang Ji were fathers who established things first, while King Wu was the son who continued them afterward. Here, however, that meaning is likewise not intended. It is merely an approximate analogy in which the Buddha is the father and the arhats are the children, because the Way of teacher and disciples is in harmony.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the self-nature, the mind-kings, and the mental factors perfectly interpenetrate; this is the meaning of the Buddha and his disciples assembling together.
Subcommentary: The Tiantai Master said: “The mind-king is the Tathagata, and the mental factors are the disciples.” This is now explained as follows: the mind-kings are the eight consciousnesses. These eight mind-kings act as the governing agents in the revolving cycle of good and evil, just as a king governs his subjects or a teacher instructs his students.
The mental factors are the fifty-one mental concomitants. These fifty-one mental factors have three meanings:
1. They always rely upon the mind-kings in order to arise.
2. They correspond with the mind-kings.
3. They are subordinate to the mind-kings. In relation to the eight mind-kings, they are like ministers attending a king or disciples serving a teacher.
Furthermore, Master Zhijue said: “The ten great sravakas are all the ten wholesome mental factors of one’s own mind” (the ten figures, from the first, foremost in learning, through the tenth, foremost in the divine eye).
A verse in the Abhidharma Treatise says: 1. the mental factor of desire; 2. the mental factor of perception; 3. the mental factor of delight; 4. the mental factor of wisdom; 5. the mental factor of mindfulness; 6. the mental factor of volition; 7. the mental factor of liberation; 8. the mental factor of attention together with its object (contact); 9. the mental factor of samadhi (concentration); and 10. the mental factor of sensation. One should know that Mahakasyapa represents the “mental factor of desire,” because he retained only the Dharma of renunciation, generated the wholesome supramundane desire for liberation, and abandoned the unwholesome desires of the world.
Purna represents the “mental factor of perception,” because only through perceiving characteristics can one exercise unobstructed discernment and eloquence.
Katyayana represents the “mental factor of delight,” because in questions and answers, through the rapid exchange of many lines of reasoning, his discourse and debate were inexhaustible. Continuing thus, the “mental factor of wisdom” is Sariputra; the “mental factor of mindfulness” is Upali; the “mental factor of volition” is Rahula; the “mental factor of liberation” is Subhuti; the “mental factor of attention” is Aniruddha; the “mental factor of samadhi” is Maudgalyayana; and the “mental factor of sensation” is Ananda, and so forth.
“Sensation” means feeling and has the meaning of receiving and apprehending.
“The mind-kings must possess the mental factors”: the mental factors must necessarily follow and submit to the mind-kings. Only when the two assist one another can awakening be attained. Yet neither the mind-kings nor the mental factors lie outside one’s own single mind. If one attains one-pointedness of mind, both the mind-kings and the mental factors are encompassed within it.
2. The Assembly of Bodhisattvas (Divided into Three Parts)
A. Clarifying the category: explaining their class.
B. Listing the names: stating their names.
C. General conclusion: concluding them collectively.
A. Clarifying the Category
Together with all the bodhisattva-mahasattvas.
Commentary: “Together with” continues from the preceding passage, indicating that when the Buddha taught this sutra, not only did the sravakas attend the assembly, but the Great Beings also heard together this Dharma of “upholding the Name and being mindful of the Buddha.”
“Bodhisattva” is a Sanskrit term. In full, it is Bodhisattva, an abbreviation being used here. Chinese translates it as “an awakening sentient being.” “Awakening sentient being” further has three meanings and also carries the meaning of courageously seeking. “Mahasattva” is translated into Chinese as “a sentient being with a great mind for the Way,” because such a being possesses the four meanings of greatness. The Lotus Sutra further gives six meanings of greatness, while the Treatise on the Buddha Grounds gives three meanings of greatness; these likewise do not go beyond the four meanings. “Bodhisattva-mahasattva” is equivalent to saying “a great bodhisattva among bodhisattvas,” distinguishing such a one from lesser bodhisattvas.
Subcommentary: “Not only the sravakas” means that the sages and noble ones of both the Mahayana and the Hinayana all heard this sutra together. One must not mistakenly suppose that the Pure Land is a place in which bodhisattvas have no interest!
An “awakening sentient being” shares in realizing what the Buddha realized; this is called “awakening.” Yet because ignorance has not been completely exhausted, such a one is called a “sentient being.”
It further has three meanings: 1. The meaning of “being the objects of compassion and wisdom.” “Awakening” refers to the Buddha Way that is cultivated, while “sentient beings” refers to the beings who are delivered. This means that above, one uses wisdom to seek the fruit of Buddhahood, while below, one uses compassion to rescue and deliver sentient beings. 2. The meaning of “the seeker and the sought being united as one.” “Awakening” is the fruit that is sought, while “sentient beings” are those who seek it. This means using one’s own mind to seek realization of the Buddha’s principle.
3. The meaning that “benefiting beings is urgent,” namely, universally awakening all sentient beings. Thus it is said: “Before one is able to deliver oneself, one first strives to deliver others.” This is the meaning here.
“Courageously seeking” means that sravakas seek a place of stillness in order to enjoy peace for themselves alone, and the Buddha calls them indolent men. Great Beings, however, firmly resolve to realize the fruit of bodhi; therefore, they are described as great, powerful generals who are diligent and courageous.
“Great has four meanings”: Master Qingliang’s commentary states:
1. Great vows, because they seek to attain the fruit of bodhi.
2. Great practice, because they accomplish the two benefits: benefiting oneself and benefiting others.
3. Great duration, because throughout three incalculable kalpas, they continue striving in their cultivation until accomplishment. 4. Great virtue, because they fully possess all the merits and virtues of the One Vehicle.
The Lotus Sutra teaches six meanings of greatness:
1. Faith in the great Dharma (faith in the Mahayana Dharma)
2. Understanding the great meaning (understanding the meaning of the Mahayana)
3. Generating the great mind (generating the Mahayana mind)
4. Proceeding toward the great fruit (reaching the Mahayana fruit)
5. Cultivating the great practice (cultivating the Mahayana practice)
6. Realizing the great Way (realizing the Mahayana Way).
However, these three great qualities—Faith, Understanding, and Arousing the Aspiration—are included in the first meaning, the Great Vow. Convergence is included in the third meaning, Great Time. Practice is included in the second meaning, Great Conduct. Realization is included in the fourth meaning, Great Virtue.
The Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi gives three meanings of greatness: 1. Greatness of Number. 2. Greatness of Virtue. 3. Greatness of Activity. Greatness of Virtue is readily understood; Greatness of Number corresponds to the meaning of the Great Vow, while Greatness of Activity corresponds to the meaning of Great Conduct. Therefore, it is said that these do not go beyond the four meanings.
“Distinguishing them as not belonging to the Lesser Vehicle” means that Mañjuśrī, Maitreya, and the others are all Mahayana bodhisattvas occupying the stages of the Ten Bhūmis and Equal Enlightenment; they are not beginning bodhisattvas at the five grades of Faith, Abiding, Practice, Dedication, and Bodhisattvahood.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the true and the deluded within the self-nature interpenetrate without obstruction: this is the meaning of bodhisattva.
Subcommentary: The true nature remains unchanged, yet accords with conditions to become the eight consciousnesses: this is the meaning of awakening sentient beings. The deluded consciousness performs all activities, yet its fundamental essence remains unattached: this is the meaning that sentient beings possess the nature of enlightenment. The true and the deluded are not separately established; they are solely the one mind. One who perfects this mind of the Great Way is called a Mahāsattva.
B. Enumeration of Names
Mañjuśrī, Prince of the Dharma King; Bodhisattva Ajita; Bodhisattva Gandhahastin; and Bodhisattva Nityodyukta.
Commentary: Mañjuśrī is translated into Chinese as “Wondrous Head”; it is also translated as “Wondrous Auspiciousness” and as “Wondrous Virtue.”
“Prince of the Dharma King” means that the Buddha occupies the position of Dharma King, while a bodhisattva who enters the rightful position of the Dharma is called a Prince of the Dharma King.
Moreover, Mañjuśrī is named first among the bodhisattvas, corresponding in meaning to the preceding passage in which, among the śrāvakas, the Buddha addressed Śāriputra.
Subcommentary: Mañjuśrī is also rendered Mañjuśrī, or “Wondrous Head,” and so forth. According to the Huayan school, three Dharma gates are set forth: Faith, Practice, and Wisdom. “Wondrous Head” represents the Dharma gate of Faith, because faith is foremost among the myriad practices and myriad virtues. “Wondrous Auspiciousness” represents the Dharma gate of Practice.
The Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi says: “Because all beings throughout the world draw near to him, make offerings to him, and praise him, he is called Wondrous Auspiciousness.”
Paramārtha also said: “Whether encountering enemies or friends, he always acts to benefit them and never causes harm or affliction; therefore, he is called Wondrous Auspiciousness.” Moreover, at his birth there were ten auspicious signs, from the first—the radiance that filled the house—to the tenth—an elephant growing six tusks (25). Therefore, he is called Wondrous Auspiciousness. This is “Understanding” embodied in “Practice.”
The “Dharma gate of Wondrous Virtue” is Wisdom. The sutra says, “Wisdom is the mother of all Buddhas.” As the teacher of Śākyamuni, how could he not be Wondrous Virtue? This is “Practice” embodied in “Understanding.”
“To enter the rightful position of the Dharma” means that the Tathagata relies upon the ultimate truth of the Middle Way, and bodhisattvas who enter that position are said to perpetuate the flourishing lineage of the Buddhas and to be destined to succeed to Buddhahood. It is like a great sovereign who accords with primal virtue and occupies the rightful throne: after begetting a crown prince, he establishes him in the Eastern Palace, from which he will later succeed to the rightful throne and become ruler of the nation. Therefore, he is called a Prince of the Dharma King and is also called a Buddha-son. The meaning here is the same.
All bodhisattvas are Princes of the Dharma King; why, then, is Mañjuśrī alone so designated? Patriarch Jingxi said: “Among all the princes, in virtue all defer to Mañjuśrī.”
Other sutras also say: “Because Mañjuśrī always serves as the foremost among all bodhisattvas.”
Just as Śāriputra, the Son of Śāri, was foremost in wisdom, Mañjuśrī alone is honored for his great wisdom, as explained in the preceding passage. Only those endowed with wisdom can accept and believe this sutra. Furthermore, when analyzed distinctly, the Son of Śāri represents expedient wisdom, while Mañjuśrī represents true wisdom.
Expedient wisdom speaks, on the level of phenomena, of birth in the Pure Land; true wisdom speaks, on the level of principle, of the unborn nature of the Pure Land. Those of dull faculties enter the true through the expedient. Those of sharp faculties simultaneously comprehend and interpenetrate both the expedient and the true.
If this is traced back to its ultimate source, the Sutra of the Realm of Inconceivability says: “There were also hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭis of bodhisattvas who manifested in the bodies of śrāvakas and came to the Dharma assembly; their names included Śāriputra,” and so forth. Thus Mañjuśrī and the Son of Śāri alike possess extremely profound wisdom. All the more should it be understood that this sutra cannot be believed by those of shallow wisdom.
Commentary: Ajita is translated into Chinese as “Invincible” and refers to Bodhisattva Maitreya.
Subcommentary: Maitreya, translated into Chinese as “Of the Clan of Loving-Kindness,” is his family name, while Ajita is his personal name. His full name should therefore be rendered “Loving-Kindness Invincible.” Because he already possessed a loving heart while in his mother’s womb, “Loving-Kindness” was adopted as his family name. Moreover, in a past life he encountered the Tathagata Great Loving-Kindness and vowed to bear the same name; he then attained the samādhi of the Dharma of the Loving Heart.
In another former life, he was a brahmin teacher named Omniscient Wisdom and cultivated loving-kindness for eight thousand years. Furthermore, during the age of Buddha Puṣya, he and Śākyamuni Tathagata both aroused the bodhicitta and constantly cultivated the samādhi of loving-kindness. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā also says: “When sentient beings see him, they immediately attain the samādhi of the Loving Heart.”
The Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka Sutra also says: “He vowed to protect sentient beings during the kalpa of warfare.” Thus his loving-kindness suffuses the present age, while his compassion extends throughout the ages to come. Because his loving-kindness is so supreme that it surpasses that of ordinary beings and followers of the Lesser Vehicle, he is called Invincible, meaning that none can surpass him.
Commentary: Furthermore, since Maitreya has heard this sutra, he will surely teach it at the Dragon-Flower Assembly (26). Thus it should be known that the transmission of this sutra will continue without end.
Subcommentary: Question: How can it be known with certainty that this will be so? Answer: The Lotus Sutra says: “When an ancient Buddha emitted such radiance, it was in order to teach this sutra.” Now the present Buddha also emits such radiance; therefore, we know with certainty that it is likewise for teaching this sutra. Thus every Buddha teaches the Lotus Sutra. This sutra, the Amitābha Sutra, is an urgently needed Dharma for liberating sentient beings and is praised in common by all Buddhas. Since all Buddhas praise it in common, they must surely also proclaim it in common. Therefore, we know that this sutra will certainly be taught at the Dragon-Flower Assembly. How could there be any doubt?
Commentary: Gandhahastin is translated into Chinese as “Never Resting.”
Subcommentary: “Never Resting” means that he cultivated wholesome practices for kalpas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges River, and only afterward received a prediction of Buddhahood. Throughout so many kalpas, he never once ceased or rested.
Commentary: Nityodyukta, “Constantly Vigorous,” has two meanings: 1. The Tiantai Master said: “Because he sees the Dharma-nature as eternally abiding, he cultivates the Dharma of Non-action and Right Diligence.” 2. The Ratnakūṭa Sutra says: “For the sake of a single sentient being who was difficult to liberate, this bodhisattva followed him for immeasurable kalpas without ceasing. Although that sentient being was stubborn and obstinate and refused to heed his instruction and transformation, the bodhisattva never had a single thought of abandoning him.” This is truly the utmost vigor.
Subcommentary: The two meanings are:
1. Self-benefit: Wholesome states not yet arisen are caused to increase and grow; wholesome states already arisen are carefully preserved. Unwholesome states not yet arisen are prevented from arising; unwholesome states that have already arisen through error are swiftly eliminated. These are called the Four Right Efforts. Yet to speak of seeing the nature as Non-action is to understand clearly that the Dharma-nature is fundamentally neither wholesome nor unwholesome. Although one speaks of “cultivating the wholesome,” it is cultivation without anything being cultivated. Although one speaks of “abandoning the unwholesome,” it is abandonment without anything being abandoned. This means that when not a single deluded thought arises, that itself is true vigor.
2. Benefiting others: To liberate many sentient beings is still not considered difficult; what is spoken of here is doing so solely for the sake of a single sentient being—this is truly difficult. To act for a single sentient being for only a brief moment is still not considered difficult; what is spoken of here is doing so throughout immeasurable kalpas—this is truly difficult.
To do so for many kalpas when encountering someone easy to transform is still not considered difficult; what is spoken of here is refusing to abandon even one person who will not accept transformation—this is truly difficult. Not abandoning such a person is still not considered difficult; what is spoken of here is never having even a single thought of abandonment—this is truly difficult. Persisting in such diligence without the slightest regression is therefore called “Constant.”
Moreover, Bodhisattva Never Resting is precisely Bodhisattva Constantly Diligent, and Bodhisattva Constantly Diligent is precisely Bodhisattva Never Resting. Although these two Bodhisattvas have different names, they share the same virtue.
C. General Conclusion
Dữ như thị đẳng chư đại Bồ Tát (Together with other such great Bodhisattvas)
Commentary: This concludes the preceding passage, and the same pattern applies to all the others. In this very sutra, they represent the three gates of Faith, Practice, and Vow, which constitute the causes of the Pure Land.
Subcommentary: “The same as before” means that the preceding passage concludes with Manjusri, Maitreya, and the others. “The same pattern applies to all the others” means that Samantabhadra, Avalokitesvara, and all other classes of Bodhisattvas are likewise included.
Faith, Practice, and Vow: Wondrous Chief, Manjusri, represents the Dharma gate of Faith, because seeking rebirth in the Pure Land begins with the mind of faith. The sutra says: “If there are those who have faith—this is what is required.”
Bodhisattva Diligent represents the Dharma gates of Vow and Practice. “Pure” means unmixed; “advancing” means non-retrogression. “Unmixed” refers to the sutra’s words, “single-minded and undisturbed.” “Non-retrogression” refers to the sutra’s words, “never retreating from bodhi.” Bodhisattva Never Resting embodies the meaning of non-retrogression.
Moreover, Maitreya represents the practice of loving-kindness, while Gandhahastin represents pure conduct. The Contemplation Sutra says: “With a mind of loving-kindness, refrain from killing and fully observe all moral precepts.” Because these constitute the causes of the Pure Land, among all the Bodhisattvas enumerated there is not one who has failed to plant the causes of Faith, Practice, and Vow.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the self-nature illuminates everywhere; this is the meaning of Manjusri’s great wisdom. The self-nature embraces all without exception; this is the meaning of Maitreya’s great wisdom. The self-nature is inexhaustible and without end; this is the meaning of Never Resting and Constantly Diligent. The remaining Bodhisattvas should be understood by analogy.
Subcommentary: “Should be understood by analogy” means that the vastness of the self-nature is the meaning of Samantabhadra, while the self-nature’s perfect penetration is the meaning of Avalokitesvara, and so forth. As in the preceding passage, a single Dharma gate is mentioned in connection with each Bodhisattva’s name. Yet if each Bodhisattva is understood to possess them all, then their names mutually interpenetrate. Thus it is said, “The mind itself is the name” (the mind has only a name and no form). Understanding it in this way, one sees all the Bodhisattvas fully present within a single mind of right contemplation. We now see ordinary beings but do not see the Bodhisattvas because we have lost the mind of right contemplation. Therefore it is said:
1. The Assembly of Humans and Devas
Cập Thích Đề Hoàn Nhơn, Đẳng Vô Lượng Chư Thiên Đại Chúng Cu (Together with Sakra, lord of the devas, and an immeasurable multitude of devas and the great assembly, all gathered together.)
Commentary: The word “together” connects this passage with the preceding one, indicating that not only did the sages attend the assembly for this Pure Land Dharma gate, but all ordinary beings also heard it together. “Sakra, lord of the devas” is translated into Chinese as “Able Lord of the Devas.” The word “and others,” followed again by “immeasurable,” collectively refers to all classes of devas. “Great assembly” includes all sentient beings. “Gathered together” concludes the reference to the Bodhisattvas as well as the passages that follow.
Subcommentary: In the preceding passage, the phrase “all the Bodhisattvas” establishes a correspondence between the Lesser Vehicle and the Great Vehicle. Here, the phrase “together with all the devas and the great assembly” establishes a correspondence between sages and ordinary beings. This means that sages and ordinary beings alike heard this sutra. Do not mistakenly suppose that the Pure Land is a place about which ordinary beings may neither hear nor gain rebirth!
“Sakra, lord of the devas”: The full name is Sakra Devanam Indra, translated into Chinese as “Lord of the Devas.” He has five distinct names, but for fear of prolixity they are not stated here.
To recount the story: When Kasyapa Buddha entered nirvana, a woman resolved to build a stupa, and thirty-two people assisted her. That woman has now become the ruler of the Trayastrimsa Heaven, governing the thirty-two celestial realms in the four directions. The Agama Sutras also state that while still a human being, she practiced giving to the utmost. She has now become their lord and is therefore called the Lord of the Devas.
“And others” includes his thirty-two celestial companions and the many other celestial inhabitants. “Immeasurable,” when stated in full, includes all the heavens of the Desire Realm, Form Realm, and Formless Realm.
The word “deva” means a celestial being, and the term carries several meanings: it means “day,” because their days are exceedingly long; it means “free from sorrow,” because they constantly enjoy happiness; and it means “a radiant lamp,” because they have no darkness.
“Great assembly”: Below the devas are humans and the asura spirits, together encompassing all sentient beings in the six destinies. According to another explanation, it also includes the Bodhisattvas and sravakas mentioned in the preceding passage, who are collectively called the “great assembly.”
“Concludes the reference” means that the preceding passage says, “Together with the great assembly of bhiksus, all gathered together.” Here, “gathered together” likewise means that the Bodhisattvas, devas, and great assembly were all gathered together.
Someone may object: Beings in the Formless Realm have neither ears nor bodies, while hungry ghosts and beings in the hells dwell in great darkness and suffering. How could they attend the assembly and hear this sutra? Yet beings in the Formless Realm are without coarse physical bodies, not without subtle bodies. Therefore, when the Buddha entered nirvana, beings in the Formless Realm shed tears like rain. Thus, there is no obstruction to their coming in bodily form and hearing with their ears. As for the hells and the realm of hungry ghosts, apart from beings with heavy karma who may be obstructed and unable to pass through, those with lighter karma are not necessarily excluded.
Moreover, wherever the Buddha’s radiance shines—even into the hells—the celestial being who is King Yama can realize the Sudden and Perfect Dharma. Thus, when the Buddha taught this sutra and his radiance illuminated the ten directions, how can anyone know that hungry ghosts and beings in the hells did not hear it?
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the self-nature penetrates above and reaches below; this is the meaning of the arhats, Bodhisattvas, devas, and the great assembly all gathering together.
Subcommentary: This Dharma is the Dharma of equality, without distinctions of high and low. Above, it reaches all the sages, so those above may attend the assembly. Below, it reaches the six classes of ordinary beings, so those below may also attend the assembly.
The Dharma of the Four Noble Truths, the Dharma of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, the Dharma of the Four Immeasurables, the Dharma of the Six Paramitas, the Dharma of the Five Precepts, the Dharma of the Ten Wholesome Actions, and the myriad practices—even the eighty-four thousand gates amid the tumultuous defilements—are solely this one mind, for within the true nature there is neither error nor difference.
Although dragons and serpents mingle together and ordinary beings and sages intermix, within it the Buddhadharma abides and is sustained, thus and unmoving, the same in the past as it is today—equal in all respects.
MAIN TEACHING SECTION (divided into four parts)
A. Tường trần y, chánh linh sanh tín nhạo: A detailed exposition of the purity and excellence of the dependent and primary recompenses, causing the assembly to give rise to joyful faith.
B. Chánh thị nguyện hạnh linh sanh tu chứng: Directly revealing the vow and practice, enabling the assembly to understand, cultivate, and attain realization.
C. Giao dẫn Phật ngôn linh đoạn nghi hoặc: Mutually citing the words of the Buddhas, enabling the assembly to sever doubts and delusions.
D. Mutually revealing difficult matters so that the assembly may give rise to a deeply earnest response.
A. EXPOUNDING IN DETAIL THE DEPENDENT AND PRIMARY RECOMPENSES SO AS TO GIVE RISE TO FAITH AND JOY (divided into two parts)
1. ADDRESSING THOSE OF SUITABLE CAPACITY: Addressing those for whom the teaching is intended.
2. REVEALING THE DHARMA: Revealing the dependent and primary recompenses.
1. ADDRESSING THOSE OF SUITABLE CAPACITY
At that time, the Buddha said to the Elder Shariputra.
(At that time, the Buddha addressed the Elder Shariputra.)
Commentary: From this passage onward is the main section. What precedes it is the introductory section, and what follows is the transmission section. This passage alone constitutes the principal doctrine revered throughout the entire sutra.
“At that time” means the time when the aforementioned six fulfillments were all present. “The Buddha said” means that, because no one initiated this sutra by asking a question, the Buddha himself called upon Shariputra and spoke. Because this sutra was urgently needed to save the world, he did not wait for anyone to request it.
Subcommentary: Whenever the words “at that time” are used, they must be preceded by the circumstances that occasioned the teaching; hence it is called “that time,” when the six fulfillments were present. “The Buddha spoke of his own accord” means that all sutras contain two kinds of introduction: the common and the particular. The common introduction establishes faith.
The particular introduction describes the occasion that initiated the teaching. In the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha’s white urna emitted light, initiating the teaching of the One Vehicle—the One Vehicle of the True Mark. In the Vimalakirti Sutra, Vimalakirti manifested illness in the city of Vaishali, thereby revealing the Dharma gate of nonduality.
As for the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, the Diamond Sutra, and many other sutras, someone first asked a question, after which the Buddha expounded the teaching in response.
This sutra, however, is not like that; hence it is said: “No one initiated it.”
What does it mean that “saving the world was urgent”? Sentient beings in the Dharma-ending age have dull faculties and profound obstructions; it is extremely difficult to find those capable of practicing the two Dharma methods of liberation and meditative concentration. Therefore, out of great compassion and pity, the Buddha taught this single gate of upholding the Name and being mindful of the Buddha, providing urgent rescue to sentient beings by ending the course of birth and death through a direct path beyond the three realms. Fearing that even this might come too late, he did not wait for anyone to request the teaching.
It is like a person suddenly contracting a grave illness, whose life remains only in faint, gasping breaths. Even though we possess an excellent medicine suited to the illness, if we still had to prepare it according to the prescription, the delay might be too long: before the medicine was ready, the person might already have died.
It would be better to have the medicine already prepared, so that pouring it into the person’s mouth would immediately restore life. A benevolent person must administer it at once. How could one wait for the sick person first to prepare offerings and make an earnest entreaty before giving the medicine? The Buddha’s rescue of sentient beings is likewise.
Commentary: Question: We may set aside the other sutras, but the two sutras belonging to this same teaching both had persons who initiated them. Why is this sutra alone not like them? Answer: Because its intent is even more urgent. It too has an initiation—an initiation through having no initiator.
Subcommentary: “The two sutras belonging to this same teaching” are the Sutra of the Sixteen Contemplations and the Larger Sutra. They belong to the same class as this sutra and both specifically teach the Pure Land practice; hence they are called sutras belonging to this same teaching.
The Contemplation Sutra arose because Lady Vaidehi was harmed by her wicked son, King Ajatashatru. Thus, weary of the world of the five turbidities, she sought birth in a pure land. She said to the Buddha: “I vow to be born in a pure world. I do not wish to remain in this evil and turbid world of Jambudvipa.”
Thus, King Ajatashatru and his mother were the persons who initiated that sutra.
The Larger Sutra says: “One day, the World-Honored One’s countenance appeared extraordinary. Seeing this, his attendant Ananda asked: ‘Since I began attending upon the Buddha, I have never seen the Buddha’s countenance as it is today. Is the Buddha recollecting the Buddhas of the past or the Buddhas of future kalpas, thus causing this extraordinary appearance?’
“The Buddha said: ‘Excellent indeed, Ananda! Did devas prompt you to ask this question, or did you ask it of your own accord?
“‘Ananda! The merit and virtue of your question are a hundred, a thousand, or ten thousand times greater than those of someone who, over the course of many kalpas, offered wealth to sages such as shravakas and pratyekabuddhas, to devas and human beings, and even to all the flying, crawling, and wriggling creatures filling one continent or all four continents. None of those merits can compare with the merit of your question!
“‘Why is this so? Because devas, human beings, and even flying, crawling, and wriggling creatures will all attain liberation through your question.’”
Thus, the joyful countenance of the Tathagata served as the causal condition initiating the Larger Sutra.
Now someone raises this difficulty: We may set aside the other sutras that had persons who initiated them. Yet these two sutras, which belong to the fundamental teaching of the Pure Land—the teaching that establishes Pure Land practice—both had persons who initiated them. This Amitabha Sutra is no different from those two sutras, so why does it alone say nothing of an initiator?
This explanation is therefore presented to clarify the matter. Although the Buddha taught those two sutras from the same essential mind of great compassion, specifically teaching the Dharma of attaining rebirth, their contemplation method is subtle and refined, and their gate of vows is vast. As stated in the preceding introductory passage, they do not equal this sutra, which teaches exclusively the upholding of the Name and immediate birth in that land.
It is essential beyond all essentials. Therefore, the Buddha’s intent here was urgent beyond all urgency, and for the sake of sentient beings he became an uninvited friend.
“Initiated without being initiated” means that sentient beings presently delight in and cling to birth and death, without seeking escape. They themselves naturally aroused the Buddha’s great compassion, and so he taught this sutra without waiting for anyone to request it.
Commentary: The Buddha called upon Shariputra alone and addressed him because, as the preceding passage indicated, only a person of wisdom can believe this sutra. Moreover, addressing him alone was equivalent to addressing the entire assembly. Master Jingjue said: “This is because the teaching accords with the four siddhantas.”
Subcommentary: “As the preceding passage indicated” refers to the reason Shariputra was addressed first: because his wisdom was extremely profound. Only one who thoroughly discerned the capacities for purity and defilement and perfectly comprehended both phenomena and principle could accept it in faith without doubt. Similarly, in the Prajnaparamita assembly, Subhuti was addressed first because the Prajnaparamita teachings discuss the principle of true emptiness, and among the assembly Subhuti was foremost in understanding true emptiness.
“Addressing everyone” means that when the Buddha addressed Shariputra alone, he was thereby addressing all the shravakas, bodhisattvas, humans, devas, and the entire assembly then present, as well as all sentient beings of future generations.
“The four siddhantas” are: 1. Shariputra was the disciple attending on the Buddha’s left, and many sutras conventionally place him first. This is the Worldly Siddhanta. 2. Shariputra was foremost in wisdom and revered by the entire assembly. If he believed in the Pure Land, the assembly would follow him in faith. This is the Siddhanta for Each Person. 3. Those who did not believe in the Pure Land would feel ashamed that they did not equal him and would then abandon their erroneous attachments. This is the Counteractive Siddhanta. 4. Those accustomed to practicing the Lesser Vehicle would be inspired to turn toward the Great Vehicle, seek birth in the Pure Land, and ultimately attain Buddhahood. This is the Siddhanta of the Supreme Meaning.
Commentary: Furthermore, not only is wisdom the faculty capable of faith, but the attainment of the fruit of Buddhahood also depends entirely upon wisdom.
Subcommentary: Fascicle 22 of the Avatamsaka Sutra says: “Is not the pure adornment of all Buddhas entirely brought about through wisdom?” Thus we know that Amitabha Buddha also relied upon this wisdom to accomplish the merit and virtue of the Pure Land. When sentient beings practicing the Pure Land method give rise to faith through wisdom, their faith is right faith. When they make vows through wisdom, their vows become vast. When they undertake practice through wisdom, their practice becomes wondrous. Even the attainment of Buddhahood must always depend upon it.
This is because wisdom is the wondrous principle that penetrates the cause and comprehends the result, accomplishing both the beginning and the end; it does not merely serve as a gate of faith and understanding.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the inherent nature possesses natural wisdom; this is the meaning of the Buddha spontaneously calling Śāriputra and teaching the Dharma of upholding the Name.
Subcommentary: It illuminates without cause and knows without thought; the wondrous nature is inherently complete and is not obtained from anywhere. Therefore, before the sound of the gaṇḍī had been struck, and without anyone making a request, the Buddha suddenly spoke of his own accord, continuing without interruption.
2. REVEALING THE DHARMA (divided into two parts)
A. GENERAL INDICATION
B. SEPARATE EXPLANATION
A. GENERAL INDICATION (divided into two parts)
1. Indicating the land to reveal the dependent retribution
2. Indicating the Lord to reveal the direct retribution
1. INDICATING THE LAND TO REVEAL THE DEPENDENT RETRIBUTION
West of here, beyond ten myriad koṭis of Buddha-lands, there is a world named Ultimate Bliss.
Commentary: The land is the environment upon which one depends and is called the dependent retribution. The Buddha is the person who depends upon it and is called the direct retribution. Here, the environment depended upon is explained first.
“Here” indicates this land; that is, proceeding westward from this Sahā world is called “passing beyond.”
A “Buddha-land” means one great trichiliocosm. Passing beyond ten myriad koṭis of such Buddha-lands means that it is exceedingly far from this region—not like the distance of 108,000 li mentioned in the Platform Sutra of the Dharma Treasure.
Yet, whether considered in terms of phenomena or principle, it still cannot be regarded as far. “World” denotes time, and “realm” denotes place. “Ultimate Bliss” is in Sanskrit Sumati, translated into Chinese as Peace and Bliss, also as Peaceful Nurturing, Tranquil Ease, or Wondrous Intention. Although these names differ slightly, they all convey the same meaning as Ultimate Bliss.
The word “land,” however, has many meanings. Among the four lands, Ultimate Bliss here refers to the Land Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together, while also encompassing the preceding three lands. Furthermore, the Land of Enjoyment, the Land of Dharma-Nature, and the Land of Transformation—all three are also intended here.
Furthermore, the “ten lands” are also intended here. Although a Buddha has no land, there is no impediment to speaking of a land according to the place where sentient beings are taught and transformed.
Subcommentary: “Dependent retribution” means that the body relies upon a land as its dwelling; therefore, the environment is called that upon which one depends. Because the environment in which one dwells may be good or bad according to the karma one has created, it is called retribution. “From this land of ours” means that the Sahā world and Ultimate Bliss are both within the Flower Treasury world, and the two lands face each other as though situated on the same level.
Here, “passing beyond” means traversing horizontally westward from this land. “One great chiliocosm” means one trichiliocosm, as explained later in the section on the six directions.
“Ten myriad koṭis” means that, counting the route westward from here in units of koṭis, there are ten myriads of them. That is, one passes beyond one Buddha-land, ten Buddha-lands, and so forth up to one koṭi of Buddha-lands.
Then, from one koṭi of Buddha-lands, ten koṭis of Buddha-lands, and so forth up to ten myriad koṭis of Buddha-lands; hence it is said to be exceedingly far. However, there are four numerical values called a koṭi: one hundred thousand, one million, ten million, and one hundred million. Each may be called a koṭi, and here it is not known which value is intended.
The Platform Sutra’s statement of “108,000 li” mistakenly indicates India, the land of the Western Regions. This, too, is clearly explained later in the section on the six directions.
The statement that “although far, it still cannot be regarded as far” has two meanings: 1. In terms of phenomena, the Lotus Sutra says: “The worlds in the eastern direction are exceedingly numerous. If the earth were ground into dust and each mote of dust counted as one world, there would be ten myriad koṭis of lands”; yet even this would amount to only a very small portion.
The Avataṃsaka Sutra speaks of “a species of worlds,” meaning that beyond the Sahā world there are thirteen dust-mote numbers of worlds surrounding it in concentric circles. Since Ultimate Bliss is only ten myriad koṭis of lands away, how could that be considered far?
2. In terms of principle, the phrase “ten myriad koṭis” is spoken only in relation to the limited measure of the birth-and-death mind of ordinary beings. If pure karma has been accomplished, then at the time of death the mind abides in samādhi, and that very mind takes birth in the Pure Land. Thus it is said, “Clearly present before one’s eyes.” How, then, could it ever have been far away?
“World” denotes the past, present, and future. “Realm” denotes the four directions, the four intermediate directions, above, and below. With time alone or place alone, the meaning of “world-realm” is incomplete. Only when time and place are joined is it called a “world.”
Ultimate Bliss is rendered by many translated names, but the word “Ultimate” clearly expresses the meaning of bliss at its highest degree, which none of the pleasures in the human or heavenly realms can equal. Therefore, the word “Ultimate” is specifically stated.
The four lands are: 1. The Land of Eternally Quiescent Light. The sutra says: “The Dharma-body of the Buddha Vairocana pervades every place. His dwelling is called the Land of Eternally Quiescent Light.” This is the dwelling place of those who have realized the ultimate fruition.
2. The Land Adorned with True Retribution. Because its inhabitants cultivate the true Dharma, they experience a sublime reward: adornments of the seven treasures and complete possession of the five pure and wondrous sense-objects. It is also called the realm without obstruction. Because mind itself is environment and environment itself is mind, and because mind and environment are nondual, a single pore and all Buddha-lands mutually contain one another. This is the land in which the great Dharma-body beings dwell.
3. The Land of Expedient Means with Residue. Its inhabitants have only just eliminated the delusions of the four abodes and remain on the path of expedient means. Because their fundamental ignorance has not yet been exhausted, it is called “with residue.” This is the land in which the sages of the Three Vehicles dwell.
4. The Land Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together. This is the common land in which the four kinds of sages and the beings of the six ordinary realms dwell intermingled, although ordinary beings do not see the sages!
Although the four lands differ in superiority, they are also separately classified as pure or defiled. Since the Land of Ultimate Bliss is said to contain bodhisattvas, śrāvakas, devas, and human beings, both it and the Sahā world are called Lands Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together. Yet in this land there are earth, stones, thorns, and the four evil destinies teeming in confusion, whereas in that land there is water possessing the eight virtues, the seven treasures, and radiant assemblies of humans and devas. Thus it is a pure Land Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together.
“It also encompasses the preceding three lands” means that, because each person’s faculties differ, the realms they perceive also differ. Thus, some dwelling in the Land Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together perceive the Land of True Retribution; some dwelling there perceive the Land of Quiescent Light; some perceive the Land of Expedient Means; and some perceive only their own land, the Land Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together.
As in the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha says: “I always dwell securely in this land, while its assemblies of humans and devas are constantly abundant.” In the Sutra on Resolving Doubts During the Semblance Dharma, the Buddha teaches: “Within today’s Dharma assembly, the multitude is beyond reckoning. Some perceive this land as mountains, forests, earth, sand, pebbles, and gravel; some perceive it as a land of the seven treasures; some perceive it as a place where the Buddha practices walking meditation; and some perceive it as the inconceivable realm of all Buddhas.
These differences in perception arise solely according to the superior or inferior faculties of each person.” (Thus, those with humanity perceive humanity, while those with wisdom perceive wisdom...) (It is like reading a book: clear eyes see large characters, while dim eyes see small ones.)
“The three lands are the same as those above” means: 1. The Land of Dharma-Nature is the Land of Eternally Quiescent Light; 2. The Land of Enjoyment corresponds to the Land of True Retribution, though it is divided into Self-Enjoyment and Enjoyment for Others; 3. The Land of Transformation corresponds to the third and fourth lands above, namely the Land of Expedient Means and the Land Where Ordinary Beings and Sages Dwell Together.
Thus, although this Land of Ultimate Bliss presently belongs to the Land of Transformation, it may also be regarded as belonging to the Land of Enjoyment and the Land of Dharma-Nature.
The “ten lands” are the ten provisional and true lands distinguished by Master Táo Bá. Although the Land of Ultimate Bliss is, in truth, provisional and not the Buddha’s true land, this is said only from the standpoint of the relative distinction between the provisional and the true.
If this is discussed according to the expedient or real teaching suited to individual capacities, there is no fixed determination. Why is this so? Master Zaobo said: “Amitabha Buddha’s land is taught for a certain class of ordinary beings who cling to characteristics and are not yet able to believe in the true characteristic of the Dharma—true emptiness. Therefore, by concentrating their minds in recollection and recitation, they attain that purity and are then reborn in the Pure Land. This is expedient, not real.”
Thus, it should be understood that this is said with reference to those who cling to characteristics, not to those who have entered the principle of one-pointedness of mind. If one attains one-pointedness of mind in principle, the expedient is itself the real and the real is itself the expedient; hence it is said that there is no fixed determination.
Furthermore, the four lands mentioned above must naturally all be present; one should not cling solely to the Land of Eternally Quiescent Light. For if one realizes the Land of Quiescent Light, then with regard to the three lands below it, one must also take abode in them according to one’s mind; one should not reject them and claim that they do not exist.
If one has not yet realized the Land of Quiescent Light but hastily rejects the three lands below it and claims that they do not exist, then there would remain no land in which to dwell, no supporting environment. This is a grave error. Therefore, in the Surangama Sutra, the Buddha strongly rebukes those who do not believe that in that direction—the West—there is a golden-colored world, so long as they have not yet broken through the characteristics of the five skandhas.
“Buddhas have no lands” means that the commentary to the Fourteen Topics on the Pure Land says: “Only bodhisattvas of the eighth bhumi and above are entirely freed from the afflictive burden of material objects. They illuminate the original essence in its independence, and their wondrous powers are inexhaustible. What further use would they have for lands?
How much more so the Buddhas!” In truth, Buddhas have no lands; nevertheless, it is also permissible to say that they have lands. This is because sentient beings understand little and are deluded in many ways; therefore, lands of merit and bliss are used to guide them and induce them to practice goodness. The sages simply use accessible manifestations to receive and guide beings.
Hence, there is no obstacle in saying that such lands exist.
Commentary: “Solely the West” means that a definite object and direction of aspiration are established. In the West, the Land of Ultimate Bliss alone is designated, as explained below in the passage “Without suffering and possessing bliss,” and as stated in the Sutra on Rebirth.
Subcommentary: It may be objected: In the worlds throughout the ten directions there are Pure Lands; why, then, is the Western realm alone singled out and people instructed to seek rebirth in that land? It is because, just as a sheep is lost when a great road has many branching paths, an arrow strikes the swan only through concentrated aim. (27) When the mind is not divided, one’s practice is not confused. The Shangduyi states: “In taking refuge in the Three Jewels, it is essential to indicate a direction and establish a characteristic, fixing the mind upon a single object. Even when ordinary beings bind their minds in this way, it is still feared that they may not succeed; how much less could they succeed if they abandoned characteristics?”
As for traveling throughout the ten directions to make offerings to the Buddhas and then returning to one’s own land within the time of the morning meal, that is something accomplished only after rebirth in the Western Pure Land. As the saying goes: One has only just seen the egg yet already wishes to obtain the chick—why plan so prematurely? Again, one may ask: If so, why does the Avatamsaka Sutra teach that one must universally pay homage to many Tathagatas? The answer is that the Avatamsaka Sutra says: “One is many, and many are one.” If this meaning is understood, then whether one universally pays homage to many Tathagatas or pays homage exclusively to one Tathagata, they are at once different and identical. There is no reason for doubt.
“Without suffering and possessing bliss” is clearly explained in the text below. Furthermore, the Sutra on Rebirth According to One’s Vows asks: Since there are innumerable Buddha lands, why seek rebirth solely in the Land of Ultimate Bliss? The answer is: 1. Because the cause is excellent: taking the ten recitations as the cause, one thereby attains rebirth. 2. Because the conditions are excellent: the forty-eight vows universally deliver sentient beings.
Commentary: Question: The Contemplation Sutra says, “The Land of Ultimate Bliss is not far from here.” This Amitabha Sutra says, “One hundred thousand kotis of lands away.” Why, then, do the two sutras differ in speaking of nearness and distance?
Answer: It is because the near is itself far, and the far is itself near. According to the Treatise on the Buddha Land, whether the Pure Land is far or near is altogether inconceivable.
Subcommentary: “Not far from here” refers to the statement in the Contemplation Sutra: “At that time, Sakyamuni Buddha said to Vaidehi, ‘Queen, do you now understand? Amitabha Buddha’s land is not far from here.’” This sutra speaks of it as both far and near. It is “not far from here” because, with respect to the Land of Ultimate Bliss, one passes through only one hundred thousand kotis of lands; thus, it is not far from here.
“One passes through one hundred thousand kotis” is said with respect to the Land of Ultimate Bliss being not far from here, for one passes through only one hundred thousand kotis of lands. Since the mind encompasses the entire Dharma realm, what nearness is not also distance? Since the Dharma realms of the ten directions exist solely within the one mind, what distance is not also nearness? These are mutually stated and fundamentally present no obstruction.
The phrase “inconceivable” refers to a question posed in the Treatise on the Buddha Land: “Since the Pure Land transcends the range of the Three Realms, does it occupy the same location as the Three Realms, or are the Three Realms and the Pure Land each separate?”
Answer: One explanation says that it is in the Suddhavasa Heaven. Another explanation says that it is in the West, and so forth. Yet the extent of its circumference is immeasurable, for it pervades the Dharma realms of the ten directions. It cannot be said to be outside the Three Realms or within the Three Realms. According to the place appropriate to a bodhisattva, the Pure Land manifests—sometimes in the Suddhavasa Heaven, sometimes in the West, and so forth. Thus, it should be understood that the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss transcends ordinary conceptions. No place is not its place; nowhere does it dwell, yet there is nowhere it does not dwell. It should not be regarded as though it were the Land of Common Residence and then discussed as having a fixed location.
Commentary: In accord with principle, the intrinsic nature’s firmness and purity constitute the meaning of the West. The intrinsic nature’s freedom from obstructions and exhaustion of faults constitute the meaning of passing through one hundred thousand kotis. The intrinsic nature’s horizontal pervasion and vertical penetration constitute the meaning of “world.”
Subcommentary: “Firmness” means that the West corresponds in essence to the element metal, which bears the meaning of firmness. This is precisely the intrinsic nature’s true constancy and immutability, for it remains thus throughout the ages. “Purity” has two further meanings. Because the atmosphere in the West is solemn and pure, it has the meaning of “clarity and lucidity.” This is precisely because all delusions are originally absent from the intrinsic nature, whose essence is revealed by the western wind. Because the West corresponds to the color white, it has the meaning of cleanliness and purity. This is precisely because no defilement arises in the intrinsic nature, which has always been of a single color.
“Freedom from obstructions and exhaustion of faults” means that the intrinsic nature is originally devoid of afflictions. The ten sufferings, ten evils, ten bonds, ten fetters, and so forth are all transcended; hence there is the meaning of passing far beyond. Thus, it should be understood that firmness and purity are the true West, the ultimate limit of the West. It is not merely some distant place beyond the setting sun that is called “passing through”; rather, there is nowhere that is not passed through. Who could calculate the number of miles along the way? For it horizontally penetrates the ten directions and vertically reaches throughout the three times. It is neither near nor far, neither center nor boundary!
Thus, from here one passes through Buddha lands as numerous as motes of dust—inexpressible and yet again inexpressible—and there is no world that is not the Land of Ultimate Bliss. How could only one world be called Ultimate Bliss?
2. INDICATING THE HOST TO REVEAL THE ORTHODOX TEACHING
In that land there is a Buddha named Amitabha, who is presently teaching the Dharma.
Commentary: The word “that” refers to the preceding passage. Where there is a land, there must be a person; the Buddha alone is the person who relies upon that land. A Buddha necessarily has a name, and so the name of that Buddha is revealed as Amitabha. Buddhas are present throughout the three times; to distinguish him from Buddhas of the past and future, he is said to be the Buddha of the present. Every Buddha delivers sentient beings, and the method of delivering beings is teaching the Dharma. “Presently teaching the Dharma” is as stated in the Larger Sutra and the Great Cloud Sutra.
Subcommentary: The Larger Sutra says: “That Buddha is not a Buddha of the past, nor a Buddha of the present, nor a Buddha of the future. Because he responds to his own aspiration and vows, he manifests in the West. His world is named Ultimate Bliss, and he is called Amitabha.”
The words “Great Cloud” refer to the Great Vaipulya Great Cloud Sutra. The Great Cloud Sutra says: “At that time, the World-Honored One Shakyamuni joyfully smiled and emitted immeasurable rays of light from his countenance. The bodhisattva Great Cloud Secret Treasury asked the reason for this.
The Buddha said: ‘In the world to the west there is a land called Peace and Bliss. The Buddha there is named Immeasurable Life and is presently teaching the Dharma. He told a bodhisattva: In the Saha world, the Buddha Shakyamuni is presently teaching the Great Cloud Sutra. You should go there and listen. That bodhisattva is now about to arrive here.’”
Thus, precisely while Shakyamuni Buddha was teaching the Dharma here, Amitabha Buddha was also teaching the Dharma there. Therefore, we know that this was neither in the past nor in the future, but that he is teaching the Dharma in the present.
Commentary: Generally, the term “present” also has two meanings. Shakyamuni Buddha and Amitabha Buddha are both said to be present, but there is a slight difference.
Subcommentary: “A slight difference” means this: Shakyamuni Buddha is the fourth Buddha of the Bhadrakalpa, the present kalpa, and is therefore called the present Buddha. Yet he has already manifested parinirvana between the twin sala trees. It is difficult now to behold his excellent marks; we can only hear his noble name and have the Tripitaka of scriptural teachings and images of him that he left behind.
As for Amitabha Buddha, at this very day and hour he is presently teaching the Dharma in that land. Thus, although Shakyamuni is called present, he has already passed into the past; Amitabha, called present, still remains present.
An ancient said: “While the Buddha was in the world, I sank in samsara. Now that I have obtained a human body, the Buddha has already entered nirvana.” Alas! Grieving that this body, burdened by many karmic obstructions, could not behold the Tathagata’s golden body, he yearned, lamented, and mourned to such a degree.
Although Shakyamuni Buddha has now entered nirvana, Amitabha Buddha still abides. If one is reborn in his land, one can immediately draw near to him. Yet if one neither believes nor aspires to rebirth, then grieving and lamenting in vain is also useless. This is truly a grave error.
Commentary: Furthermore, the word “present” here is spoken in relation to the time when Shakyamuni Buddha was still in the world. In truth, however, throughout previous ages, subsequent ages, and all the infinitely many ages thereafter, it is still called the present age.
Subcommentary: “Previous and subsequent ages” means that before Shakyamuni Buddha appeared in the world, Amitabha Buddha was already presently teaching the Dharma. After Shakyamuni Buddha entered nirvana, Amitabha Buddha was still presently teaching the Dharma. Even to this very day, he remains present.
“Subsequent ages and infinitely many subsequent ages” means this: Shakyamuni Buddha taught the Dharma for only forty-nine years. From before Kashyapa Buddha until after Maitreya Buddha, however numerous the years may be, they remain limited in extent. They cannot compare with the exceedingly long period during which Amitabha Buddha teaches the Dharma, which the other Buddhas do not equal. Therefore, not only at this time is he said to be present; throughout subsequent ages and infinitely many ages to come, he will still be said to be presently teaching the Dharma.
Question: After Amitabha Buddha, Avalokiteshvara will succeed him as the Buddha in the next life. How, then, can Amitabha be said to be endless?
Answer: Do you know how many kalpas Amitabha Buddha will abide in the world before Avalokiteshvara succeeds him? Avalokiteshvara is himself said to abide for incalculable, incalculable kalpas, for kalpas beyond all further reckoning, before entrusting the position to Mahasthamaprapta. From this, the great length of time for which Amitabha abides may be understood. Is this not finite yet equivalent to infinite? Moreover, when Mahasthamaprapta succeeds Avalokiteshvara, there will forever be no time when he enters parinirvana. Although he is called Mahasthamaprapta, in truth his teaching of the Dharma will be no different from that of Amitabha Buddha. This is what is meant by subsequent ages and infinitely many subsequent ages. Why should this not be possible?
Commentary: Furthermore, the “present” here is spoken from the standpoint of Shakyamuni in relation to Amitabha. In truth, Amitabha’s present is itself Shakyamuni’s present.
Subcommentary: Master Zhijue said: “The teachings of the Dharani Sutra state that all thirty-seven Buddhas are manifestations of the single fundamental body of Vairocana Buddha.” This means that within Vairocana Buddha’s mind, the realm of personal enjoyment is realized and the five wisdoms are formed. First, through the wisdom of the pure Dharma realm, he himself abides at the center. Then, through the other four wisdoms, he emanates toward the four directions and becomes the four Tathagatas. His wisdom of wondrous observation emanates toward the west and becomes the Buddha Immeasurable Life in the Land of Ultimate Bliss. Thus, one Buddha manifests in two lands. Therefore, Master Qingliang said: “He is none other than our Fundamental Teacher.”
Commentary: Nevertheless, the Buddhas teach the Dharma in many different ways. Here, both the dependent and primary recompenses clearly teach the Dharma, as stated in this sutra, the Larger Sutra, and the Contemplation Sutra.
Subcommentary: “Many different ways” include teaching the Dharma through spoken words, through the gaze of the eyes, and even through fragrant rice, and so forth. Therefore, in the Land of Ultimate Bliss, the Dharma is taught not only through the Buddha’s words; both the dependent and primary recompenses also teach the Dharma. As the Larger Sutra says: Amitabha Buddha extensively expounds the Great Teaching, the Mahayana, to bodhisattvas, shravakas, devas, and humans, fully elucidating the wondrous Dharma.
All who hear it rejoice, understand, and delight in it; their minds awaken, and each attains realization. It also says that Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges in the eastern direction each cause immeasurable bodhisattvas and shravakas to go to Amitabha Buddha’s abode to hear him expound the wondrous Dharma. Likewise, the Buddhas in the four intermediate directions, above, and below also send bodhisattvas to hear the wondrous Dharma.
This is the primary recompense teaching the Dharma.
This sutra records that the waters, birds, trees, and forests proclaim the wondrous Dharma. The Larger Sutra and the Contemplation Sutra likewise explain this clearly, as cited in the passages below. This is the dependent recompense teaching the Dharma.
The Larger Sutra also says: “The lotus flowers of that land emit immeasurable rays of light. From those rays appear immeasurable Buddhas, each of whom teaches the wondrous Dharma.” This is the dependent and primary recompenses teaching simultaneously.
Commentary: Some say that the one who teaches the Dharma is the transformation body together with the reward body. Elsewhere it is said that all three bodies teach simultaneously, while beings behold them differently according to their capacities.
Subcommentary: “The transformation-body Buddha teaches” means this: Some say that the Dharma-body Buddha invariably does not teach; the reward-body Buddha fully teaches while not teaching; and the transformation-body Buddha definitely teaches. Accordingly, the Buddha who teaches the Dharma there would be precisely the transformation body. Yet the reward body is also included. As the Larger Sutra says: “The Buddha’s body surpasses the bodies of all worldly beings.” The Contemplation Sutra says: “The Buddha’s body is six hundred thousand kotis of nayutas of Ganges sands of yojanas in height.” How, then, could it necessarily be a body only sixteen feet tall?
However, sutras also state that neither the reward body nor the transformation body is the Buddha’s true manifestation, and that neither teaches the Dharma. How, then, can it be definitively asserted that the Dharma body does not teach? Beings merely behold him according to their capacities, and what each beholds differs; in truth, all three bodies teach simultaneously.
Commentary: How deeply regrettable! People travel ten thousand miles and pass through a hundred cities, climbing mountains and crossing seas in search of a spiritual teacher, only then saying that they have paid homage at the bodhimanda. How could they remain indifferent and pay no heed to the present Tathagata, the Buddha endowed with ten thousand virtues, who is now teaching the Dharma, and willingly fall into the Eastern City? Such people are truly most pitiable!
Subcommentary: “Ten thousand miles” refers to the following account. A monk asked Master Dasui: “When the fire at the end of the kalpa arises and burns everything, will that—the conscious mind—be destroyed or not?”
Dasui replied: “It will be destroyed.”
The monk asked: “If so, will it perish along with the kalpa?”
He replied: “It will perish along with it.” The monk remained doubtful and could not resolve the matter. He had to travel back and forth for ten thousand miles, seeking spiritual teachers everywhere to explain it, before he attained great awakening.
“A hundred cities” means that Sudhana traveled throughout the regions, passing through one hundred and one cities in search of fifty-three virtuous spiritual teachers.
These words are cited to show by comparison that Amitabha Buddha is the supreme spiritual teacher. “Climbing mountains and crossing seas” refers to Mount Emei, Mount Putuo, and so forth...
These words are cited to show, by comparison, that the Western Land of Ultimate Bliss is the most supreme place of the bodhimaṇḍa. Yet the ancients plunged through streams and climbed mountains because they wished to draw near to sages and saints. Today, people journey east and west merely to gaze from afar upon sacred images, enduring all the dangers, hardships, and difficulties of the road without begrudging the toil!
How can this compare with failing to go to the present Compassionate Honored One, passing Him by—just like the old woman in the eastern quarter of the city who was born on the same day and at the same hour as the Buddha, yet did not behold His true countenance? Are they not surely her companions? Buddhas of the past and future are necessarily difficult to encounter, yet they also pass by the Buddha of the present; therefore, they are said to be pitiable.
Commentary: In accordance with principle, the essence of the self-nature is ever numinously aware; this is the meaning of “in that land there is a Buddha.” The self-nature is manifest precisely here and now; this is the meaning of “presently teaching the Dharma.”
Subcommentary: Though attending upon the Buddha throughout the day, one does not behold His golden countenance; though sitting all day in the Dharma assembly, one does not hear the wondrous Way. Consequently, Māra, the demon king, is allowed to infiltrate the Buddha-land, and false teachings mingle with the true and honored principle! If one can turn back and clearly perceive the source of the mind, the Buddha and the Dharma are both complete at once!
Notes:
1. “Not included among sentient beings”: This has two meanings:
– The four classes of noble beings—śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas—have advanced into the realm of enlightened wisdom and therefore are not included among ordinary sentient beings.
– The four continents of the world—Pūrvavideha in the east, Jambudvīpa in the south, Aparagodānīya in the west, and Uttarakuru in the north—as well as mountains, rivers, trees, grasses, and so forth, are insentient things and thus are also said not to be included among sentient beings. This is because the term “sentient being” means “a being possessed of feeling and consciousness,” capable of experiencing such emotions as joy and laughter, suffering and weeping, and so forth.
“Permanent and impermanent”: Within the three worlds, the essential nature possessing the principle of neither arising nor ceasing is called permanent; phenomena that undergo arising, abiding, change, and cessation are called impermanent.
2. “Fundamental wisdom” is the wisdom that arises from True Wisdom, accords clearly with true principle, and realizes the actual wisdom of that true principle. It serves as the foundation for conventional wisdom, which knows this event and that characteristic among conditioned dharmas; therefore, it is called Fundamental Wisdom.
3. “Subsequently Attained Wisdom” is the conventional wisdom that, after true wisdom has been attained, clearly illuminates all the myriad phenomena of conditioned dharmas. Because this wisdom arises after fundamental wisdom, it is called Subsequently Attained Wisdom.
4. “The afflictive obstruction”: Greed, anger, delusion, and so forth disturb the innermost minds of sentient beings and are therefore called afflictions. Because they can obstruct the mind’s wisdom from awakening to the Way, they are called an obstruction—the afflictive obstruction. It arises from the malady of attachment to self. By eliminating this obstruction, those of the Two Vehicles realize nirvana.
5. “The cognitive obstruction”: Also called the obstruction to knowledge. Because of ignorance and deluded darkness, one cannot thoroughly understand the phenomenal characteristics and true nature of dharmas; therefore, it is called the “obstruction to knowledge.” This obstruction arises from the malady of attachment to dharmas. Even after eliminating this obstruction as well, a bodhisattva has not necessarily attained bodhi, because the two obstructions differ in breadth and subtlety.
6. “Ultimate truth”: Through the wisdom of noble beings, the true principle and nature are perceived. Because they are free from falsity and delusion, they are called true. Because this principle is certain and can no longer be shaken, it is called truth. Moreover, this principle and nature are real for noble beings; therefore, they are called truth—that which is certain and real.
7. “Conventional truth”: Those whose dispositions remain deluded perceive the phenomenal characteristics within the world. Because these accord with the ways of ordinary people and their deluded perceptions, they are called conventional. As this is the principle accepted by ordinary people, it is called truth, for people of the world regard it as certain and unshakable. Moreover, worldly people take these phenomenal characteristics to be real; therefore, they are called truth—that which is regarded as real.
8. “The six identities with the Buddha”: 1. Identity with the Buddha in principle: because all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature. 2.
Identity with the Buddha in name: because one understands the scriptures and, upon hearing the words, knows their meaning. 3. Identity with the Buddha in contemplative practice: because one practices in accordance with the teachings; this refers to those at the stage of the Five Grades. 4. Resemblance-identity with the Buddha: because one gives rise to wisdom and understanding resembling awakening; this refers to those at the stage of the Ten Faiths. 5.
Partial realization of identity with the Buddha: because, upon breaking through one portion of ignorance, one realizes a portion of the Dharma-body and awakened wisdom; this refers to those from the First Abode up through the stage of Equal Enlightenment. 6. Ultimate identity with the Buddha: because the elimination of ignorance and realization of awakened wisdom have both been perfected; this is the stage of Wondrous Enlightenment.
9. “The Buddha has ten bodies”: 1. The Buddha of Perfect Enlightenment; 2. the Buddha of Vows; 3. the Buddha of Karmic Retribution; 4. the Abiding and Sustaining Buddha; 5. the Buddha of Nirvana; 6. the Buddha of the Dharma Realm; 7. the Buddha of Mind; 8. the Buddha of Samādhi; 9. the Buddha of Original Nature; and 10. the Buddha Who Accords with Beings’ Delights.
1. The body of bodhi (the Buddha of Perfect Enlightenment): the Buddha-body that manifests the eight signs of attaining perfect enlightenment. 2. The body of vows (the Buddha of Vows): the Buddha-body that vows to be born in Tuṣita Heaven. 3.
The transformation body (the transformation Buddha): the Buddha-body that responsively manifests birth in a royal palace; wherever a transformation body is manifested, a body entering extinction must also be manifested, and therefore it is called the Buddha of Nirvana. 4. The abiding and sustaining body (the Abiding and Sustaining Buddha): the body whose relics remain after parinirvana in order to preserve and sustain the Buddhadharma. 5.
The body adorned with excellent marks (the Buddha of Karmic Retribution): the Buddha-body adorned with boundless marks and excellences, which is the recompense for the merit gained through cultivating the causes of the myriad practices and wholesome karma; therefore, it is called the Buddha of Karmic Retribution. 6. The body of spiritual power (the Buddha of Mind): because the Buddha uses His compassionate mind to gather in and subdue all beings, it is called the body of spiritual power. 7.
The wish-fulfilling body (the mind-born body): the Buddha-body manifested at will for bodhisattvas below and above the Ten Bhūmis. 8. The body of merit and virtue (the Buddha of Samādhi): the body that constantly abides in samādhi; because samādhi is the culmination of merit, it is called the body of merit and virtue. 9. The wisdom body (the Buddha of Nature): the four wisdoms, such as the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom.
Because all four wisdoms are the inherently existent virtues of the original nature, it is called the Buddha of Nature. 10. The Dharma-body (the Buddha of the Dharma Realm): the original nature clearly realized by the wisdom body.
10. “Freedom from the four extremes”: 1. Existence; 2. nonexistence; 3. both existence and nonexistence; 4. neither existence nor nonexistence. Attachment to any of these four as real constitutes a fault or error.
11. “Extinguishing the hundred negations”: Each of the four propositions above has its root and branches, pertains to the three times, and may have arisen or not yet arisen; together they form one hundred propositions. None is true and real, and therefore they are called “negations.” For example:
“Existence” has four propositions: 1. Existence exists; 2. existence does not exist; 3. existence both exists and does not exist; 4. existence neither exists nor does not exist.
“Nonexistence” has four propositions: 1. Nonexistence exists; 2. nonexistence does not exist; 3. nonexistence both exists and does not exist; 4. nonexistence neither exists nor does not exist.
“Both existence and nonexistence” has four propositions: 1. Both existence and nonexistence exist; 2. both existence and nonexistence do not exist; 3. both existence and nonexistence both exist and do not exist; 4. both existence and nonexistence neither exist nor do not exist.
“Neither existence nor nonexistence” has four propositions: 1. Neither existence nor nonexistence exists; 2. neither existence nor nonexistence does not exist; 3. neither existence nor nonexistence both exists and does not exist; 4. neither existence nor nonexistence neither exists nor does not exist.
This means that, with respect to its true principle, to say that it “exists” commits the error of superimposition; to say that it “does not exist” commits the error of diminution; to hold that it “both exists and does not exist” commits the error of contradiction; and to hold that it “neither exists nor does not exist” commits the error of frivolous theorizing. Because true principle transcends language and written words, any way of expressing it commits an error. Thus it is said: “When words arise, principle disperses; when it is spoken, horns grow upon the head”—that is, delusion arises.
12. “Reading the words of the ancients”: The Book of Zhuangzi records: “Duke Huan of Qi was reading a book in the upper hall. The wheelwright named Pian was hewing a wheel in the lower hall. Setting aside his mallet, chisel, and tools, he went up to the hall and respectfully asked:
– May I ask, Your Majesty, what book are you reading?
– A book by the ancients.
– Are the ancients still alive?
– They have passed away.
– Then is not the book being read merely the dregs of the ancients?
– I am reading a book; how dare you, Wheelwright Bian, come forward and pass judgment? I therefore decree: if what you say has sound reason, you shall live; but if you speak without reason, you shall be put to death!
– Your Majesty! Allow this humble servant to illustrate by examining his own craft as follows: When carving a wheel, if I work too slowly, the fit is loose and not firm; if I work too quickly, it is tight and will not go in. Thus, neither too quickly nor too slowly, it is grasped in the mind and manifested through the hands, and therein lies a principle that endures. Yet with this excellent craft, this humble servant cannot transmit it to his son, nor can his son inherit this humble servant's skill. Therefore, though I am now seventy years old and have grown feeble, this fine craft of wheel carving will merely grow old and perish together with this humble servant, with scarcely anyone left to preserve it! Alas! That which the ancients could not transmit has passed away together with them! Therefore, what Your Majesty is reading is no more than the husks and dregs of the ancients; how could it be something fresh and savory?
– Wheelwright Bian speaks most truly. I have only indirect contact with the writings of the ancients, not direct contact with the ancients themselves through any principle or flavor of the Way whatsoever."
13. "The Four Immeasurable Minds": 1. The immeasurable mind of loving-kindness: the mind that bestows happiness upon immeasurable sentient beings. 2. The immeasurable mind of compassion: the mind that rescues immeasurable sentient beings from suffering. 3. The immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy: the mind that rejoices and approves upon seeing sentient beings leave suffering and attain happiness. 4. The immeasurable mind of equanimity: relinquishing all three minds above, with no attachment in one's heart.
Toward those dear to us and those hostile to us, the mind remains impartial; gladly relinquishing attachment toward benefactors and adversaries alike, and impartially benefiting sentient beings, these are called the "Four Equal Minds." Universally delivering all sentient beings without discrimination is called the "Four Immeasurable Minds." These four minds are cultivated in reliance upon the four dhyanas; one who successfully cultivates them will be born in the Brahma heavens, and thus they are also called the "Four Brahma Practices."
14. "Beyond Learning": Among those on the path of cultivation, this refers to one who has realized the fourth fruition, namely arhatship. Because all delusive afflictions in the mind have been completely extinguished and the truth of noble wisdom has been fully realized, such a person is called one beyond learning, for there is no deluded mind left to extinguish and no further noble wisdom left to realize. Such a person has been liberated from the delusive and afflicted minds of sentient beings in the three realms. The noble ones of the other three fruitions are still under training because they must continue to eliminate delusions and realize the truth.
15. "The Three Knowledges": In a Buddha they are called the Three Penetrating Realizations; in an arhat they are called the Three Knowledges (because there is wisdom that clearly comprehends all dharmas and phenomena, it is called knowledge). 1. Knowledge of past lives: knowing all the births and deaths of oneself and sentient beings in previous lives; 2.
Knowledge of the divine eye: comprehending all the characteristics of the future births and deaths of oneself and sentient beings; 3. Clearly comprehending all the characteristics of the suffering of birth and death experienced by oneself and sentient beings in this present life: through this wisdom, one personally eliminates all afflictions. The word "outflow" means affliction; the exhaustion of outflows means that afflictions have been completely ended.
Afflictions are greed, anger, ignorance, the seven emotions, and the six desires.
16. "The Six Superknowledges": The noble ones of the Three Vehicles who cultivate and attain spiritual powers possess six abilities: the superknowledge of the divine eye, the superknowledge of the divine ear, the superknowledge of others' minds, the superknowledge of past lives, the superknowledge of miraculous powers, and the superknowledge of the exhaustion of outflows. 1. Attaining a faculty of sight like the eyes of devas in the Form Realm: gazing for a long time without weariness or blinking and seeing through everything without obstruction; this is called the superknowledge of the divine eye. 2.
Attaining a faculty of hearing like the ears of devas in the Form Realm: clearly hearing and recognizing the voices of all sentient beings without obstruction; this is called the superknowledge of the divine ear. 3. Realizing luminous wisdom that knows all the thoughts of sentient beings; this is called the superknowledge of others' minds. 4. Attaining the wisdom to know for oneself all the lives of oneself and sentient beings in the six paths, from this present life through many previous kalpas; this is called the superknowledge of past lives. 5.
Attaining the spiritual power to travel back and forth with great speed and freedom, without any obstruction; this is called the superknowledge of miraculous powers. 6. The superknowledge of the exhaustion of outflows is the knowledge of the exhaustion of outflows explained above among the Three Knowledges.
Only practitioners of the Buddha's teaching who realize arhatship attain the superknowledge of the exhaustion of outflows. As for the preceding five superknowledges, they may also be attained by non-Buddhist practitioners cultivating immortality, those cultivating mundane meditative practices with outflows, those refining elixirs, incantations, talismans, or sorcery, and even devas in the three realms, spirits, demons, and others: they may attain five, four, three, two, or one of the superknowledges. Ultimately, however, they must all return to samsara as ordinary beings because they have not realized the superknowledge of the exhaustion of outflows. The word "superknowledge" means functioning freely without any obstruction.
When Buddhas, bodhisattvas, non-Buddhist practitioners, and immortals attain these through cultivation, this is called "spiritual power attained through cultivation," because the noble and worthy ones of the Three Vehicles cultivate the three trainings and attain the six superknowledges, while non-Buddhist immortals cultivate meditative concentration and manifest the five superknowledges. All devas in the three realms inherently possess the five superknowledges, and even ghosts and spirits possess one or two; these are collectively called "spiritual powers attained through karmic retribution," because they are naturally possessed in accordance with the resulting retribution.
Furthermore, the attainments of ghosts, spirits, and fox spirits are called "karmic superknowledges," because they are attained through the power of karma.
(Only through practicing the Buddha's teaching can one attain the six superknowledges. Other paths have only the five superknowledges and remain subject to the cycle of birth and death, because they have not extinguished the subtle deluded thoughts of consciousness. Even if they cultivate to the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, they have eliminated only the coarse portion.)
17. "The Dragons Submit in Defeat": The two dragon brothers Nanda and Upananda both dwelt in the ocean beside Mount Sumeru. The Buddha often ascended to the Trayastrimsa Heaven, and the two dragons angrily complained: "Why does this shaven-headed man keep walking over our dwelling place?" The next time the Buddha again ascended to the Trayastrimsa Heaven, the two dragons breathed forth smoke that became black clouds, shrouding heaven and earth in impenetrable darkness.
The bhiksus asked permission to subdue them, but the Buddha did not allow it. Only when Maudgalyayana came forward and requested permission did the Buddha consent. One of the dragons manifested an immensely long and enormous body, encircling Mount Sumeru seven times, its tail striking the waters of the ocean and its head resting upon the mountain's summit.
Venerable Maudgalyayana transformed himself into a dragon body twice as large and long, encircling the mountain fourteen times, with his tail stirring the very bottom of the ocean and his head rising to the Brahma Heaven. The two dragons grew still more furious and conjured a shower of stones and gravel. Venerable Maudgalyayana transformed those stones and gravel into lovely, soft lotus flowers.
The dragons remained angry and would not relent, so Maudgalyayana transformed himself into innumerable tiny maggots that burrowed beneath every scale and bit them everywhere, crawling from their eyes into their ears and from their ears into their noses, constantly wriggling in and crawling out in swarms. Overwhelmed by pain, the dragons were forced to submit and vowed to take refuge in the Three Jewels.
18. "Not Allowing the Mountain to Be Moved": There was a non-Buddhist sect consisting of a teacher and his disciples, five hundred masters in all, who employed the power of cultivated incantations to move a mountain and replace the monastery there with their hermitage. They practiced for more than a month, and the mountain began to shake. Maudgalyayana felt compassion, for if the mountain were moved, all the people in the surrounding region would suffer great harm.
He ascended to the summit of the mountain and sat in meditative concentration, whereupon the mountain became still as before. They exclaimed in astonishment: "Our Dharma had already caused the mountain to move, and in only a few more days we would have displaced it. Why has it become immovable again? Surely a compassionate disciple of the Buddha has caused this!" Knowing that their powers were weak, they led one another to take refuge in the Buddha.
19. “Hiding the descendants of the Sakya clan in a heavenly palace”: King Lưu Ly attacked and slaughtered the Sakya clan. Mục Liên wished to save them, but the Buddha explained that fixed karma is difficult to escape.
To save them would have been an unjust act, for King Lưu Ly would thereby have been deprived of the debt owed to him! Although he understood the principle of cause, effect, and retribution between the Sakya clan and King Lưu Ly, Mục Liên could not bear to remain indifferent and merely look on. Through his supernormal powers, he placed five hundred members of the Sakya clan inside his alms bowl and hid them in the palace of the Great Brahma Heaven.
When the battle had ended, Mục Liên went up, brought the alms bowl back, and opened its lid to look inside. The five hundred members of the Sakya clan had disappeared; nothing remained but a bowlful of blood. From this it may be understood that, where the karmic force of retribution is concerned, even the Buddha cannot show partiality and save one party unjustly at the expense of the party demanding repayment!
20. “Stopping the chariot and burning the palace”: Kỳ Vực, the patriarch of physicians in India and a disciple of Mục Liên, had passed away and been reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. Because one of his disciples was suffering from an incurable illness, Mục Liên ascended to heaven to ask about medicine.
He encountered the devas traveling to a festive gathering for amusement. Kỳ Vực, seated in his chariot, did not step down, but merely joined his palms in greeting to his teacher. Mục Liên used his supernormal power to prevent the chariot from moving.
Compelled to do so, Kỳ Vực descended from the chariot and confessed: “Because the devas enjoy their blessings, they are compelled to become intoxicated with pleasure, to the point that they have no leisure even to look at one another! Venerable sir, what do you desire that you should restrict your disciple’s freedom and happiness in this way?” Venerable Mục Liên told him that he had come seeking medicine to cure an illness.
Kỳ Vực replied: “For that illness, the only remaining remedy is the heavenly cure—namely, fasting. Then the illness will naturally be healed; and even if it is not healed, the sufferer will soon be released from this body of suffering.” Mục Liên then released the chariot, allowing Kỳ Vực to go and enjoy himself with the devas. (In some places Kỳ Vực is called Kỳ Bà.)
After Lord Śakra had won the battle fought against the asuras, he constructed a wondrous and magnificent palace of the seven treasures to commemorate the victory and reward his generals and troops. There were banquets and celebrations, with many entertainments performed in rejoicing over the victory and rewards. On that occasion, Venerable Mục Liên paid a visit.
The Lord of Heaven welcomed him, escorted him around the exhibition, and explained and introduced the various sights and their names. Seeing Mục Liên and thinking that he was merely a monk newly arrived from the human realm, the heavenly maidens pretended to be shy and embarrassed, slipping behind jeweled curtains and floral canopies and whispering among themselves, for they could not freely dance and sing in attendance upon their lord.
Mục Liên knew that, because of this, their lord was unable to cultivate himself vigilantly. For this very reason, Mục Liên used his supernormal power to manifest the true fire of samādhi, which blazed and roared fiercely. All the relatives and attendants of the Lord of Heaven saw the palace of victory catch fire and burn to ashes!
Lord and subjects alike became sorrowful and lamented: “Before we had our fill of that joy, this sorrow came pressing upon us.” Taking the opportunity, Mục Liên consoled them and taught: “There is no peace in the three realms; they are like a burning house. Pleasure is the cause of suffering. All is impermanent and without self.” …
Hearing this, Lord Śakra was freed from delusion, turned back, awakened, and joyfully devoted himself to cultivation; he also returned the prisoners of war to the asura king. Mục Liên then withdrew his supernormal power, whereupon the lord, his relatives, and his subjects saw that the palace of victory remained perfectly intact. Only then did they understand that the Venerable One’s miraculous display had been intended to transform and teach them, and so forth.
21. “The two words ‘sweeping’ and ‘broom’”: “Tảo” means to sweep; “chửu” means a broom. The Dhammapada records: “In the country of Śrāvastī there was a bhikkhu named Bàn Đặc. After going forth, he studied continually but could not memorize anything, for he was exceedingly dull and slow-witted! The Buddha therefore entrusted him to five hundred holy arhats, two of whom took turns each day teaching him the following verse:
“Diligently sweep the monastery grounds,
At all times merit and wisdom arise;
Though no new guests arrive,
There are still holy ones walking there.”
MEANING:
Diligently sweep the monastery grounds,
At every hour merit and wisdom arise;
Though no guests should come,
There are still holy ones walking there.
Eight years passed, yet he still had not memorized it! His elder brother, Châu Lợi, rebuked him, saying: “You are incapable of memorizing it. It would be better to stop!
Return to lay life and become a householder, and let that be the end of it!” Bàn Đặc went and stood leaning against the gate of Kỳ Hoàn, weeping and lamenting: “If I return to lay life, how will I be able to see the Blessed One every day?” Seeing him, the Buddha came out and asked: “What is the matter?” He replied: “The five hundred holy monks have grown weary of teaching me because I am so slow-witted, and my elder brother has also driven me away to return to lay life.
Fearing that I will no longer be able to see the Buddha regularly, I weep!” The Buddha said: “There, do not cry! Come inside.” The Buddha took him by the hand, led him back to the monastery, and told him to remain with the Buddha. The Buddha then gave him a broom and taught him the two words: “Broom—sweep.” He could recite “broom” but would forget the word “sweep”; whenever he remembered “sweep,” he would forget the word “broom.” This continued for several days.
When the Buddha perceived that his karmic obstructions were nearly exhausted, he took the opportunity to instruct him: “These two words, ‘broom’ and ‘sweep,’ possess both a phenomenal and a principial meaning. Phenomenally, one takes a visible, material broom and sweeps away the dust and refuse outside the house—that is, upon the ground—so that both oneself and others may enjoy a cool and pleasant environment. What is the principial meaning?
It is to uphold the invisible broom of the Dharma and sweep away the dust of afflictions inside the house—that is, within the ground of the mind—so that purity may be preserved for oneself and others. In short, it means sweeping away all worldly dust and defilement within the bodies and minds of ourselves and others. What is so strange about that, that you cannot remember it?” As soon as the Buddha finished speaking, Bàn Đặc’s mind became luminous and clear; he attained the fruit of arhatship and acquired the six supernormal powers.
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