觀無量壽佛經義疏

EXPLANATION OF THE SCRIPTURAL TEXT

The explanation of the scriptural text is divided into two parts: explanation of the title of the sutra and explanation of the scriptural text.

EXPLANATION OF THE TITLE OF THE SUTRA

According to the later passage in which Ananda addresses a question to the Buddha, this sutra has two titles. The first is the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Land of Ultimate Bliss, the Buddha of Infinite Life, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and Bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta. This title is established according to the contemplating mind and the objects contemplated. The second is the Sutra on Purifying and Removing Karmic Obstructions and Being Born in the Presence of the Buddhas. This title is established according to the meaning of overcoming obstructions and experiencing the resulting recompense.

In the first title, the word “Contemplation” indicates the wisdom that contemplates; the following eighteen words indicate the objects contemplated. The Land of Ultimate Bliss is the circumstantial recompense and encompasses the first six contemplations. The Buddha of Infinite Life and the rest constitute the direct recompense and encompass the latter ten contemplations. Among these, contemplation of the Buddha comprises the first three of these contemplations, while contemplation of the two bodhisattvas comprises the latter seven. Thus, the title of this sutra fully presents all sixteen contemplations.

“Purifying and Removing Karmic Obstructions” in the second title indicates the function and power of the sixteen contemplations. Accomplishing contemplation and overcoming obstructions constitute the cause visible in the present. “Being Born in the Presence of the Buddhas” is the future fruit.

It does not speak specifically of Amitabha Buddha but says “the Buddhas,” in accordance with the later passage of the sutra: “To see the Buddha of Infinite Life is to see the immeasurable Buddhas throughout the ten directions, and so forth.” Present-day translators use only the first title, but in an abbreviated form, because merely relying on the meaning of “the Buddhas” already accords very well with the essential purport of the sutra.

The commentary of the Tiantai Master states: “Presenting the direct recompense also encompasses the circumstantial recompense; speaking of the Teacher encompasses his assembly. Although there are sixteen contemplations, the contemplation of the Buddha fully pervades them all.” This explanation is based on the principle that presenting the essential point encompasses everything. Master Huiyuan’s commentary states: “This sutra takes the contemplation of the Buddha as primary; therefore, it presents only that contemplation.” This explanation is based on the principle that the contemplations mutually support one another in accordance with the central teaching of the sutra.

I now consider both of the foregoing explanations entirely correct. Because contemplation of the Buddha is primary, one must first contemplate the land as the proximate condition and then, from this, contemplate the Buddha’s surroundings and assembly in order to reveal the all-encompassing meaning. Therefore, contemplation of the Buddha is called in the text the samadhi of mindfulness of the Buddha.

The first seven words, “The Buddha Speaks the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life,” constitute the specific title, applying exclusively to this sutra. The word “Sutra” is the common title, applying generally to all sutras. The two words “The Buddha Speaks” identify the Teaching Master who expounds it.

The five words “Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life” set forth the contemplation taught by the Buddha.

First, the word “Buddha” in the section concerning the one who expounds the teaching is one of the Buddha’s ten epithets. The word “speaks” means to bring satisfaction to everyone. The Teaching Master of this realm is certainly Sakyamuni Buddha; therefore, his general epithet is given. Lest the object contemplated below be confused with other Buddhas, both the general and specific names are stated.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “All sutras are spoken by five classes of beings: 1. Buddhas; 2. noble disciples; 3. seers; 4. heavenly maras, ghosts, and spirits; and 5. magically transformed beings.”

The purpose is to show that this sutra was spoken personally by the Buddha, rather than by anyone else, so that people may accept it with faith. Only when the teachings and precepts are spoken by the Buddha are their profound and sublime meanings fully understood; therefore, sutras spoken by others require the Buddha’s confirmation. Since the Pure Land Dharma gate presented in this sutra was certainly spoken by the Buddha, it clearly was not taught by followers of the Lesser Vehicle or by ordinary beings. Thus, while it may not be necessary to specify this for other sutras, Pure Land sutras must state it so that sentient beings may clearly recognize this fact.

Second, the word “Contemplation” in the section concerning what is taught—“Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life”—refers to the mind that contemplates. The following four words designate the object contemplated.

– With regard to contemplation, both the Great Vehicle and the Lesser Vehicle regard the sixth consciousness—the mental consciousness—as the substance of that which contemplates. Among the five skandhas, it belongs to wholesome formations within the formations skandha. The mental substance of the three skandhas preceding the formations skandha—form, feeling, and perception—is merely indeterminate. Therefore, one must necessarily take the formations that produce karma as that which can bring about the recompense of rebirth. According to later passages of the sutra, it is sometimes called visualization and sometimes called reflection. Though the names differ, their substance is the same: all refer to mental reflection as that which contemplates.

– Infinite Life is also called Infinite Light; in Sanskrit, Amitabha. These correspond precisely to the twelfth vow, “Infinite Light,” and the thirteenth vow, “Infinite Life,” among the forty-eight vows of Bhiksu Dharmakara. Life represents merit and is precisely the virtue of Liberation; light represents wisdom and is precisely the virtue of Prajnaparamita. Prajnaparamita and Liberation together adorn the Dharma body. This is the Teaching Master who transforms sentient beings in the Pure Land of Common Residence. Furthermore, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is at the stage of one lifetime before Buddhahood and in reality has a finite lifespan; yet, compared with sravakas and ordinary beings, the lifespans of such bodhisattvas are incalculable and are therefore called infinite. “Buddha,” in full, is “Buddha,” translated in China as “Awakened One.” Awakening has two meanings. The first is vigilant awareness: the four abiding afflictions[50] are like bandits, and only noble beings who are aware of them avoid being harmed by them. The second is awakening from delusion: ignorance is like sleep, and when the wisdom of a noble being arises, it is like awakening from sleep. To distinguish it from the awakening of those of the Two Vehicles, it is called Great Awakening; because it surpasses Equal Awakening, it is called Wondrous Awakening. Furthermore, only one characteristic is discussed here. The other characteristics will be discussed in the section on specific explanation, while the light of the body will be explained in detail in the section on contemplation of the Buddha.

“Sutra,” in Sanskrit, is sutra, translated in China as “thread,” meaning that it strings together the principles and preserves sentient beings. A sutra performs the functions of connecting and preserving, just as a thread does. Its sounds, terms, sentences, passages, and so forth are expedient means capable of expressing and presenting the doctrine.

Through the teaching, one comes to know the principle; relying on the principle, one gives rise to cultivation; through cultivation, one experiences the fruit. The three aspects of Principle, Practice, and Fruit all arise from the Teaching. Therefore, it should be understood that during the Semblance Dharma and the Dharma-ending age, nothing is more efficacious than the Teaching.

The Teaching is the cause and condition for realizing the fruit of the path and the fundamental foundation for transcending the three realms. When the ancients disparaged the sutras, it was to eliminate emotional attachment; but if later students, through ignorance, give rise to contempt, they sever the seeds of Buddhahood, destroy the Buddha’s Dharma body, fall forever into deviant paths, and perpetually endure suffering and calamity.

Even if people mistake the finger for the moon or mistake the raft for the farther shore, they merely distance themselves from the conditions for liberation; they do not lose the blessings of human and heavenly rebirth. How much more inexhaustible, then, are the benefits for those of exceptional faculties and wisdom. An ancient commentary states: “Sutra means a rule and that which is constant; because it proceeds from the mouth of a noble being, it is called a Sutra.”

EXPLANATION OF THE SCRIPTURAL TEXT

The scriptural text is divided into three parts: Introduction, Main Teaching, and Transmission.

– The Introduction extends from the beginning through the phrase “the sphere of pure karma.”

– The Main Teaching extends from the phrase “At that time, the Buddha emitted light from between his eyebrows” through the phrase “immeasurable heavenly beings brought forth the aspiration for the unsurpassed path.”

– The Transmission extends from the phrase “At that time, Venerable Ananda asked the Buddha, ‘What should this sutra be called?’” through the end.

The practice of dividing a sutra into three parts for explanation began with Master Miti—Shi Dao’an. Depending on the particular sutra, however, the three parts may sometimes be complete and sometimes incomplete; this division is by no means fixed in every case.

A. THE INTRODUCTION

This is divided into two parts: 1) From the beginning through the phrase “All were foremost among the assembly” is the Preface Establishing Faith. It employs six matters as testimony, causing everyone to be free from doubt. 2) From the phrase “At that time, in Rājagṛha” onward is the Preface Giving Rise to the Teaching. The Dharma does not arise spontaneously but must have a cause.

Establishing faith is the general preface common to all sutras. Giving rise to the teaching is the particular preface of each sutra. Furthermore, in the section Establishing Faith, the text is general, but its meaning is particular, because such a teaching is confined to this sutra alone.

In the section Giving Rise to the Teaching, the text is particular, but its meaning is general, because the beginning of every sutra states the causes and conditions. Furthermore, because the section Establishing Faith was added only at the time of compilation, it is called the Sutra’s Later Preface.

A.I. PREFACE ESTABLISHING FAITH

There are six matters: 1/ “Thus indeed!”, indicating the Dharma taught in the Main Exposition. 2/ “I myself heard,” meaning that the Venerable Ānanda personally heard the Buddha speak it and did not compose it himself. 3/ “At one time,” the period beginning when the audience assembled and ending when the Dharma discourse concluded, establishing that it was not at another time. 4/ “The Buddha,” the Teacher who expounded the Dharma and not someone else. 5/ “The city of Rājagṛha,” the place where the sutra was taught. 6/ “The great assembly of bhikṣus, etc.,” those who heard it together.

1) The Dharma taught in the Main Exposition: “Thus,” because it accords with principle, it is called “thus”; because it eliminates every error, it is called “indeed”; because it can certainly be accepted in faith, it is called “Thus indeed!”

2) It was not spoken by the compiler himself: “I heard,” because all dharmas are without self, and where there is no self, there is no hearing. Nevertheless, in accordance with the conventional designation[51] of the world, it is called “I.”

3) Establishing that it was not at another time: “At one time.” The occasions on which the Tathagata taught sutras were innumerable and cannot be precisely determined; therefore, the text says “at one time.” Moreover, the methods of calculating years, months, days, and hours in India and China are not the same. If the sutras were transmitted to other regions, people there would not understand them. Furthermore, some sutras could not be completed during the assembly itself and were edited into their final textual form only at the time of compilation.

Since the earlier and later events did not occur simultaneously, it is difficult to state a specific time. In this sutra, King Ajātaśatru committed a rebellious offense, the Tathagata taught the sutra, and the Venerable Ānanda later recounted it. How could these be regarded as occurring at the same time?

Therefore, only the word “one” can encompass the entire meaning.

4) The Teacher who expounded the teaching: “Buddha.” In Chinese, the word Buddha is translated as “Awakened One.” Self-awakening distinguishes him from ordinary beings; awakening others distinguishes him from those of the Two Vehicles; and perfect awakening distinguishes him from bodhisattvas. He is therefore called the Greatly Awakened One. Here it refers to Śākyamuni Buddha revealing the Pure Land Dharma gate.

5) The place where the sutra was taught. This has two aspects: the region being taught and the dwelling place.

a. The region being taught: the city of Rājagṛha, called La-duyệt-kì-già-la in Sanskrit transliteration. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom explains: “Because it was founded by a king, it was named accordingly. That is, it was the king’s dwelling place.”

b. The dwelling place: on Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa. Gṛdhrakūṭa is translated into Chinese as Vulture Peak. It was so named because spiritual beings often dwelt there; or because the shape of its summit resembled a vulture; or because vultures often gathered there.

6) The great assembly who heard the teaching together. This has two groups: the śrāvaka assembly and the bodhisattva assembly.

a. The śrāvaka assembly: “Together with an assembly of 1,250 bhikṣus.” In terms of aspiration, the bodhisattvas should be listed first; here, however, the śrāvakas appear first in accordance with ceremonial order. The śrāvakas are further divided into two.

The great bhikṣus were the foremost disciples, such as Kāśyapa, Ānanda, Maudgalyāyana, Śāriputra, and others. The word “great” praises their virtue. The Sanskrit is mahā, translated into Chinese as Great, Many, and Supreme.

Because they were revered by gods and humans, they were called Great; because they were thoroughly versed in many scriptures, they were called Many; and because they surpassed followers of other paths, they were called Supreme. In terms of the causes they cultivated, they were called bhikṣus, which has three meanings: mendicants, frighteners of Māra, and destroyers of evil. In terms of the fruit they realized, they were called arhats, which likewise has three meanings: worthy of offerings, slayers of thieves, and those beyond further birth.

The Sanskrit is Saṅgha, translated into Chinese as Assembly. When four or more persons live harmoniously without contention and together perform karmans and recite the precepts in order to accomplish all matters of eliminating evil and giving rise to goodness, they are called an Assembly. The 1,250 persons were disciples and attendants.

The three Kāśyapa brothers had 1,000 disciples, while Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra together had 250 disciples. Formerly, they had all been followers of non-Buddhist paths who worshiped fire.[52] Although they had practiced austerities for a long time, they had not gained the slightest realization. Upon meeting the Tathagata on one occasion, they immediately realized the noble fruit.

Deeply grateful for the Buddha’s profound kindness, they constantly attended upon him.

b. The bodhisattva assembly. This has three aspects: stating their spiritual stage, enumerating their number, and briefly identifying those foremost among them.

– Stating their spiritual stage: Bodhisattva. The full Sanskrit transliteration is Mahā-bodhicitta-sattva, translated into Chinese as “a sentient being who has realized the mind of the Great Way.” Although bodhisattvas may be greater or lesser and their practices may be shallow or profound, those who heard this teaching together were all bodhisattvas in the position of succession.

– Enumerating their number: The figure of 32,000 generally indicates the attendants of those foremost among the assembly.

– Briefly identifying those foremost among them: Mañjuśrī, Prince of the Dharma King. Mañjuśrī (Mađjurỵ) is translated into Chinese as Wondrous Virtue. Because he was born through transformation from the Dharma and perpetuated the lineage of the Buddhas, he was called a Prince of the Dharma King. Both the Longer[53] and Shorter versions of the Amitābha Sutra enumerate very large assemblies. This sutra mentions them only very briefly, because the manner of transmission and translation differed according to the time. Logically, other assemblies, such as gods and humans, should also have been mentioned. The later Dissemination Section states: “Innumerable devas, nāgas, yakṣas, and others,” which is sufficient to show that they were omitted from the preface.

A.II. PREFACE GIVING RISE TO THE TEACHING

The causal occasions of the sutras differ according to their circumstances. This sutra takes King Ajātaśatru’s rebellious offense as its causal occasion. Two meanings are briefly stated:

– It seeks to make clear that sentient beings in this realm should grow weary of its evil conditions. If one dares to harm even one’s own parents, who gave one life and raised one, how much more readily might one harm others? The intention is to cause sentient beings of later generations to delight in the Pure Land.

– It seeks to explain that unless sentient beings in this realm encounter extreme suffering, they do not think of liberation and do not seek rebirth in the Pure Land. Therefore, Vaidehī petitioned the Buddha: “World-Honored One, show me a place where there is no sorrow or affliction. I shall vow to be born there. I take no delight in this evil and defiled world of Jambudvīpa, and so forth.” This passage consists of two parts: 1. From the beginning through “Her countenance became bright and joyful” concerns Ajātaśatru’s imprisonment of his royal father. 2. From the phrase “Ajātaśatru then questioned the gatekeeper” onward describes Ajātaśatru’s intention to harm his mother.

A.II.1. AJĀTAŚATRU IMPRISONS HIS ROYAL FATHER

There are four points: 1. King Bimbisāra was confined by his son in a sealed prison; 2. The queen secretly brought dry food and water to sustain the king; 3. He requested the Dharma of the precepts to liberate his mind; 4. Nourished by Dharma food and material food, he remained alive for a long time.

1. King Bimbisāra was imprisoned by his son

The sutra states: “At that time, in the city of Rājagṛha, there was a crown prince named Ajātaśatru. Following the incitement of his evil friend Devadatta, he seized his father, King Bimbisāra, and confined him in a sealed prison surrounded by seven gates. He ordered his ministers and officials that no one was permitted to approach.”

Explanation: Ajātaśatru is translated into Chinese as “Enemy Before Birth.”

The Nirvana Sutra states: “Before he was born, all the physiognomists predicted that, after this child’s birth, he would certainly kill his royal father.” It also states: “Ajāta means ‘unborn,’ and śatru means ‘enemy.’ Because when the Buddha-nature is not brought forth, the enemies of affliction will certainly arise.”

Devadatta’s full name is Devadatta, translated in China as “Heavenly Heat,” because when he was born, all the devas were afflicted by heat. Thus, it was known that upon entering the world he would certainly bring ruin to the Three Jewels. He was the son of King Dronodana, a younger cousin of the Buddha, and the elder brother of Ananda.

He possessed thirty noble marks, and after renouncing the household life, he memorized sixty thousand Dharma verses and the twelve divisions of the Vedas. Seeing that the Tathagata was revered and admired by kings, nobles, and great ministers and received abundant offerings and provisions, he became jealous and went before the Buddha to ask for leadership of the Sangha. When the Buddha rebuked him, he plotted to harm the Buddha.

The Venerable Ananda, unaware of his intentions, transmitted the supernormal powers to him. Devadatta entered the mountains to practice, attained the Five Superknowledges, and then sought benefactors to support him. Because Prince Ajatashatru bore the marks of one destined to become king, Devadatta manifested various supernormal transformations to induce the Prince to place his trust in him.

He said to the Prince: “I shall become the new Buddha, and the Prince shall become the new king. Would that not be gratifying?” He then used his supernormal powers to push a boulder down upon the Buddha. At that time, the Vajrapani deity Guhyakapada shattered the boulder with his vajra club, but a small fragment flew off and injured the Buddha’s toe.

This constituted the offense of shedding the Buddha’s blood. Afterward, Devadatta proclaimed himself a Buddha and established five false teachings with which to instruct people. Five hundred newly ordained bhiksus, including Tam Van Dat and others, accepted Devadatta’s false teachings, formed a separate assembly, went on alms rounds separately, and held the posadha separately.

This constituted the offense of splitting the Dharma-wheel Sangha. When the bhiksuni Utpalavarna encountered and reproached him on the road, he struck her and knocked out her eye, thereby committing the offense of killing an arhat. For committing these three heinous offenses, he was bound to be reborn in hell.

Ajatashatru, meanwhile, committed the offenses of killing his father and harming his mother, thereby also committing the five heinous offenses. These events were the Buddha’s use of vast skillful means to teach and transform beings. Whether acting in opposition or in accord, all served to benefit sentient beings, so that beings of later generations would no longer give rise to heinous evil karma.

The sutra states: “They manifest the three poisons and also manifest the appearance of wrong views. My disciples employ such skillful means to liberate sentient beings.” Moreover, the Nirvana Sutra states: “Devadatta never committed heinous offenses, fell into hell, and so forth.” In truth, this is not something that sravakas or pratyekabuddhas can know; only the Buddhas fully comprehend it.

Bimbisara is translated in China as “Modeled Reality,” and also as “Firm Image,” meaning that his body was full and well developed, or that his countenance was upright and handsome.

The sevenfold prison chambers were intended to prevent anyone from entering or leaving, and strict regulations were added so that the king would quickly starve to death.

2. The Queen Provides Sustenance

The sutra states: “Queen Vaidehi, out of reverence for the Great King, bathed and cleansed her body, mixed ghee and honey with flour and smeared the paste upon her body, filled the beads of her jeweled necklaces with fruit juice, and secretly carried these things in to offer to the king.”

Explanation: Vaidehi is translated in China as “Contemplation.” That she had previously been given this name was precisely a prediction that on this day she would request the Buddha to teach the Contemplation Sutra. She bathed and cleansed herself, smeared food upon her body, poured fruit juice into the beads of her jeweled necklaces, and then stealthily entered the forbidden prison; hence it is called “secretly.”

3. The King Requests the Precepts and Dharma

There are three matters: King Bimbisara presents his circumstances to Maudgalyayana, Maudgalyayana responds according to the occasion, and the Buddha sends Purna to teach the Dharma.

– The King Requests Maudgalyayana

The sutra states: “At that time, after the Great King had eaten the flour paste, drunk the fruit juice, and rinsed his mouth, he respectfully joined his palms, faced Vulture Peak, bowed to the World-Honored One, and said: ‘World-Honored One! The great Maudgalyayana is my close friend. I humbly implore you, out of compassion, to have him confer the Eight Precepts upon me.’”

Explanation: Maudgalyayana is translated in China as “Descendant of the Bean-Gathering Clan,” for he descended from a sage of ancient times. That sage gathered beans each day for food and was therefore surnamed “Bean-Gatherer.” Maudgalyayana was a teacher of the royal family and was therefore called a close friend.

– Maudgalyayana Responds According to the Occasion

The sutra states: “Thereupon, Maudgalyayana flew as swiftly as a hawk or falcon to the king’s dwelling, and in this way conferred the Eight Precepts upon the king each day.”

Explanation: Maudgalyayana knew that the proper time had arrived and that the king’s capacities were suitable, so he came. Flying like a hawk or falcon is an analogy for the extreme swiftness of his supernormal powers.

The Eight Precepts of the fasting observance are limited to one day and one night, and so they were received anew each day. This is the rule according to many schools. According to the Satyasiddhi Shastra, however, their observance is not restricted to either a short or a long period.

– The Buddha Sends Purna to Teach the Dharma

The sutra states: “The Buddha also sent the Venerable Purna to teach the Dharma to the king.”

Explanation: Purna is translated in China as “Son of Fullness and Loving-Kindness,” a name derived from the family names of his father and mother. He was foremost among the disciples in teaching the Dharma. Because he was highly skilled in instruction, the Buddha sent him.

4. Dharma and Food Nourish the Mind and Body

The sutra states: “After twenty-one days had passed in this manner, the king had eaten the honeyed flour paste and heard the Dharma, so his complexion once again became bright and joyful. Food nourished his body, and the Dharma nourished his mind. The original plan had been to cause the king, his father, to starve to death, but Bimbisara instead remained well nourished. Ajatashatru therefore became enraged and immediately investigated the cause.”

Explanation: When compared with the Nirvana Sutra, this sutra differs slightly. It is therefore necessary to quote that text.

The Nirvana Sutra states: “King Bimbisara’s prince in the kingdom of Rajagrha was named Sudarsana. Because of karmic causes, an evil and rebellious thought arose in him, and he wished to harm his own father, but he did not succeed. At that time, the wicked Devadatta, also because of karmic causes from the past, gave rise to an unwholesome thought and wished to harm me. He therefore cultivated the Five Superknowledges, soon attained supernormal powers, and then befriended the Prince. Wishing to gain the Prince’s trust, he displayed magical feats. Seeing these, the Prince became reverent and arranged offerings for him.

“One day, the Prince said:

“‘I now wish to see mandarava flowers.’

“Devadatta immediately went to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three to ask for those flowers. Because his merit had been exhausted, the devas would not give them to him. Unable to obtain the flowers by asking, he attempted to steal them. He immediately lost all his supernormal powers and had to manifest his body once again in Rajagrha. Deeply ashamed, he dared not go to see the Prince. He therefore went directly to the Buddha and requested leadership of the Sangha, saying:

“‘I pray that the Tathagata entrust this great assembly to me!’

“The Buddha said:

“‘Foolish man! I would not entrust the great assembly even to intelligent and wise men such as Sariputra, much less to you, a fool who eats spittle!’ (For when Devadatta displayed his supernormal powers, he had manifested as a child who ate Ajatashatru’s spittle.)

“Devadatta’s malicious intent then doubled, and he said:

“‘Gautama! Although you have gained control of the great assembly, before long you will be destroyed.’

“As soon as he had spoken, the earth shook in six ways[54], and Devadatta collapsed to the ground. At that very moment, a violent wind arose and blew up clouds of dust, covering his entire body with filth.

“Devadatta said:

“‘Even if I should fall into hell, I shall certainly avenge this humiliation!’

“Devadatta then rose and went to the Prince.

“The Prince immediately asked: ‘Why is your countenance so haggard, and why do you appear so distressed?’

“‘The Prince and I are now the closest of friends. When people revile the Prince, how could I not grieve?’ Devadatta replied.

“The Prince asked: ‘How do they revile me?’

“‘The people of this kingdom revile the Prince by calling him “Enemy Before Birth,”’ Devadatta replied.

“The Prince asked: ‘Why?’

“Devadatta said:”

– Before he was born, all the physiognomists declared: “After this child is born, he will kill his father.” Everyone in the palace, wishing to gain the Crown Prince’s favor, therefore called him Good Vision. When Queen Vaidehi heard this, after giving birth to him she carried him to the top of a high tower and dropped him to the ground, causing one of the Crown Prince’s fingers to break. Thus he was also called Bālaluozhi (translated in Chinese as Broken Finger or Missing Finger). When I heard of this, I felt deeply grieved, but I could not go and tell the Crown Prince.”

Devadatta recounted such evil deeds solely to incite the Crown Prince to kill his father.

– If your royal father dies, I too will be able to kill the śramaṇa Gautama.

The Crown Prince then seized his royal father and imprisoned him outside the city, posting four divisions of troops to guard him. Queen Vaidehi went to visit the king. At that time, the guards refused to let her enter. The Queen rebuked them, and the guards immediately reported to the Crown Prince:

– The Great Queen wishes to enter and visit your royal father. Will Your Highness permit her to enter?

The Crown Prince became furious. He went before his mother, seized her by the hair, drew his sword, and was about to kill her.

Jīvaka remonstrated with him:

– Since the founding of this kingdom, even when a woman committed the gravest offense, she was never sentenced to death. How much less should this be done to the mother who gave birth to you! Hearing these words, the Crown Prince spared his mother. But he did not allow his royal father to receive clothing, bedding, food, or medicine. After seven days, the king passed away.”

The passage from the scripture cited above is now presented for comparison with this sutra. Whether they agree or differ, both are skillful means employed according to circumstances, so there is nothing unusual about this.

A.II.2. AJĀTAŚATRU SEEKS TO HARM HIS MOTHER

There are four passages:

– From the beginning through the words “Was not permitted to go outside”: Vaidehi is confined in the inner palace.

– From the words “Vaidehi…” onward: Vaidehi sincerely entreats the Buddha.

– From the words “Before she had spoken…” onward: The Buddha knows what has happened and immediately comes.

– From the words “At that time, Vaidehi…” onward: Vaidehi sees the Buddha and requests the Dharma.

1. Vaidehi is confined in the inner palace

There are three points: Ajātaśatru takes up a sword intending to harm his mother; after two ministers remonstrate with him, he does not kill her; and he orders her confined in the inner palace.

+ He takes up a sword intending to harm his mother

There are four points:

– Ajātaśatru asks the gatekeeper whether his royal father is still alive

The sutra states: “At that time, Ajātaśatru asked the gatekeeper: Is my royal father still alive even now?”

– The gatekeeper answers truthfully

The sutra states: “The gatekeeper immediately replied: Your Majesty! The Great Queen anointed her body with a paste of honey and flour, filled her jeweled necklace with fruit juice, and carried these in to offer to the king. The śramaṇas Maudgalyāyana and Pūrṇa came through the air to teach the Dharma to the king, and we could not prevent them. Your Majesty may order the ministers not to speak with the Queen, but when śramaṇas fly in through the air, they cannot be stopped.”

Explanation: He made this statement with the intention of absolving himself of blame.

– The king angrily reviles them

The sutra states: “At that time, after Ajātaśatru heard these words, he became furious and called his own mother a traitor who had befriended a traitor. He said: Those wicked śramaṇas employ spells and sorcery, causing this evil king to remain alive after so many days!”

Explanation: Since he called his father a traitor, he called his mother the traitor’s friend. By claiming that the śramaṇas employed spells and sorcery, he clearly did not regard them as sages.

– He takes up a sword intending to harm his mother

The sutra states: “He immediately took up a sword, intending to harm his own mother.”

Explanation: This is as stated in the passage from the Nirvana Sutra cited above.

+ Two close ministers remonstrate with him, so he does not kill her

There are three points:

– Paying homage

The sutra states: “There was a close minister named Candraprabha, who was intelligent and wise. Together with Jīvaka, he bowed his head at the king’s feet.”

Explanation: Candraprabha is the Chinese rendering. Jīvaka is Sanskrit and is translated into Chinese as Ever-Living. He was the son of the woman Āmrapālī. At his birth, in one hand he carried a medicine bag and in the other he held a case of needles. He vowed to become a physician who would treat illnesses and save lives; thus, he was named according to his virtue. Both close ministers were highly resourceful and wise. This indicates that they were worthy ministers.

– Remonstrating with words

The sutra states: “They said: Your Majesty! We have heard the Vedic scriptures say that, from the beginning of the kalpa until now, there have been eighteen thousand evil kings who, coveting the throne, killed their own fathers. Yet we have never heard of an immoral king who harmed his mother. If Your Majesty now commits this heinous and rebellious deed, you will defile the kṣatriya lineage. We cannot bear to hear Your Majesty called a caṇḍāla. We ought no longer to remain here!”

Explanation: The Vedic scriptures, also written as Vedas, are worldly books, like the historical records of China that document events occurring within the country.

Killing one’s father out of greed for rank might still be tolerated here, but killing one’s mother would make one utterly devoid of the Way.

The four castes of India encompass all lineages. Among them, the kṣatriyas and brahmins are the two honored castes, while the vaiśyas and śūdras are the two lowly castes. The kṣatriyas belong to the royal caste.

Caṇḍāla is translated into Chinese as “killer,” meaning the chief among those who slaughter. When a king is devoid of the Way, worthy ministers do not assist him; therefore, they said, “We ought no longer to remain here.”

– After remonstrating, they prepare to leave

The sutra states: “At that time, after the two great ministers had spoken these words, they thrust their spears firmly into the ground and withdrew.”

Explanation: Thrusting their spears firmly into the ground was a display of force intended to make Ajātaśatru afraid.

– He orders his mother confined in the inner palace

The sutra states: “At that moment, Ajātaśatru, alarmed and bewildered, said to Jīvaka:

– Will you not stand by me?

– Your Majesty, do not harm your mother! Jīvaka replied.”

Explanation: Upon hearing these words, the king repented and appealed for their aid. He immediately laid down his sword, stayed his hand, and no longer harmed his mother, but instead ordered the palace officials to confine her in the inner palace. Ajātaśatru feared that if the worthy ministers abandoned the country, the realm would certainly be imperiled. “Will you not stand by me?” was an appeal for their aid and support. Jīvaka repeated his remonstrance, and only when the king regretted his action did he heed it. The king’s order to confine his mother in the inner palace was the principal cause prompting her to request this sutra.

2. Vaidehi sincerely entreats the Buddha

There are three points:

+ Encountering suffering, she turns her thoughts to the Dharma

The sutra states: “While confined in the inner palace, her heart filled with sorrow and anguish, Vaidehi faced Vulture Peak from afar and bowed her head in homage to the Buddha.”

+ She respectfully presents her entreaty

The sutra states: “She said: O Tathagata, World-Honored One! In the past, the World-Honored One often sent Ānanda to inquire after and console me. Now I am overwhelmed by sorrow and suffering. The World-Honored One’s majestic virtue is sublime, and I am unable to behold You in person. I humbly beseech You to allow me to see the Venerable Maudgalyāyana and Ānanda!”

Explanation: Ānanda was the Buddha’s attendant and often came to inquire after and console Vaidehi. The propagation of the Dharma for the benefit of beings necessarily relied upon the power of the king. Although the Buddha was the supreme sage, He adapted himself gently to ordinary human conventions in order to establish a model for later generations. Out of reverence for the Buddha, Vaidehi did not dare to invite the World-Honored One Himself, but merely asked to see the two disciples so that she might hear the essential Dharma.

Ānanda is translated into Chinese as Joyful Rejoicing. He is also called Undefiled or Delighted.

+ Her homage and entreaty are exceedingly sorrowful and earnest

The sutra states: “Having spoken these words, she wept sorrowfully, tears falling like rain, and bowed toward the Buddha in homage.”

3. The Buddha knows what has happened and immediately comes

There are two points:

+ Moved by her sincerity, the Buddha immediately appears before her

The sutra states: “While Vaidehi was bowing in homage, the Buddha was still on Mount Gridhrakuta. Knowing Vaidehi’s thoughts, the Buddha immediately instructed Maudgalyayana and Ananda to travel through the air to where she was. From Mount Gridhrakuta, the Buddha concealed his form and immediately appeared within the royal palace.”

Explanation: Knowing Vaidehi’s thoughts was the superknowledge of others’ minds; traveling through the air, disappearing, and appearing were manifestations of the superknowledge of spiritual power.

+ Before she had raised her head after bowing, she saw the Buddha

The sutra states: “When Vaidehi had finished bowing and raised her head, she saw the Blessed One, Buddha Shakyamuni, whose physical form was the color of pure gold, seated upon a precious lotus throne of a hundred petals. Venerable Maudgalyayana attended on his left and Ananda attended on his right. Shakra, the Four Heavenly Kings who protect the world, and the devas scattered celestial flowers together from the air as offerings.”

Explanation: In seeing the Buddha, there were four extraordinary features: his physical form, the lotus throne, the attendants standing on either side, and the offerings made by the devas.

Shakya is translated in Chinese as “Able in Benevolence,” referring to the Response Body; Muni is translated as “Quiescent and Silent,” referring to the Dharma Body. Since the Dharma Body comes first and the Response Body afterward, the Reward Body is also contained therein.

Shakra is the abbreviated name of Shakra-devanam-indra, translated in Chinese as “Able Deva,” namely, the lord of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

Brahma is the Great Brahma Heavenly King, namely, the lord of the heavens of the Form Realm.

The Protectors of the World are the Four Heavenly Kings.

An ancient commentary asks: “Bimbisara and Vaidehi both requested the two disciples. Why did the Buddha first send the disciples and then come in person afterward? What is the meaning of this?”

Explanation: This has two meanings. First, because Ajatashatru had killed his father, if the Buddha had come in person first, he would have aroused resentment. In order to protect Ajatashatru’s mind, the Buddha came afterward. Second, the practice of the Buddha-Dharma must rely upon the king. When Bimbisara died, Ajatashatru would certainly ascend the throne. If the Buddha came afterward, this would not hinder the propagation of the Buddha-Dharma. For the sake of preserving the Dharma, even if Vaidehi had not requested him, there would have been no harm in his coming personally afterward.

4. Meeting the Buddha and requesting the Dharma

This has two meanings:

– Bowing with utmost sincerity and reverence

The sutra states: “When Vaidehi saw the Buddha, she immediately removed her jeweled necklace, cast herself to the ground before the Buddha, and wailed and wept.”

Explanation: Because she had been imprisoned for a long time and did not know when she might see the Buddha again, now that she had met him, her heart overflowed with mingled sorrow and joy. She hastily removed the jeweled necklace from her neck to offer it to the Buddha. “Cast herself to the ground” expresses her utmost reverence and sincerity.

– Requesting the Dharma

This has two meanings: asking about the place of rebirth and asking about the cause of rebirth.

+ Asking about the place of rebirth also has two meanings: asking about the cause in past karma and asking about the place of rebirth.

– Asking about the cause in past karma:

The sutra states: “Blessed One! What karma did I create that I should give birth to this evil and rebellious son? And through what causes and conditions are the Blessed One and Devadatta related to one another?”

Explanation: Vaidehi’s bond with her son arose from natural affection; the Buddha’s bond with his brother accorded with the natural order of kinship. Yet they gave rise to evil and rebellious thoughts, so there must certainly have been causes in the past! These words were merely self-reproach, but they implicitly contained a question addressed to the Tathagata. They were merely a lament over past karma, yet they also stated the reason for making her request.

The sutras and treatises often explain, in terms of cause and effect, that Devadatta and the Buddha repeatedly harmed and afflicted one another. This, however, was a skillful means of the Buddha and the bodhisattva, not the actual truth. The Lotus Sutra states: “Because of the good spiritual friend Devadatta, I perfected the six paramitas; and after immeasurable kalpas, he will become a Buddha named Heavenly King Tathagata, and so forth.”

– Asking about the place of rebirth

This has three meanings: expressing the mind of aspiration and disenchantment; describing the realm worthy of aversion; and establishing the vow to depart far from it. These three meanings constitute the essential Dharma gateway of cultivation for beings in later ages. If they are not complete, practitioners cultivating pure karma will certainly be unable to attain rebirth.

The mind of aspiration and disenchantment:

The sutra states: “I beseech the Blessed One to show me a place free from sorrow and affliction. I shall vow to be reborn there. I no longer delight in this defiled and evil realm of Jambudvipa!”

Explanation: The place free from sorrow and affliction is the place about which Vaidehi asked. These words apply generally to the entire sutra. According to the Buddha’s reply below, that place is precisely the Pure Land. The heavenly and human realms within this Saha world of the five defilements are all afflicted by sorrow; only the dependent and primary recompenses of the Pure Land are excellent and beautiful, where beings experience only joy and no sorrow or suffering.

Jambudvipa, or Jambu-dvipa, is translated in Chinese as “Excellent Gold” and is named after a forest of trees. This forest stands beside a river, with half of each tree growing beneath the water. Pure gold on the riverbed shines upon the trunks, and thus the continent was named after those trees. Dvipa, also rendered as tana, is translated in Chinese as “continent,” referring specifically to the southern continent of Jambudvipa. Nowadays it is used generally to refer to the Saha world. Alternatively, because Jambudvipa is the most evil and defiled of the four continents, it is singled out in particular.

Describing the realm worthy of aversion:

The sutra states: “This defiled and evil realm is filled with hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals, and many unwholesome conditions gather here.”

Explanation: “Defilement” means the five defilements—that is, five kinds of afflictions presently active and impure—and therefore they are collectively called defilements; they are also called the five turbidities. “Evil” means the ten evil deeds, namely killing, stealing, and so forth. The five defilements refer generally to both the dependent and primary recompenses, whereas the ten evil deeds refer specifically to the karmic conduct of sentient beings. Considered in terms of defilement and evil, all six realms are included, but here only the painful fruits of the three lower realms are mentioned to show that the Saha world is worthy of aversion.

“Many unwholesome conditions” means that the evil destinies assemble together within this realm. Alternatively, it may refer specifically to unwholesome people within the human realm. As stated in the vow below: “May I not see evil people; whether enemies or relatives, those who oppose or those who comply, all are unwholesome.” How could King Ajatashatru and Devadatta be considered wholesome?

The former explanation follows the text of the sutra, while the latter discusses its meaning. This defiled and evil realm refers to the worldly dwellings of the populace, relatives, villages, districts, and towns. Within it, the activities of mind differ in myriad ways, and the three evils abound; all are unwholesome.

Furthermore, this defiled and evil realm refers to our present consciousness. Since beginningless time, the three karmic activities have created immeasurable and boundless karmic seeds[55]. Every day, the three evil karmas repeatedly arise in numbers beyond calculation; therefore, it is said to be filled with unwholesomeness.

Establishing the vow to depart far from it:

The sutra states: “I vow that in future lives I shall not hear evil words or see evil people.”

Explanation: “The five defilements, the three realms, the five heinous offenses, and the ten evil deeds” are all evil words. Sentient beings who create such karma within them are all called evil people. In the Land of Ultimate Bliss, even the names of the evil destinies do not exist; therefore, there are utterly no evil words. Because those of the highest virtue dwell together in one place, there are no evil people.

+ Asking about the cause of rebirth:

The sutra states: “I now turn toward the Blessed One, prostrate with my five limbs touching the ground, and beg to repent. I beseech the Blessed One to teach me to contemplate the locus of pure karma.”

Explanation: The head and four limbs (the two hands and two feet) are called the five members of the body. Since all five parts are complete, they are called the five wheels. Prostrating with all five members touching the ground is the highest form of reverential homage.

Because of offenses committed in a former life, one undergoes this suffering; now, wishing to be freed from it, one must seek repentance. “Repentance” in Sanskrit is kṣama, translated in China as “regretting past offenses.” The expression used here combines the Chinese meaning with the Sanskrit sound. One explanation holds that “repentance” means eliminating future faults, while “remorse” means regretting former faults.

The Tathagata teaches the Dharma, destroying obstructions and dispelling doubts, just as the sun illuminates the world; therefore, he is called the Buddha-Sun. The dependent and primary recompenses of the Land of Utmost Bliss are both formed from the pure karma of the host and companions—the presiding Buddha and the supremely virtuous beings—and are therefore called the “place of pure karma.” Accordingly, Vaidehi formally requested the method of contemplation, saying, “Teach me the method of contemplation.”

B. THE MAIN EXPOSITION

There are three parts:

– From the beginning to the phrase “Anāgāmin”: The Buddha emits light and reveals the lands in order to ascertain the capacities of those present.

– From the passage beginning, “At that time, the World-Honored One…” onward: The principal cause—the contemplation of pure karma—is presented.

– From the passage beginning, “When these words were spoken…” onward: The benefits are set forth, and the conclusion exhorts cultivation.

B.I. EMITTING LIGHT AND REVEALING THE LANDS TO ASCERTAIN CAPACITIES

There are three parts:

– The Buddha emits light and universally reveals the various lands.

– Vaidehi addresses the Buddha and decisively chooses one direction.

– Bimbisara attains the fruit of the path through the light.

The Buddha feared that sentient beings in the final age of the Dharma would think: “Pure Lands exist throughout the ten directions, and one may aspire to be reborn in any of them; why should it be only Amitabha Buddha’s land?” He therefore manifested this extraordinary sign specifically to resolve the doubts of later generations. Many sentient beings today hold precisely this view, exactly as the Buddha foresaw.

1. The Buddha emits light and universally reveals the various lands

The sutra states: “At that time, from between the eyebrows of the World-Honored One, a golden light streamed forth, illuminating immeasurable worlds throughout the ten directions. It then returned and gathered upon the crown of his head, transforming into a golden platform like Mount Sumeru. Within it appeared all the pure and wondrous lands of the Buddhas throughout the ten directions. Some lands were composed of the seven precious substances; some consisted entirely of lotus flowers; some resembled the palace of the Heaven of Sovereign Mastery; and some were like crystal. In this way, immeasurable, magnificently adorned Buddha lands, worthy of contemplation, were revealed for Vaidehi to behold.”

Explanation: Between the Tathagata’s eyebrows is the mark of the white curl, one and a half cun in length, octagonal on the outside and hollow within, white as snowy jade, and spiraling clockwise. It signifies that all dharmas flow forth from the Middle Way. Its first dispersing and then gathering signifies drawing scattered thoughts back into a single thought and returning all dharmas to the one Dharma.

Because this sutra expounds the ultimate, perfect, and sudden teaching of the One Buddha Vehicle, this extraordinary sign was manifested. The luminous platform towered aloft like Mount Sumeru, and within it appeared immeasurable lands too numerous to recount. Here, only four kinds of lands are mentioned, merely as examples of the realms worthy of contemplation.

“Composed of the seven precious substances” indicates that the land was exalted and precious. “Entirely of lotus flowers” indicates that the land was utterly pure and immaculate. “Like a heavenly palace” indicates that the land was supremely blissful.

“Like crystal” indicates that the land was radiant and brilliant. A single land possesses a great multitude of magnificent features, but the sutra text abbreviates them, mentioning only one feature of each in order to show that the Land of Utmost Bliss possesses all these excellent qualities and to enable Vaidehi to behold them. This is precisely the intent of “emitting light and revealing the lands.”

2. Vaidehi decisively chooses one direction

There are three points:

– The other lands are not the object of her aspiration.

– Only the Land of Utmost Bliss accords with her capacity and conditions.

– She requests the method of contemplation for rebirth there.

First, the other lands are not the object of her aspiration.

The sutra states: “At that time, Vaidehi addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Although these Buddha lands are pure and all possess light, …’”

Second, only the Land of Utmost Bliss accords with her capacity and conditions.

The sutra states: “Yet now I wish to be born in the Land of Utmost Bliss, the dwelling place of Amitabha Buddha.”

Explanation: In this Saha world, the minds of ordinary beings are scattered and confused. Unless one direction is clearly designated so that they may concentrate exclusively upon contemplating one Buddha, it is difficult to accomplish the practice of contemplation, and rebirth will encounter many obstacles. Moreover, Amitabha Buddha’s light shines continually and his vows are vast; therefore, by being born in one land, one reaches all lands, and by contemplating one Buddha, one sees all Buddhas. This principle is clearly explained in the chapter containing the Buddha’s reply to Universal Expansiveness in the Treatise on Ten Doubts. Master Shandao’s teaching on exclusive practice is likewise identical to this!

Third, she requests the method of contemplation for rebirth there.

The sutra states: “I beseech the World-Honored One to teach me how to contemplate and to teach me right absorption.”

Explanation: To first cultivate expedient means and direct the mind toward contemplating the object is called “contemplation.” When visualization is accomplished and one naturally enters into accord with it, this is called “right absorption.” As stated in the contemplation of the ground: “To contemplate in this manner is to obtain a provisional vision of the ground of the Land of Utmost Bliss”; this is “contemplation.” “If one attains samadhi, one sees the ground of that land with perfect clarity beyond description”; this is “right absorption.” In his Profound Meaning, Master Shandao, relying upon the Avatamsaka Sutra, holds that both contemplation and right absorption are samadhi, entirely in agreement with the passage on contemplating the ground.

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha states: “The Buddha told Ananda: ‘After the Tathagata enters nirvana, any disciple who hears this Dharma, contemplates this Dharma, and reflects upon this Dharma will frequently see the Buddha in dreams.’” It also states: “Some who hear these words reflect upon this Dharma; some maintain right mindfulness; and some enter right absorption.” From this, it can be known that contemplation and right absorption are both methods of contemplation, differing only in depth. Moreover, the preceding sutra passage states, “Teach me to contemplate the place of pure karma.” It is therefore evident that Vaidehi requested only the method of contemplation.

3. Bimbisara attains the fruit of the path through the light

The sutra states: “At that time, the World-Honored One smiled. Five-colored rays of light streamed forth from his golden mouth, each ray shining upon the crown of King Bimbisara’s head. Although the great king was then confined in darkness, his mind and eyes were unobstructed. From afar he beheld the World-Honored One, bowed his head in homage, and naturally advanced to attain the fruit of an Anāgāmin.”

Explanation: This is the principal intent behind the Tathagata’s emitting light and revealing the lands. When spiritual capacity and responsive influence intersect, there is a hidden accord and a hidden response; therefore, he smiled.

The Sutra on Contemplating the Ocean of the Buddha’s Marks states: “Ordinarily, whenever the Buddha smiles, five-colored light streams forth.” The five-colored light issuing from the Buddha’s golden mouth and shining upon the crown of the king’s head signifies that, through the empowerment of the Buddha’s power, the king attained the fruit of the path. Seeing the Buddha by means of the light, he awakened to impermanence, brought forth wisdom, severed delusions, and immediately attained the fruit of an Anāgāmin.

Anāgāmin is translated in China as “Non-returner”: with the fetters and delusions[56] nearly exhausted, one no longer returns to this world. Considering this account of “Bimbisara seeing the Buddha and attaining the fruit,” it would seem reasonable that he should have heard the teaching on contemplation together with the queen. Yet in the concluding section that sets forth the benefits, only Vaidehi and her five hundred female attendants are mentioned.

From this, it can be known that, after attaining the fruit, Bimbisara immediately entered nirvana.

B.II. THE PRINCIPAL CAUSE: THE METHOD OF CONTEMPLATING PURE KARMA

There are two points:

– The Tathagata gives his assent.

– He imparts the teaching.

1. The Tathagata gives his assent

The sutra states: “At that time, the Blessed One said to Vaidehi: Do you now understand? Amitabha Buddha is not far from here. You should single-mindedly recollect and contemplate him so as to accomplish the pure karma for that land. I shall now clearly explain various analogies to you, and shall also enable all ordinary beings in future ages who wish to cultivate pure karma to attain birth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss in the West.”

Explanation: The initial question, “Do you understand?” means that if the Buddha did not reveal it, no one would know of the Pure Land. The Amitabha Sutra states: “Westward from here, beyond a hundred thousand kotis of Buddha lands.” Yet here it is said to be not far away. There are three explanations:

– First, it is seen with the Buddha-eye. As the Surangama Sutra states: “The divine eye observes the great trichiliocosm as though looking at an amra fruit in the palm of one’s hand; how much more so the Buddha-eye?” It is like standing upon a lofty mountain and looking down, seeing clearly for a thousand miles.

– Second, thought travels extremely swiftly and is obstructed by nothing. Even if a place is ten thousand miles away, one arrives there as soon as the thought arises.

– Third, there is the Buddha’s power of embracing and protecting. Although one has not yet attained supernormal powers, one can still arrive there by relying upon the Buddha’s power. As the Treatise on the Ten Doubts states: “A weak person who follows a Wheel-Turning King can travel throughout the world in a single day and night, just as a bluebottle fly clinging to the tail of a swift horse.”

The phrase “accomplish pure karma” encompasses both the dependent and the primary recompenses of that land. Because sentient beings do not yet know the realm of Ultimate Bliss, the Buddha uses objects for comparison; hence these are called “analogies.” As the passage below states: “Like a thousand suns, its light is resplendent….” The phrase “also enable those in future ages” expresses the original intent of this sutra, which was not intended solely for those present at the time.

2. Giving Instruction

This has two aspects: first, the meritorious practices are set forth; afterward, the correct contemplations are explained.

First, the Meritorious Practices

The reason the three kinds of merit are presented first is that they are what practitioners of contemplative practice must fulfill. Without contemplation, one would not know what could lead to merit; without merit, one would not know what could bring contemplation to fulfillment. Contemplation without merit lacks adornment; merit without contemplation will lead one into another realm. If one lacks adornment, one cannot obtain a supreme recompense; if one is led into another realm, how can one attain rebirth in the Pure Land? Only when these two dharmas support one another can great benefit be attained. I address these words to students: please study them single-mindedly. Do not become confused between these two paths, lose your footing, and stray from the way.

The three kinds of merit will now be explained under three headings: the general presentation, the individual explanation, and the concluding summary.

– General Presentation

The sutra states: “Those who wish to be born in that land should cultivate three kinds of merit.”

Explanation: “Wish to be born” refers to one’s aspiration. “Should cultivate” is an instruction to put them into practice.

– Individual Explanation

The sutra states: “First, be filial and care for your parents, serve and respect your teachers and elders, maintain a compassionate heart and refrain from killing, and cultivate the ten wholesome karmic deeds.”

Explanation: Since these are the causes cultivated by all Buddhas of the three times, one should know that they are the great practices of bodhisattvas. They are also karma shared with ordinary beings, karma shared with practitioners of the Two Vehicles, and karma unique to the Mahayana.

Among these four practices, the first two—being filial and caring for one’s parents, and serving and respecting one’s teachers and elders—are practices for repaying the kindness of parents who gave birth to and raised one, and the kindness of teachers and elders who nurtured and instructed one. The latter two—maintaining a compassionate heart and refraining from killing, and cultivating the ten wholesome karmic deeds—are practices of abandoning evil. Refraining from killing is foremost among the ten wholesome karmic deeds, and so it is mentioned separately. With the body, eliminate the three wrong actions; with the mouth, abandon the four faults of falsehood; with the mind, cut off the three evils.

The sutra states: “Second, receive and uphold the Three Refuges, fully observe all the precepts, and do not violate the rules of dignified conduct.”

Explanation: Of the three practices above, the first is to destroy and subdue what is false through the Three Refuges. From time without beginning, ordinary beings have been bound by false and demonic influences. They now perform the prescribed rite of turning back and seek refuge and protection.

Those who receive only the Three Refuges possess goodness but do not possess the precepts. Those who fully observe all the precepts necessarily include the Three Refuges as well. The latter two concern receiving the Dharma of the precepts: the five precepts and eight precepts for householders, and the ten precepts and the full precepts for monastics; these are called “all the precepts.” Upholding them without deficiency is called “fully observing” them.

Dignified conduct is also included in the precepts, but its details are exceedingly difficult to maintain and are frequently violated; therefore, it is explicitly mentioned.

The sutra states: “Third, arouse the bodhi-mind, deeply believe in cause and effect, read and recite the Mahayana scriptures, and encourage others to advance in cultivation.”

Explanation: Of these four practices, the first is to arouse the Great Mind. Bodhi is translated as the Way; it is the mind directed toward the unsurpassed Way. Second, arouse the vast mind: my mind clearly understands all wholesome and unwholesome causes and effects; because one is fearful and circumspect, this is called deep faith. Third, give rise to vast understanding: the scriptural teachings are fundamentally the cause from which wisdom arises. Fourth, cultivate great practice: encourage practitioners and do not allow them to regress. The first three benefit oneself, while the last benefits others.

– Concluding Summary

The sutra states: “These three are called pure karma.” The Buddha further said to Vaidehi: “Do you now understand? These three kinds of karma are the true causes of the pure karma cultivated by all Buddhas of the past, present, and future!”

Explanation: Because the virtues of the fruition attained by the Buddhas of the three times are accomplished through these, they are called the true causes.

Second, the Correct Contemplations

This has four aspects: instructing them to listen to the teaching; praising the request for the Dharma; exhorting and entrusting them; and teaching the Dharma.

– Instructing Them to Listen to the Teaching

The sutra states: “The Buddha said to Ananda and Vaidehi: Listen attentively and reflect well! For the sake of sentient beings in future ages who will be harmed by the bandits of affliction, the Tathagata shall now teach pure karma.”

Explanation: “Listen attentively and reflect well” refers precisely to the wisdom of hearing and the wisdom of reflection.[57] “Future ages” refers to the Age of the Semblance Dharma and the Age of the Final Dharma.[58] “Sentient beings harmed by the bandits of affliction” refers precisely to ordinary beings who are tightly bound. “Pure karma” refers precisely to the sixteen contemplations.

– Praising the Request for the Dharma

The sutra states: “Excellent, Vaidehi! You have asked well about this matter!”

Explanation: Because her question pleased the Buddha, it is called a well-asked question.

– Exhorting and Entrusting Them

This has three aspects: stating that this is the Buddha’s teaching; practicing in accordance with the teaching; and attaining realization through practice.

– Stating the Buddha’s Teaching

The sutra states: “Ananda! You should fully receive and uphold this teaching, and proclaim the Buddha’s words to the great assembly! The Tathagata shall now teach Vaidehi and all sentient beings of future ages to contemplate the Land of Ultimate Bliss in the West.”

Explanation: Ananda was the disciple foremost in learning. The Tathagata exhorted him to receive and uphold the teaching because there were too few listeners in the palace. The Buddha intended Ananda, after returning to Vulture Peak, to repeat and proclaim his teaching; therefore, he entrusted Ananda in this way. “The Tathagata shall now…” constitutes the entrustment to Ananda.

– Practicing in Accordance with the Teaching

The sutra states: “Through the Buddha’s power, Vaidehi will see that pure land as clearly as one sees one’s own face while holding a bright mirror.”

Explanation: The sutra taught by the Buddha is the Buddha’s power; it is precisely the Tathagata’s extraordinary skillful means.

– Attaining Realization Through Practice

The sutra states: “Seeing the wondrous and blissful things in that land, her heart will rejoice, and she will immediately attain the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas.”

Explanation: The stage of the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas corresponds to the First Abode. If the power of the merit and virtue derived from contemplative practice is strong, it may be attained in this very life. According to the later passage on contemplating the Buddha, however, this refers to the characteristics of being born in that land and only then attaining realization. The later passage states: “Having relinquished the body in another world and been born in the presence of the Buddhas, one attains the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas!”

– Teaching the Dharma

There are three points: stating the reason Queen Vaidehi saw the land; requesting that method for future generations; and the Tathagata’s response to her request.

First, stating the reason Queen Vaidehi saw the land

The sutra states: “The Buddha said to Vaidehi: You are an ordinary being whose mental perceptions are weak and inferior. You have not yet attained the divine eye and are therefore incapable of contemplating the Buddhas from afar. The Tathagata has a special skillful means that will enable you to see the Buddhas.”

Explanation: This means that Buddhas and bodhisattvas employ skillful means to guide sentient beings toward the true path, and therefore manifest themselves as being like ordinary beings. The divine eye is one of the six supernormal powers; despite obstructions, it can see everything, both within and without. Although ordinary immortals and lesser sages may attain the divine eye, they still cannot see distant pure lands.

As for the “special skillful means,” with respect to the person immediately addressed, it is precisely the manifestation of the land upon the platform of light, enabling Queen Vaidehi to see it. According to the Treatise’s presentation of the Teaching, however, the sixteen contemplations are intended solely to teach and transform sentient beings of future generations. The reference to the Buddhas means that the wisdom of skillful means possessed by all Buddhas is identical.

Second, requesting that method for sentient beings of future generations

There are three points: stating what she herself was able to see; having compassion for others who would be unable to see; and making the request.

– Stating what she herself was able to see

The sutra states: “At that time, Queen Vaidehi said to the Buddha: Venerable World-Honored One! I am now able to see that land through the power of the Buddha.”

– Having compassion for others who would be unable to see

The sutra states: “After the Buddha has entered nirvana, sentient beings living in the evil, turbid, and unwholesome age will be tormented by the five sufferings.”

Explanation: This is due to the great compassion of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, who expediently manifest in order to liberate sentient beings; Queen Vaidehi was not truly at the stage of an ordinary being! Regarding the five sufferings, the Commentary states: “There is no happiness in any of the five paths; if the asuras[59] are added, there are six. Alternatively, according to the Amitabha Sutra (the Larger Version), the five evils, the five pains, and the five burnings[60] are regarded as the five sufferings.

Of these, the five evils are precisely the five grave offenses, for which the Buddha established the prohibitions of the five precepts. If a person commits these five evils and consequently violates the laws of the realm, this constitutes the five pains; afterward, falling into the three evil paths constitutes the five burnings.”

– Formally making the request

The sutra states: “How may they see Amitabha Buddha in the Land of Ultimate Bliss?”

Explanation: Sentient beings of future generations will be born without encountering a Buddha; turbid evil will flourish, and they will be tormented by many sufferings. Because they have such karmic obstructions, one may doubt whether they can see the Buddha-land. By what means, then, can sentient beings be enabled to see the Buddha-land?

Third, the Tathagata’s response

There are two points: instructing her in the method of concentrating mindfulness and contemplation; and setting forth the sixteen contemplations.

– Instructing her in the method of concentrating mindfulness and contemplation

The sutra states: “The Buddha said to Queen Vaidehi: You and all sentient beings should single-mindedly concentrate your mindfulness in one place and direct your contemplation toward the western region!”

Explanation: The essential point of the Pure Land teaching of contemplation lies in single-mindedness; one specific direction must be clearly designated toward which the mind is to be directed. This is the very purpose of emitting light and revealing the Buddha-land! Therefore, the Treatise on Ten Doubts calls it the Samadhi of One Mark, while the Manjushri Prajnaparamita Sutra calls it the Samadhi of One Practice. This contemplation differs from other contemplations in three respects:

1/ Other contemplations do not specify a direction; here, the West is clearly designated;

2/ In other contemplations, one gathers the mind and collects one’s mindfulness; here, one directs contemplation toward that region;

3/ Other contemplations universally encompass oneself and others; here, one takes only the sacred realm as the object. The doctrinal approach is complete, and both mind and object are clearly discerned. Any practice contrary to this contemplation is called an erroneous contemplation.

– Setting forth the sixteen contemplations

The ancient commentaries commonly gave extensive discussions of the general doctrinal introduction[61], while greatly abridging even the passages concerning contemplation. I now maintain that the passages on contemplation contain the central and essential meaning and therefore must be explained carefully. Those who hear and practice must certainly pay close attention to this matter.

First, the general outline is presented; afterward, each part is explained individually. These sixteen contemplations are divided into two sections: the first contemplation, the contemplation of the setting sun, establishes the direction; the subsequent fifteen contemplations concern the circumstantial and direct rewards of the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

The first contemplation comprehensively embraces the subsequent fifteen contemplations. The later contemplations contemplate each object separately and do not encompass one another. The subsequent fifteen contemplations are further divided into two: the first five contemplate the adornments of the circumstantial and direct rewards, while the latter ten contemplate the excellence of the circumstantial and direct rewards in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

The first five contemplations are again divided into two: the first two contemplate the supporting realm. These are the contemplation of water becoming ice and the contemplation of ice becoming ground. The latter three contemplate the marks of adornment in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

The contemplation of the adorned land does not go beyond three kinds: contemplating the trees is contemplating the groves; contemplating the ponds is contemplating the flowing streams; and contemplating the towers is contemplating the palaces. The contemplation of the ground collectively includes all three contemplations above, because the trees and the rest all rest upon the ground. The latter ten contemplations are again divided into four: the first three contemplate the Buddha.

Among them, the seventh contemplation concerns the Buddha’s seat; the eighth concerns the image, which represents the true Buddha; and the ninth concerns the Buddha’s marks. The tenth and eleventh contemplations concern the attendants standing on either side of the Buddha. The twelfth and thirteenth are the Universal Contemplation and the Miscellaneous Contemplation of the Three Sages.

The fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth contemplate the Buddha’s assembly, which is distinguished into the three grades of upper, middle, and lower.

If this division is followed, the essential purport of the entire sutra becomes as clear as an object in the palm of one’s hand. Each individual contemplation is presented as follows:

The First Contemplation: CONTEMPLATION OF THE SETTING SUN

There are three parts: the object contemplated, the contemplation that contemplates it, and the conclusion.

1. The object contemplated

The sutra states: “How is this contemplation to be initiated? All sentient beings, unless they were born blind, can see the appearance of the setting sun.”

Explanation: The directions extend boundlessly, with no object by which to orient oneself. The setting sun, however, is plainly visible to all who have eyes and is easy to contemplate; therefore, that direction is taken as the standard. The Commentary states: “Take the setting sun, suspended in the sky, as the object of contemplation.” This is precisely the meaning. To initiate the contemplation means to contemplate.

2. The contemplation that contemplates it

There are four points:

First, the procedure for practice

The sutra states: “When initiating the contemplative mindfulness, sit upright facing west.”

Explanation: To initiate the contemplation means to give rise to contemplation. Sitting upright means that the body assumes a dignified posture: sit in the full-lotus or half-lotus position, with the body erect and the two hands folded together as in meditation. Thus, according to the Biographies of Eminent Monks, when the eminent monks of the Jin dynasty sat down, they did not turn their backs toward the West, because they observed this ritual procedure.

Second, the characteristics of the contemplation

The sutra states: “Closely contemplate the place where the sun is about to set, causing the mind to remain firmly established and focusing the mind in contemplation without wavering.”

Explanation: At that time, mind and object correspond; tranquil and unmoving, this is the essence of meditative concentration.

Third, accomplishing the characteristics of the contemplation

The sutra states: “See the appearance of the sun about to set, like a drum suspended in the sky.”

Explanation: As the sun is about to set, the clouds disperse and its radiance draws inward; the sun appears round like the face of a drum suspended in empty space.

Fourth, exhorting one to contemplate continually

The sutra states: “Once you have seen the setting sun, whether your eyes are closed or open, you should see it clearly.”

Explanation: When the visualization is accomplished, the image of the sun appears; thought after thought continues uninterrupted and closely sustained, and naturally it is not forgotten.

3. Conclusion

The sutra states: “This contemplation of the setting sun is the first contemplation.”

Among the following fifteen contemplations, when the visualization of water is about to be accomplished, one sees the water in this realm solidify into ice. The contemplation of water in the fifth contemplation, however, is specifically the contemplation of the ponds in that realm. Although the names of these contemplations are the same, their methods differ; practitioners should understand this.

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The Second Contemplation: CONTEMPLATION OF WATER

There are two points: the object of contemplation and the conclusion.

The visualization of water is in fact the contemplation of the ground. The ground of precious lapis lazuli is wholly absent from this realm, but everyone understands when it is said that the surface of water freezes. Thus, one relies upon this to perceive that, using the similar to compare with the real. Therefore, one first contemplates water becoming ice, and then contemplates the ice becoming precious ground. This is precisely what the Commentary states: “Water solidifying into ice serves to represent the ground of lapis lazuli.”

1. The Object of Contemplation

There are two parts: the visualization of water and the visualization of the ground.

First, the visualization of water

There are three points: visualizing water, contemplating water becoming ice, and contemplating ice becoming lapis lazuli.

– Visualizing water

The sutra states: “Next, visualize water. See the water as clear and transparent, distinctly and lucidly, without allowing the mind to become distracted.”

Explanation: See the water as clear, transparent, still, and unmoving; therefore, the mind is instructed to remain focused and undistracted.

– Contemplating water becoming ice

The sutra states: “Having seen the water, one should then give rise to the visualization of ice.”

– Contemplating ice becoming lapis lazuli

The sutra states: “Upon seeing the ice as clear and transparent, give rise to the visualization of lapis lazuli.”

Second, the visualization of the ground

There are three points: the transparent substance of the ground, the standards beneath the ground that support it, and the adornments upon the ground.

– The transparent substance of the ground

The sutra states: “When this visualization has been accomplished, one sees the ground as resembling lapis lazuli, transparent both within and without.”

– Beneath the ground are standards that support it

There are two points: the substance of the standards and the light reflected upward.

+ The substance of the standards

The sutra states: “Beneath it are seven-jeweled vajra standards supporting the ground of lapis lazuli. Each standard has eight corners and eight faces; each face is composed of a hundred kinds of jewels.”

Explanation: The eight corners and eight faces resemble a stupa.

+ The light reflected upward

The sutra states: “Each jewel emits a thousand rays of light, and each ray has eighty-four thousand colors that are reflected upon the ground of lapis lazuli, like hundreds of millions of suns, so brilliant that they cannot all be beheld.”

– Upon the surface of the ground are adornments

There are four points: the flower-patterned terraces, the light of the various jewels, the jeweled light forming towers, and the flower banners and musical instruments.

+ The flower-patterned terraces

The sutra states: “Upon the ground of lapis lazuli, cords of pure gold interweave with the seven jewels, forming clearly distinguished boundaries.”

Explanation: The golden cords and the seven jewels interweave like decorative tiles in this world.

+ The light of the various jewels

The sutra states: “Within each kind of jewel are five hundred differently colored rays of light. These lights resemble flowers and also resemble the moon and stars suspended in empty space.”

Explanation: Because the light of those jewels is reflected upward from beneath the ground into empty space, it resembles flowers. Because it shines downward from empty space, it resembles the light of the moon and stars.

+ The jeweled light forming towers

The sutra states: “The light coalesces into towers and palaces composed of hundreds of thousands of jewels.”

+ Flower banners and musical instruments

The sutra states: “On both sides of those towers are tens of billions of flower banners and innumerable musical instruments as adornments. Eight refreshing breezes arise from the light and blow upon these musical instruments, causing them to produce sounds that expound suffering, emptiness, impermanence, and non-self.”

Explanation: Flower banners and musical instruments surround them on all four sides. When stirred by the wind, they produce sounds that expound the Dharma and instruct the assembly. Because the winds arise from the eight directions, they are called the eight breezes.

In that realm there are no seasons or weather. They are called eight only in relation to this realm. The teachings of suffering, emptiness, and so forth are the Four Foundations of Mindfulness: contemplating the body as impure, contemplating feeling as suffering, contemplating the mind as impermanent, and contemplating dharmas as non-self.

These four teachings are used to destroy the four inverted views. In the text, the word “emptiness” corresponds to the contemplation of the body. When all erroneous attachments have completely ceased, what could this be if not “emptiness”?

2. Conclusion

The sutra states: “This is the visualization of water and is the second contemplation.”

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The Third Contemplation: CONTEMPLATION OF THE GROUND

The object of contemplation has already been fully presented in the preceding passage; therefore, this third contemplation merely continues from the preceding section to exhort practitioners to cultivate it.

The passage has four sections: contemplation, right absorption, statement of the benefits, and distinction between the erroneous and the correct.

1. Contemplation

The sutra states: “When this contemplation is accomplished, each and every contemplated scene is clear and distinct. Whether the eyes are closed or open, it does not become confused or scattered, except during the time of eating. One should constantly keep this in mind! Yet by visualizing in this way, one sees only a coarse vision of the Land of Ultimate Bliss.”

Explanation: “Each and every contemplated scene” refers to both the particular and general characteristics described in the preceding section. “Except during the time of eating” permits a temporary interruption. A certain “Separate Practice” edition[62] takes this to mean the time of sleeping.

Yet an examination of the ancient editions shows that they all record it as the time of eating. For ordinary beings, sleep is a natural necessity; why would it need to be specifically excluded? Some hold that because both Mahayana and Hinayana have their own distinct contemplative practices for mealtimes, that period must be excluded.

Here, however, the instruction is restricted to the community engaged in this practice and is not stated generally for everyone. I now maintain that other contemplations do not require the selection of a particular time or place. Here, however, one contemplates a sacred realm and therefore should properly maintain reverence.

If one gives rise to the visualization while eating, one lacks reverence. The section on the contemplation of the image in the Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha states: “Once the visualization has been accomplished, except while eating or relieving oneself, one should at all other times constantly visualize the image of the Buddha.” This is conclusive evidence that cannot be altered! When the mind has only just begun the visualization, the power of concentration has not yet been accomplished; therefore, the text speaks of seeing coarsely, meaning that the object of contemplation is not yet seen distinctly.

2. Right Absorption

The sutra states: “If one attains samadhi, one sees the ground of that land with complete clarity, beyond exhaustive description. This is the visualization of the ground and is the third contemplation.”

Explanation: Samadhi is accurately transliterated as sanmodi and is translated into Chinese as “right concentration” or “even maintenance.” When the visualization is accomplished, without any need for deliberate attention one naturally accords with it and sees the ground clearly. It is like a person learning archery: when first practicing, one is not yet skilled, but after becoming proficient, every arrow strikes its mark. Language and thought can never fully penetrate it; it can be known only through personal realization. Therefore, it is said to be “beyond exhaustive description.”

3. Statement of the Benefits

There are two points: the entrustment to propagate the teaching and the statement of the benefits.

First, the renewed entrustment to propagate the teaching

The sutra states: “The Buddha said to Ananda: You should accept and uphold the Buddha’s teaching, and expound this contemplation of the ground to those beings in future ages who wish to escape suffering.”

Explanation: The Buddha instructed Ananda because the first two contemplations merely use things in this realm as a basis for initiating the visualization. Upon reaching the contemplation of the precious ground, however, the mind has already penetrated that realm and will certainly escape suffering, destroy obstructions, and eliminate doubt. This is the meaning of entrusting the propagation of the teaching!

Second, the statement of the benefits

There are two: destroying obstructions and eliminating doubt.

– Destroying obstructions

The sutra states: “If anyone visualizes the ground, the sins of birth and death accumulated over eight billion kalpas will be extinguished.”

Explanation: Eight billion kalpas, or it is said immeasurable kalpas, or fifty thousand or five billion kalpas—these figures are not fixed, and ordinary beings cannot know.

– Dispelling Doubt

The sutra states: “After relinquishing the body in another world, one will certainly be born in the Pure Land, and the mind will no longer harbor doubt.”

Explanation: If one accomplishes this contemplation, one will certainly attain rebirth there. For example, during the Tang dynasty, the eminent monk Daxing built a hermitage on Mount Tai and cultivated the pure karma. Before twenty-one days had passed, he saw the ground of lapis lazuli, and his mind’s eye became clear and bright. Later, when he fell ill, that ground appeared again. He said: “I am not practicing contemplation, so why has the jeweled ground appeared? Could it be that I have no affinity with the Land of Peace and Nurture?” On that very day, he passed away at his dwelling place.

4. Distinguishing the Erroneous from the Correct

There are two points: presenting the correct; presenting the erroneous.

First, presenting the correct

The sutra states: “To undertake contemplation in this manner is called correct contemplation.”

Explanation: “To undertake contemplation in this manner” refers to the preceding method of contemplation, in which mind and object correspond, and teaching and practice do not conflict.

Second, presenting the erroneous

The sutra states: “Contemplation otherwise is called erroneous contemplation.”

Explanation: Because it is not that method of contemplation, it is called contemplation otherwise; because it is not correct, it is called erroneous. Even if it is a Buddhist contemplation belonging to the Lesser Vehicle or the Great Vehicle, if it is not a contemplation for attaining rebirth in the Pure Land, it is regarded as erroneous. However, “erroneous” here does not mean the wrong views of non-Buddhist paths.

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The Fourth Contemplation: CONTEMPLATION OF THE TREES

There are three points: concluding the preceding contemplation and introducing the following contemplation; presenting the contemplative practice; conclusion.

1. Concluding the Preceding Contemplation and Presenting the Following Contemplation

The sutra states: “The Buddha told Ananda and Vaidehi: Once the contemplation of the ground has been accomplished, one should next contemplate the trees.”

2. Presenting the Contemplative Practice

There are two points: the object contemplated; the faculty that contemplates.

First, the object contemplated

There are two points: presenting their substance and dimensions; explaining their adornments.

– Presenting Their Substance and Dimensions

There are three points: instructing one to contemplate them all; stating the number of rows; their height.

+ Instructing One to Contemplate Them All

The sutra states: “To contemplate the jeweled trees is to contemplate each tree clearly.”

Explanation: There are many kinds of trees, and thus it says “each tree.”

+ Stating the Number of Rows

The sutra states: “Form the contemplation of seven tiers of rows of trees.”

Explanation: Seven tiers of rows of trees encircle that land; alternatively, it is said that there are seven tiers everywhere.

+ Their Height

The sutra states: “Each tree is eight thousand yojanas high.”

Explanation: Yojana is also called Yoyana or Yushanna; it is the distance between two relay stations in India. The distances given in the sutras and Vinaya are not fixed, but most treatise masters take forty li as the standard.

– Explaining Their Adornments

There are two points: adornment by light; adornment by flowers and fruits.

+ Adornment by Light

There are three points: the leaves; their colors and radiance; the jeweled nets.

– The Leaves

The sutra states: “Those jeweled trees are replete with leaves composed of the seven treasures.”

Explanation: To be “replete with leaves” means that they do not fall or wither.

– Their Colors and Radiance

The sutra states: “Every flower and leaf possesses the colors of various treasures. From the color of lapis lazuli issues golden light; from the color of crystal issues crimson light; from the color of agate issues mother-of-pearl light; and from the color of mother-of-pearl issues emerald light. They are also adorned with all treasures, such as coral and amber.”

Explanation: The colors of the treasures and the five-colored rays illuminate and interweave with one another. The azure color of lapis lazuli emits golden light; the blue color of crystal emits crimson light; the red color of agate emits white light; and the white color of mother-of-pearl emits green light. According to the Larger Amitabha Sutra, trees of the seven treasures, including amber, fill the world. There are trees made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, coral, amber, agate, and mother-of-pearl; some are composed of two treasures, some of three, and so forth up to seven treasures combined. These are described in full in that sutra and are said to be adorned with the various treasures.

– The Jeweled Nets

There are four points: the number of layers of nets; palaces between the layers of nets; youths within the palaces; the radiance of the jeweled necklaces.

The number of layers of nets:

The sutra states: “Above each tree, seven layers of wondrous pearl nets completely cover it.”

Explanation: Each tree has seven tiers, with one layer on each tier, like a stupa.

Palaces between the nets:

The sutra states: “Between the layers of nets are five billion exquisite flower palaces, like the palace of the Brahma King.”

Explanation: The palaces between the layers of nets resemble the palace of the Brahma King in the Form Realm.

Youths within the palaces:

The sutra states: “Celestial youths naturally dwell within them. Each youth has five billion necklaces made of shaka-abhilagnamani jewels.”

Explanation: “Shaka-abhilagna” is translated into Chinese as “Capable Sage.” Mani means “free from defilement” and is also called “wish-fulfilling.”

The radiance of the jeweled necklaces:

The sutra states: “The light of those mani jewels shines for one hundred yojanas, like the combined radiance of ten billion suns and moons, which cannot be fully described. The finest treasures intermingle with one another.”

Explanation: “The treasures intermingle” means that there are not only pearls but also many other kinds of treasures.

+ Adornment by Flowers and Fruits

There are two points: a general presentation; a specific presentation.

– General Presentation

The sutra states: “These jeweled trees stand row facing row, with leaf adjoining leaf. Between the leaves are exquisite flowers, and upon those flowers fruits of the seven treasures naturally appear.”

Explanation: “Row facing row” means that they are perfectly symmetrical. “Leaf adjoining leaf” means that one leaf follows another.

– Specific Presentation

There are three points: explaining the leaves; explaining the flowers; explaining the fruits.

Explaining the leaves:

The sutra states: “Each leaf measures exactly twenty-five yojanas in both length and breadth.”

Explanation: Twenty-five yojanas equal one thousand li.

The sutra states: “The leaves of those jeweled trees have a thousand colors and a hundred markings, like celestial jeweled necklaces.”

Explanation: The markings are the veins of the leaves, whose patterns resemble celestial jeweled necklaces.

Explaining the flowers:

The sutra states: “There are various supremely exquisite flowers made of pure Jambunada gold, revolving like wheels of fire among the leaves.”

Explanation: On this continent there is a tree that grows from the bottom of the sea and emits the most exquisite golden radiance, dispelling darkness. The color of these flowers is likewise, and they revolve like wind wheels in the world.

Explaining the fruits:

There are two points: their substance and appearance; banners and canopies.

Their substance and appearance

The sutra states: “They bear fruits resembling Indra’s vase.”

Explanation: Indra’s vase is an immeasurably large vase placed before Indra’s palace. Judging from the size of the leaves, one can know how large the fruits must be.

Banners and canopies

The sutra states: “A great light appears and transforms into standards, banners, and immeasurable jeweled canopies. Within these canopies are reflected the Buddha lands of the ten directions and all the Buddha deeds throughout the trichiliocosm.”

Explanation: What is reflected has two aspects: innumerable Buddha deeds and the Buddha lands of the ten directions. Appearing in the world, entering nirvana, teaching the Dharma, and liberating sentient beings are all called Buddha deeds.

Second, the faculty that contemplates

The sutra states: “After seeing these trees in contemplation, one should contemplate in sequence and clearly see their trunks, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits.”

Explanation: Lest the contemplative visualization become scattered, one is instructed to contemplate in sequence the five parts—the trunks, branches, and so forth.

3. Conclusion

The sutra states: “This is the contemplation of the trees and is the fourth contemplation.”

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The Fifth Contemplation: CONTEMPLATION OF THE PONDS

There are four points: presenting their substance and appearance; explaining the lotus flowers within the ponds; the light of the ponds; conclusion.

1. Presenting Their Substance and Appearance

There are four points: stating their number; the color of the water; the currents; the beds of the currents.

First, stating their number

The sutra states: “Next, one should contemplate the water. Contemplate that in the Land of Ultimate Bliss there are eight ponds of water.”

Explanation: One land has eight ponds connected to one another by channels.

Second, the color of the water

The sutra states: “The water in each pond is formed from the seven treasures; these treasures are exceedingly soft, and the water flows forth from wish-fulfilling jewels.”

Explanation: The first two clauses describe its appearance. The terraces and banks of the ponds are made from various treasures, and the color of the water in the ponds is likewise; hence it is said to be formed from the seven treasures. The latter two clauses describe its source. At the center of each pond is a precious jewel. Water flows forth from the jewel into the pond, keeping it perpetually full.

Third, the streams

The sutra states: “The water in the ponds divides into fourteen branches, each stream having pure gold of the color of the seven treasures as its channel.”

Explanation: The fourteen branches are precisely the fourteen streams.

Fourth, the beds of the streams

The sutra states: “The sand on the beds of the streams is composed of multicolored diamonds.”

Explanation: Multicolored diamond sand is sand of five colors that is also fine and hard.

2. The lotus flowers in the ponds

There are three points: their number, their size, and the water flowing among the flowers.

First, their number

The sutra states: “In each stream are six billion lotus flowers made of the seven treasures.”

Explanation: Among the eight ponds, each pond has six billion lotus flowers. The Shorter Sukhavati Sutra speaks of four colors and four kinds of light, whereas this passage speaks of the seven treasures; therefore, one knows that there is a very great difference.

Second, their size

The sutra states: “The circumference of each flower is exactly twelve yojanas.”

Explanation: Twelve yojanas equal 480 miles. The Shorter Sukhavati Sutra merely says that they are as large as carriage wheels; thus, they would be far too small.

Third, the water flowing among the flowers

The sutra states: “That mani water flows among the flowers, winding among the trees and coursing up and down, producing wondrous sounds that expound the teachings of suffering, emptiness, impermanence, non-self, and the paramitas. At times, it also praises the Buddha’s excellent marks.”

Explanation: Because it issues from wish-fulfilling jewels, it is called mani water. “Mani” is given in both the Chinese pronunciation and the Sanskrit. The water follows the flower stems and flows into the flowers, causing the petals to tremble and produce sounds; it then flows down along the lower stems, expounding three subjects: the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the Six Paramitas, and praises of the excellent marks.

3. The light of the ponds

There are two points: the light issuing from the jewels and the light transforming into wondrous birds.

First, the light issuing from the jewels

The sutra states: “From the wish-fulfilling jewels issues a pure golden light of wondrous brilliance.”

Second, the light transforming into wondrous birds

The sutra states: “That light transforms into birds of a hundred precious colors, which together raise their gentle and melodious songs in praise of mindfulness of the Buddha, mindfulness of the Dharma, and mindfulness of the Sangha.”

Explanation: These are the white cranes and peacocks mentioned in the Shorter Sukhavati Sutra. Later, the present sutra also mentions ducks, geese, mandarin ducks, and others; thus, one knows that these precious birds are not of only one kind. Here, only the colors of their plumage are mentioned as a general reference to them all. These species praise the Three Jewels, causing everyone to turn toward them for refuge.

4. Conclusion

The sutra states: “This is the contemplation of the water endowed with eight qualities and is the fifth contemplation.”

Explanation: The eight qualities are: lightness, transparency, coolness, softness, sweetness, freedom from foul odor, comfort upon drinking, and freedom from illness after drinking this water. These eight qualities do not extend beyond the four sense-objects of form, fragrance, taste, and touch.

END OF THE MIDDLE FASCICLE

Notes:

[50] Four abiding grounds (Four abiding grounds of affliction): the fundamental bases upon which all afflictions of views and thought in the three realms arise:

1. The abiding ground of all views: all delusions of view in the three realms.

2. The abiding ground of attachment to desire: all delusions of thought in the Desire Realm. Among the delusions of thought, craving is the most severe.

3. The abiding ground of attachment to form: all delusions of thought in the Form Realm.

4. The abiding ground of attachment to existence: all delusions of thought in the Formless Realm.

If the abiding ground of ignorance is added to these four abiding grounds, they are called the Five Abiding Grounds. (Huệ Quang Buddhist Dictionary, vol. V, p. 4891).

[51] Provisional designation: a conventionally established term used to designate dharmas formed through the conjunction of causes and conditions. The chapter on the attainment of cessation in fascicle 13 of the Satyasiddhi Treatise divides provisional designation into two kinds: the provisional designation of a person and the provisional designation of dharmas.

1. Provisional designation of a person: the human body is a provisional conjunction of the five skandhas and has no real substance of its own. It is divided into two types:

a) A provisionally designated person in a defiled land: a person in the evil and impure realms, formed through the conjunction of the contaminated and defiled five skandhas.

b) A provisionally designated person in a Pure Land: a bodhisattva in a Pure Land, formed through the conjunction of the uncontaminated, pure, and wondrous five skandhas.

When bodhisattvas in a Pure Land are compared with people in a defiled land, although their bodies differ, both are formed through the conjunction of the five skandhas and are therefore called provisionally designated persons. Provisionally designated persons in defiled and pure lands are “neither identical nor different.” When practitioners are born in a Pure Land at the end of their lives, they relinquish their provisionally designated human bodies in the defiled land and are born by transformation within lotus flowers as provisionally designated persons in the Pure Land.

In this process, for a person in the defiled land at the moment of death, the preceding thought serves as the cause; when that person becomes a being in the Pure Land, the subsequent thought serves as the result. Thus, the preceding and subsequent thoughts continue in a sequence of cause and effect.

2. Provisional designation of dharmas: dharmas arise from numerous conditions, possess no fixed nature, and have only nominal existence. According to the Madhyamaka school, from the standpoint of conventional truth, dharmas are “provisional,” while from the standpoint of ultimate truth, dharmas are “empty.” (Huệ Quang Buddhist Dictionary, vol. II, p. 1657).

[52] Fire-worshiping non-Buddhists (the fire-worshiping school): one of the non-Buddhist schools of ancient India. This school worshiped deities such as Agni and mistakenly held that such worship and offerings were the cause for rebirth in the heavenly realms in the future. Because the fire-worshipers maintained that fire was the mouth of the gods, they cast offerings such as grain and butter into the fire as offerings to the gods. Once the gods had eaten, they would bestow blessings upon human beings.

While the Buddha was in the world, fire worship was highly prevalent. After attaining enlightenment, the Buddha visited the three Kasyapa brothers of the fire-worshiping Brahmin school on the bank of the Nairanjana River. The Blessed One first subdued the fire dragon and then manifested various supernormal powers. The three Kasyapa brothers cast their implements of fire worship into the river and took refuge in the Buddha. (Huệ Quang Buddhist Dictionary, vol. IV, p. 4013).

[53] The Longer and Shorter Sukhavati Sutras: according to the classification of the Tiantai school, the Longer Sutra is the Infinite Life Sutra, and the Shorter Sutra is the Amitabha Sutra. (Huệ Quang Buddhist Dictionary, vol. II, p. 1206).

[54] Six kinds of shaking: six modes of shaking, namely, the six manifestations of the earth’s shaking.

According to the Deliberation Chapter in fascicle 1 of the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra: “The shaking of the earth has six manifestations according to direction: the east rises and the west sinks; the west rises and the east sinks; the south rises and the north sinks; the north rises and the south sinks; the edges rise and the center sinks; and the center rises and the edges sink.”

According to fascicle 16 of the Avatamsaka Sutra in the new translation and fascicle 1 of the Sutra of the Vast, Adorned, Pure, and Irreversible Dharma Wheel: “The six manifestations are moving, rising, surging, shaking, roaring, and resounding.”

– Moving means trembling without rest. Rising means gradually ascending from low to high. Surging means suddenly leaping upward. These three manifestations refer to the physical forms of an earthquake.

– Shaking means producing a loud, tumultuous sound. Roaring means the mighty roar of a beast. Resounding means producing a booming reverberation. These three manifestations refer to the sounds of an earthquake.

Form and sound each have one mode, called quaking. Each of the six has three aspects: minor (individual), intermediate (pervasive), and major (universally pervasive, equally pervasive); thus, together there are eighteen aspects: moving, pervasive moving, equally pervasive moving; rising, pervasive rising, equally pervasive rising; surging, pervasive surging, equally pervasive surging; shaking, pervasive shaking, equally pervasive shaking; roaring, pervasive roaring, equally pervasive roaring; striking, pervasive striking, equally pervasive striking. “Pervasive” means that all four directions shake, while “universally pervasive” means that all eight directions shake. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2527).

[55] Karmic seeds (seeds of karma, karmic habitual tendencies, maturation habitual tendencies, habitual tendencies of the links of existence, seeds perfumed by the factors of existence, seeds bearing the characteristic of eventually exhausting their effects): the seeds of karmic results. Karma means action or creation. Wholesome and unwholesome actions perfume and form seeds, which are called karmic seeds.

Such action does not operate through all eight consciousnesses but belongs solely to the mental factor of volition, associated with the mind-consciousness. Since the essential nature of the mental factor of volition is to act, it directs minds and mental factors, causing them to become wholesome or unwholesome. The mental factor of volition associated with the sixth consciousness sets body, speech, and mind in motion, causing them to create wholesome and unwholesome karma, and thereby becomes a seed of volition.

This seed of volition has two causal powers: the capacity to produce its own manifest activity and the capacity to assist other weaker, indeterminate seeds in producing manifest activity. The capacity to produce its own manifest activity is still called a seed of linguistic designation, not a karmic seed. Only the capacity to assist other seeds in becoming manifest activity is called a karmic seed.

In summary, karmic seeds and seeds of linguistic designation are a single entity, but they are distinguished according to the differing capacities of the seed of volition in relation to itself and to others. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 3115).

[56] Fetters and delusions: fettering influences; bonds that refer to afflictions. Afflictions bind sentient beings to the realm of delusion, preventing them from escaping the suffering of birth and death.

[57] Wisdom from hearing and wisdom from reflection: Wisdom from hearing is the wisdom acquired by hearing others expound the teachings. Wisdom from reflection is the wisdom acquired through one’s own contemplation. Wisdom from cultivation is the wisdom acquired through actual practice. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. VII, p. 5974).

[58] The Semblance Dharma and the Final Dharma: After the Buddha entered nirvana, the course of the teachings is divided into three periods: the True Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, and the Final Dharma.

– The Semblance Dharma is the second of the three periods. It is the period in which the teachings resemble those of the True Dharma period. During this period, there are only the doctrines and those who practice them, while few attain realization.

– The Final Dharma is the last period. During this period, many people receive and practice the teachings, but they are unable to attain awakening. At that time, the Buddhadharma declines and the Sangha becomes defiled and disorderly.

– The Section on the Five Defilements in the Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, fascicle 98, records: “After the Buddha enters nirvana, there will be five kinds of disorder:

1. In the future, bhikshus will study the Dharma under laypeople.

2. Laypeople will sit upon the Dharma seat, while bhikshus will sit below.

3. When bhikshus teach the Dharma, listeners will neither follow nor respectfully accept it; yet when laypeople teach the Dharma, they will regard it as supreme.

4. Bhikshus will develop inverted views, regarding worldly teachings as the true noble truth of the path. Failing to understand the authentic Dharma of Buddhism, they will take falsehood and deceit as matters of faith.

5. Bhikshus of future generations will support wives, children, and servants, delighting only in disputing with one another and failing to follow the Buddha’s teachings.

There are various accounts concerning the duration of these three periods. One account holds that after the Buddha’s parinirvana, the True Dharma abides in the world for 500 years and the Semblance Dharma for 1,000 years. Another holds that the True Dharma and the Semblance Dharma each abide for 1,000 years, after which the Final Dharma period begins; this period lasts 10,000 years, after which the Buddhadharma becomes entirely extinct. Another account holds that the True Dharma lasts 1,000 years, while the Semblance Dharma and Final Dharma each last 10,000 years. In general, however, the sutras and treatises all hold that the Final Dharma period lasts 10,000 years. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2673).

[59] Asura: a kind of warlike spirit in India, regarded as a malevolent deity and frequently engaged in conflict with the god Shakra; one of the six realms, one of the eight classes of beings, and one of the ten realms. The sutras commonly identify three causes—anger, arrogance, and doubt—that lead sentient beings to be born as asuras. However, the Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to the Elder Shuka on the Differences in Karmic Retribution lists ten causes of birth among the asuras: 1/ Committing minor evil deeds with the body; 2/ Uttering minor evil words with the mouth; 3/ Conceiving minor evil thoughts in the mind; 4/ Giving rise to pride; 5/ Giving rise to self-conceit; 6/ Giving rise to overweening conceit; 7/ Giving rise to great conceit; 8/ Giving rise to perverse conceit;

9/ Giving rise to the conceit of conceit; 10/ Allowing one’s wholesome roots to decline. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol.

I, p. 56).

[60] The Five Evils, Five Pains, and Five Burnings: The five evils are killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, divisive speech (harsh speech, false speech, and frivolous speech), and drinking intoxicants. Those who commit these five evils are punished by the law of the sovereign in the present life and personally encounter calamities and hardships; these are called the Five Pains. Because of these five evils, they undergo the retribution of falling into the three painful realms in a future life; these are called the Five Burnings. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2909).

[61] Profound discourse: this has two meanings:

1. A discussion of the title, purport, structure, or author before the main text is explained. Examples include Puning’s Profound Discourse on the Treatise on the Awakening of Faith and Chengguan’s Profound Discourse on the Commentary and Subcommentary on the Avatamsaka Sutra.

2. A general discussion of the profound principles of Buddhism, such as the Discourse on the Ten Profundities, and so forth. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 2011).

[62] Separate circulation: circulation as a separate text. When a portion is extracted from a large scripture and established as an independent book for circulation in the world, it is called separate circulation. For example, the Universal Gateway Chapter was extracted from the Lotus Sutra and made into the Avalokiteshvara Sutra, which circulates independently of the Lotus Sutra. (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 540).