妙法蓮華經文句

5. Explanation of the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs Chapter

SUTRA TEXT

Chapter Five: The Parable of the Medicinal Herbs

1. This chapter speaks fully of mountains and rivers, clouds and rain, yet takes only medicinal herbs as its title. The earth has the capacity to bring forth growth, clouds and rain have the capacity to moisten, and thereby trees and plants are brought forth and nourished.

All that is brought forth and nourished has its use, but medicinal herbs possess a more powerful efficacy. Likewise, all conditioned wholesome deeds have the capacity to eliminate evil, but unconditioned wholesome deeds are the most eminent of all. Among the unconditioned assembly of noble ones, the four great disciples used a parable to express their understanding of the parable spoken by the Buddha, profoundly comprehending the Buddha’s sacred intent.

The Buddha therefore said, “Excellent,” and praised them: “You are exceedingly rare.” [Mahakasyapa] presented what he himself had understood in order to guide others toward understanding; therefore, this is called the Chapter on the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs.

2. Medicinal herbs have long grown in the forest. Once they encounter rain that enables them to flourish, outwardly their shoots and leaves become luxuriantly green, while inwardly they brim with living sap. This is analogous to the unconditioned noble ones in their final lifetime, who, having attained nirvana with remainder, no longer aspired to seek the unsurpassed Buddha Way. Now, upon hearing this [Lotus] Sutra, they themselves follow the Buddha Vehicle and at the same time use [this Buddha Vehicle] to liberate sentient beings. The sutra text says:

[Thus,] both inwardly and outwardly, in their own practice and in teaching and transforming sentient beings, they are fully endowed with the power of supreme functioning, [like medicinal herbs encountering rain]. Therefore, this is called the Chapter on the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs.

3. Furthermore, medicinal herbs are inherently able to cure [illnesses of] the four great elements caused by wind, [toxic influences, cold qi], and so forth; they nourish the five internal organs, ^[1] help people regain youthfulness, and preserve their physical appearance. Now, upon encountering rain, they suddenly develop into the king of medicinal plants; when consumed, they cure all illnesses and even transform people into immortals.

This is analogous to the unconditioned noble ones who, upon hearing this [Lotus] Sutra, immediately destroy the delusion of ignorance and open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. In the sutra text, [Shariputra] says: “Only today do I know that I am truly a son of the Buddha.” [Mahakasyapa further says:] “The unsurpassed precious treasures came to us of themselves, though we did not seek them.” [He also says:] “Whatever the sons of the Buddha ought to attain, we have now attained in full.” ^[2] [This refers to the shravakas] individually receiving predictions of Buddhahood in the presence of the Buddha.

Their joy is truly subtle and wondrous, corresponding [to the efficacy of medicinal herbs]; therefore, this is called the Chapter on the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs.

[Of the three meanings just presented above,] the first explains how the disciple [Mahakasyapa] sets forth his understanding of the teaching of his master [the Buddha]; this is the meaning of the worldly siddhanta. The second explains the arising of goodness; this is the meaning of the siddhanta for the individual. The third explains the meaning of counteracting [all illnesses] and the ultimate meaning [of attaining the fruit of Buddhahood]; these are the meanings of the therapeutic siddhanta and the siddhanta of the ultimate truth.

The foregoing explains the chapter’s title according to causes and conditions. As for the other methods of explanation based on doctrinal teaching, the original and the manifest, or contemplation of the mind, these may be understood according to the usual conventions and need not be recorded here. Such is the general outline.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the Blessed One said to Mahakasyapa and the other great disciples: “Excellent, excellent! Kasyapa has skillfully spoken of the true merits and virtues of the Tathagata. It is exactly as you have said. The Tathagata also possesses immeasurable, boundless, asamkhya other merits and virtues. Even if you were to expound them for immeasurable hundreds of millions of kalpas, you could not exhaust them.”

Within the exposition by parable, this chapter constitutes the third section, the account of accomplishment. The earlier commentators held that [in this passage the Buddha praises Mahakasyapa for uttering] the thirteen stanzas extolling the Buddha’s profound beneficence, together with the verse passage containing the parable of [“the elder] assigning work to the laborer,” because the sutra text speaks of tactful skillfulness.

The Master of Nanyue said: ^[3] “It should not be understood incorrectly in that manner. In the sutra text, [the Buddha praises Mahakasyapa as having] ‘skillfully spoken of the true merits and virtues of the Tathagata.’ This fully restates his understanding of both the provisional and the real Dharma.” The sutra text at this point must be clarified: the thirteen stanzas speak only of those of the Two Vehicles receiving the beneficence of the teaching, while the parable of “the elder assigning work to the laborer” speaks only of the merits and virtues of the Buddha’s provisional vehicle.

The present explanation is that this passage of the sutra fully recounts their understanding from beginning to end: at the outset, they formed an affinity [with the Buddha because they possessed] Buddha-nature; in the intermediate period, [although they had forgotten their Mahayana aspiration, the Buddha nevertheless] taught and guided them according to their capacities; and finally, [there is the parable of] entrusting them with the family wealth and enterprise, [that is, their receiving predictions of Buddhahood]. From the smallest matters to the greatest, the Buddha’s beneficence was truly immeasurable, boundless, and exceedingly abundant. ^[5]

This passage of the sutra is divided into two general sections. The first is a brief account of accomplishment; the second is an extensive account of accomplishment.

The general section giving the brief account is itself divided into two parts. The first concerns the two occasions on which [the Buddha praises him with] “excellent”; the second states that although [Mahakasyapa] had attained understanding, it was still not exhaustive.

Regarding the two occasions on which [the Buddha praises him with] “excellent,” the first praises the two aspects of his understanding of the meaning of the real; the second praises the two aspects of his understanding of the meaning of the provisional vehicle. ^[6]

“He has skillfully spoken of the true merits and virtues of the Tathagata.” “True” recounts the real Dharma, while “merits and virtues” recount the provisional Dharma.

Furthermore, during the period when the Flower Garland teaching was expounded, [the Buddha] intended [that teaching] for those suited to it; this is the understanding of the real Dharma. During the period when the Tripitaka teaching was expounded, [the Buddha employed skillful means to] guide them; this is the understanding of the provisional Dharma. During the Vaipulya period, faith arose, and during the Prajnaparamita period, the [Mahayana] teaching was entrusted and received; this is the understanding of both the provisional and the real Dharma.

Now, during the period when the Lotus Dharma is expounded, [the Buddha] entrusts them with the family wealth [of the True Dharma]; this speaks solely of the real Dharma. The wording is consummate, tactful, and skillful; therefore, [the Buddha praises him as having] “skillfully spoken.” [All the merits and virtues] are the Buddha-Dharma; therefore, they are called “true.” “It is exactly as you have said” means that [the Buddha] confirms and certifies [the words of Mahakasyapa].

From the phrase “The Tathagata also possesses…” onward, the text states that their understanding [of the Buddha’s merits and virtues] could not be exhaustive. In what sense was it inexhaustible? It means that [such understanding], whether advancing upward or retreating downward, horizontally or vertically, both horizontally and vertically, or neither horizontally nor vertically, could never exhaust them.

Why is this so? Just as a great cloud covers everything everywhere, bringing coolness to every place, and as a great rain pours down everywhere, leaving no place unmoistened, so [the Buddha’s merit] enables the entire world to see and know a Dharma never known before. How could one merely follow the particular doctrinal interpretation of the Two Vehicles, understanding their benefit, yet say nothing of the two realms of gods and humans, [who, like the lesser medicinal herbs, are also moistened by the rain]? ^[8] This means that, even when descending to lower levels, the meaning cannot be exhausted.

[The scripture likens] bodhisattvas to “superior medicinal herbs,” and also “calls them small trees” and “calls them great trees.” [When rain falls upon these kinds of plants, they all] flourish luxuriantly, [just as bodhisattvas] benefit both themselves and others; yet [the passage does] not [describe their] understanding [of the teaching]. This means that, even when ascending to higher levels, the meaning cannot be exhausted.

Furthermore, all ten Dharma realms together become the Buddha Dharma realm. How could this refer only to the understanding of those of the Two Vehicles, while leaving the other eight Dharma realms unmentioned? ^[9] This means that, horizontally, the meaning cannot be exhausted.

Furthermore, [sentient beings among] the seven classes of expedient means, from the shallow to the profound, all enter the realm of reality, yet the other five classes of expedient means are nowhere mentioned. ^[10] This means that, vertically, the meaning cannot be exhausted.

Furthermore, throughout all three times—[past, present, and future]—the benefit [that the Buddha’s Dharma brings to sentient beings] has never ceased even temporarily. This means that, simultaneously both horizontally and vertically, the meaning cannot be exhausted.

[The scripture speaks of] “mountains, rivers, ravines, streams, and so forth,” collectively referring to “the earth.” From this one earth [the myriad kinds of vegetation] can arise; it has never discriminated by rejecting one kind and accepting another.... Trees, grasses, sprouts, and all the rest depend upon the earth [for their growth], having no other support. One cloud covers all, and there is no place [upon the earth] that is not shaded and cooled.

One rain descends, composed of the same kind of water; it makes no distinction between what is withered and what is flourishing. Everywhere is equally moistened, and everything is enabled to grow. The Tathagata’s [teaching and transformation] are likewise inconceivably impartial.

In truth, it is not that he first taught the sudden teaching and afterward the gradual teaching, or that he initially taught the Three Vehicles and finally taught the One Vehicle. It is like a dragon drawing forth auspicious clouds and sending rain down everywhere. Although no rain falls upon the bodies and minds [of sentient beings, through the Buddha’s Dharma] all [the afflictions] of oppressive heat are dispelled, and they attain coolness.

This is [the Buddha’s teaching and transformation extending throughout] the Five Vehicles, the seven classes of expedient means, and the ten directions and three times: impartial and vast, profound and all-pervasive, inconceivable, and without differentiation. This means that, in an understanding that is neither horizontal nor vertical, the meaning also cannot be exhausted.

[When the Buddha speaks of] the meaning that “cannot be exhausted,” he is not rejecting everything. He is specifically saying that, from the initial resolve onward through the [stages of] mind that follow, because the understanding attained at those stages is not yet ultimate, it is said to be “inexhaustible.” It is also like initially understanding from the first letter “a” through to the final letter “ṭha,” which represents the subsequent perfection of merit. ^[11] If one understood only according to the doctrinal meaning, ^[12] how could there be any opportunity to advance toward an all-pervasive understanding in every horizontal and vertical dimension? Furthermore, this meaning also accords with great beings who practice the expedient vehicle.

SCRIPTURE

O Kasyapa! You should know that the Tathagata is the King of all dharmas. Whatever he declares is never false. With respect to all dharmas, [the Tathagata] employs the wisdom of expedient means to expound and teach them; yet all the dharmas taught by the Tathagata [ultimately] lead to the stage of omniscience. The Tathagata clearly observes and knows the destination toward which all dharmas tend. He also clearly knows the profound workings within the thoughts of sentient beings, comprehending them without obstruction. Moreover, he investigates and clearly understands all dharmas to their ultimate extent, revealing all wisdom to sentient beings.

The scriptural passage broadly explaining the accomplishment has two parts: the prose passage and the verses. The prose passage is further divided into two major sections. The first major section explains the accomplishment of revealing and demonstrating the abandonment of the Three Vehicles and the manifestation of the One Vehicle. The second major section, beginning with “O Kasyapa! You [are persons] exceedingly rare...,” is the concluding praise.

The first major section is divided into two passages. The first concerns the teaching of the Dharma; the second presents the parable and the correspondence of its various images.

The passage on teaching the Dharma is further divided into two subsections. The first subsection begins by stating that “the Tathagata is the King of all dharmas.” The words “never false” exhort the listeners to give rise to faith. The second subsection, beginning with “With respect to all dharmas...,” enters the principal meaning: abandoning the Three Vehicles and manifesting the One Vehicle.

Generally, a sovereign among humans does not fear enemies outside the realm, while toward the people within the realm he is truthful and does not speak with a double tongue. The Dharma King, being the King of all dharmas, is likewise. Because all evil has been eliminated, “whatever he declares” is true.

The earlier commentators said that the meaning of “never false” was stated to those of middling faculties, while the praise [of Kasyapa] was intended to encourage those of lesser faculties to believe and accept. I now hold that, although the Buddha’s teachings are many, they do not go beyond the expedient and the real. Apart from the expedient and the real, no other Dharma exists. [When the Buddha] speaks of “immeasurable, boundless, asamkhyeya other merits,” this is exceedingly difficult to believe and accept. Therefore, [the Buddha] sets forth the meaning of the Dharma King to encourage faith and also to introduce the parable of the “great cloud” that follows.

The passage beginning with “With respect to all dharmas...” clarifies, on the basis of the doctrinal teaching, the abandonment of the expedient vehicles and the manifestation of the real Dharma.

The passage beginning with “The Tathagata clearly observes and knows...” clarifies, on the basis of wisdom, the abandonment of the expedient vehicles and the manifestation of the real Dharma. Through the two teachings [the expedient and the real], the two kinds of wisdom [expedient and real] are clarified; and through the two kinds of wisdom [expedient and real], the two teachings [expedient and real] are expounded. Thus, wisdom and teaching mutually accomplish one another.

“All dharmas” refers horizontally [in space] to the seven classes of expedient means, set in contrast to the one real Dharma, which is vertical [through time]. If this were not so, then why did [those who had been] at the places of awakening of two hundred thousand koṭis of Buddhas initially give rise to the Mahayana resolve, only later, midway along the path, to follow the Lesser Vehicle and continue transmigrating through the five destinies? ^[13] Furthermore, the very person of a single individual is inherently endowed with all ten Dharma realms; how, then, could the seven classes of expedient means not also be fully present? ^[14]

Although the dharmas are exceedingly numerous, [the Tathagata] illuminates them with the paramita of expedient means, and therefore there is nowhere he does not penetrate completely. [Thus he can] teach each kind [of sentient being] in an [appropriate] voice, so that there is not a single sentient being who fails to understand. [The Buddha] teaches the [five] precepts and the [ten] wholesome deeds to gods and humans; he teaches the [Four] Truths and the [Twelve Links of] Dependent Origination to those of the Two Vehicles; he teaches moral discipline and wholesome karma to [those who study] the Tripitaka Teaching; ^[15] he teaches the Dharma of non-arising to those of the Shared Teaching;

and he teaches those of the Distinct Teaching the dharmas that progressively reveal the Tathagata-garbha.

This is called reiterating their understanding [of the dharmas] in order to abandon the Three Vehicles.

From the passage, “All the dharmas expounded by the Tathagata…” onward, the teaching is used to restate the revelation of the true Dharma. [The scripture speaks of “the ground of all-wisdom.”] “Ground” means the true aspect. Since it is ultimately not two, it is called “all as one”; since its nature and essence universally encompass everything, it is called “all”; and since it is quiescent yet constantly illuminating, it is called “wisdom.” From the root of non-abiding, all dharmas are established; therefore, it is called a “ground.” This is the true teaching of the Perfect Teaching.

All the dharmas expounded by [the Tathagata] enable sentient beings to reach this ground of all-wisdom. The scriptural passage reveals the true Dharma as clearly as daylight; why, then, should one give some other interpretation in dark confusion and delirium? As the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states, all dharmas throughout are Mahāyāna dharmas.

Mahāyāna means the Great Vehicle; that vehicle is the true aspect, and the true aspect is precisely the ground of all-wisdom. The preceding scriptural passage already said, “There is only the one reality,” referring precisely to this ground of all-wisdom; “All else is unreal” refers to the seven classes of expedient means. This restates, in terms of both the sudden and gradual teachings, the meaning of discarding the provisional vehicle and revealing the true Dharma.

From the passage, “The Tathagata examines and clearly knows the destinations of all dharmas,” onward, wisdom is used to restate the meaning of discarding the provisional vehicle and revealing the true Dharma. “Examining all their destinations” means being able to illuminate the provisional Dharma; “thoroughly investigating and clearly discerning all dharmas” means being able to illuminate the true Dharma. Since the two objects—the relative and the absolute ^[16]—are illuminated by the two kinds of wisdom [provisional and true], one “penetrates them without obstruction” and can therefore expound both the provisional and true teachings.

This raises wisdom in order to explain the teaching. “Clearly knowing their destinations” means knowing the medicines, while “[clearly knowing] what operates deep within their thoughts” means knowing the illnesses. Both illness and medicine belong to the provisional Dharma, and all provisional dharmas have their destinations.

Observing the precepts and practicing goodness have, as their proximate destination, birth within the two realms of gods and humans. If one also creates wholesome conditions of significance, such as bowing one’s head or raising one’s hands [in reverence toward the Three Jewels], their distant destination is [future attainment of] Buddhahood. [Practicing the four] foundations of mindfulness, the factors of the path, and so forth has, as its proximate destination, the attainment of nirvana [with remainder].

If one also cultivates the adornments of merit, these constitute practices of the bodhisattva path, whose distant destination is the realm of awakening. Even the paramita teachings of the Shared Teaching, the Distinct Teaching, and so forth have different proximate and distant destinations [for each dharma], as may readily be understood.

Furthermore, observing the precepts and practicing goodness are medicines for gods and humans; the Four Noble Truths, the twelve links of dependent origination, and the six paramitas are medicines for practitioners of the Three Vehicles. The same may likewise be understood concerning [practitioners of] the Shared Teaching, the Distinct Teaching, and so forth.

“What operates deep within the thoughts of sentient beings” is of two kinds. The first is the deep attachment of the mind to dependent and direct retribution. The second is the deep attachment of the mind to dharmas of clinging. Because of attachment to dependent and direct retribution, the ten grave unwholesome karmas arise, obstructing the human and heavenly vehicles. Because of attachment to dharmas of clinging, the four inversions, the three paths, ^[17] the six coverings, ^[18] the four abiding grounds, the delusions of the five abiding grounds, ^[19] and so forth arise, obstructing the sacred vehicles.

One should therefore know that the illnesses lying deep within [sentient beings’] minds do not have identical characteristics. Because they are illuminated by provisional wisdom, one “penetrates them without obstruction.”

“Furthermore, he thoroughly investigates and completely illuminates all dharmas” means illuminating them with true wisdom. There is not a single provisional dharma that does not enter the true Dharma; therefore, the text says, “thoroughly investigates… completely.” Because they are known by true wisdom, it says “clearly”; because they are seen by the Buddha-eye, it says “illuminates.”

If one kind of wisdom can illuminate this sort of medicine and this sort of illness, but cannot illuminate that sort of medicine and that sort of illness, while another kind of wisdom illuminates those sorts but cannot illuminate these because their categories differ from one another, this is the illumination of expedient wisdom. Only the single wisdom that illuminates all medicines and all illnesses is the illumination of true wisdom.

Because sentient beings can be shown how to attain such a realm of perfect wisdom, the text says, “[showing sentient beings] all wisdom.”

Furthermore, [the scriptural phrase] “all dharmas” refers to the ten Dharma realms. Within these ten Dharma realms, each realm has different characteristics of desire, and its reception of karmic retribution, its destination, and so forth are likewise all different. “Clearly knowing [the destinations of] all dharmas” is called knowing the illnesses; “clearly knowing what operates deep within the thoughts of sentient beings” is called knowing the medicines. Medicines, moreover, may be profound or shallow. The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: Wisdom in accord with reality clearly knows the mind of craving, the mind of anger, and the mind of delusion. Clearly knowing by means of wisdom in accord with reality is called clearly knowing what lies deep within [sentient beings’] minds.

Because this accords precisely with reality, one “penetrates them without obstruction.” Clearly knowing, by means of wisdom in accord with reality, all kinds of Dharma-medicine—such as moral discipline, wholesome deeds, the Four Noble Truths, the twelve links of dependent origination, the six paramitas, and so forth—is called “penetrating them without obstruction.”

Furthermore, in the scriptural passage concerning expedient wisdom, “penetrating them without obstruction” discusses knowledge of true wisdom in terms of expedient dharmas. In the scriptural passage concerning true wisdom, however, the phrase “Furthermore, he thoroughly investigates… all dharmas” discusses knowledge of expedient wisdom in terms of the true Dharma. These two scriptural passages follow one another to reveal [the meaning].

This clearly shows that the true Dharma is itself true expediency, while the expedient Dharma is true expediency. One therefore knows that, when examined to the ultimate end, there is neither the provisional nor the true; there is neither differentiation nor an absence of differentiation. Because expedient wisdom is employed, there are differentiations within the provisional; upon ultimately reaching the ground of all-wisdom, there is no differentiation.

It is also like the earth, which has no differentiation at all, while grasses and trees are each the same: where they are the same, they are not the same; where they are not the same, they are the same. ^[20] It is also like discussing and understanding dharmas in terms of the mind, and discussing and understanding the mind in terms of dharmas. The mind inherently possesses mental factors, whereas dharmas do not; yet the mind is not apart from dharmas, nor are dharmas apart from the mind.

Therefore, what does not exist exists, and what exists does not exist. The provisional and true dharmas are likewise so. This is the meaning in brief.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

“O Kasyapa! Suppose that throughout the great trichiliocosm, in all its mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams, there grow from the earth grasses, trees, dense forests, and medicinal herbs of many kinds, whose species, names, and colors are all different. When thick, dark clouds spread across the entire world and simultaneously pour down rain equally everywhere, its moisture permeates every place alike.

Among the grasses, trees, forests, and medicinal herbs, some have small roots, small trunks, and small branches and leaves; some have medium-sized roots, medium-sized trunks, and medium-sized branches and leaves; while others have large roots, large trunks, and large branches and leaves. All trees, whether great or small, absorb the rainwater according to their respective capacities. Although there is but one cloud and one rain, each kind of grass and tree, in accordance with its own nature, [absorbs what is appropriate to it], thereby growing and then flowering and bearing fruit.

Although they arise from the same earth and are moistened by the same rain, each kind of grass and tree is nevertheless different.

From the words “O Kasyapa! Suppose that…” onward is the second section, which presents the parable. This section itself has two subsections. The first subsection presents the parable [and its correspondence], while the second restates the central purport and praises [the Tathagata].

[The first subsection,] which presents the parable, is further divided into [two divisions]: the first presents the parable, and the second [explains its meaning by] corresponding it to the teaching.

The division presenting the parable itself contains two points. The first explains the parable of differences, corresponding to the preceding exposition of provisional teachings and provisional wisdom. The second explains the parable of non-difference, corresponding to the preceding exposition of the true teaching and true wisdom.

[In the following scriptural passage,] the three classes of medicinal herbs and the two classes of trees, ^[21] whether great or small, sparse or dense, are not alike; hence they are said to be different. Yet they are all supported by the same earth and equally watered by the same rain; hence they are said to be non-different. Viewed in terms of their branches and extremities, each kind [of vegetation] is unlike the others; but when examined in relation to the ultimate source of their flourishing, there is none [that does not] depend upon the earth and rain. [Within the teaching, this parable] corresponds to expedient wisdom illuminating the seven [classes of expedient beings] and the five vehicles, each of which is different;

yet when true wisdom illuminates them, ultimately there is only the one true vehicle.

The one true vehicle is also the seven classes of expedient beings and the five vehicles; the seven classes of expedient beings and the five vehicles are precisely the one true vehicle. [Thus,] difference is itself non-difference, and non-difference is precisely difference. This is the meaning in brief.

The point explaining the parable of differences contains six subsidiary points. The first concerns the earth; the second presents the grasses and trees; the third concerns the thick, dark clouds spreading overhead; the fourth concerns the falling rain; the fifth concerns the moisture [permeating everywhere]; and the sixth concerns the growth [of the vegetation].

First, [we shall explain] the parable concerning the earth. Earlier commentators held that the great trichiliocosm refers generally to the whole world, while the mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams mentioned specifically within it represent the accumulated causes ^[22] of the five vehicles. Streams receive an abundance of rainwater and thus represent bodhisattvas; ravines represent pratyekabuddhas; rivers represent sravakas; and mountains, being high ground that receives less moisture, represent heavenly beings and humans.

We now hold that the causes and effects accumulated [by sentient beings] may be compared to seeds that, moistened by rainwater, grow; but although the earth, mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams possess the meaning of being moistened, they do not possess the two meanings of “seed” and “growth.” Moreover, in the later scriptural passage explaining the correspondence with the parable, it says, “causing all heavenly beings, humans, and asuras everywhere to hear,” while the verse says, “amid heavenly beings, humans, and the entire assembly.” [These passages] do not use the earth, mountains, rivers, and so forth to represent the causes and effects accumulated [by sentient beings over many lifetimes]. [Therefore,] we do not adopt that interpretation here.

We now explain that the great trichiliocosm represents all sentient beings throughout the world, while the mountains, rivers, ravines, streams, and earth represent the five skandhas of the world. The world is originally nothing other than the composite of mountains, rivers, ravines, streams, and earth. Sentient beings are originally nothing other than the composite of the five skandhas.

Because the earth extends everywhere, it represents the consciousness skandha; the mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams represent the other four skandhas. The grasses and trees are what depend [upon the earth]. Although the grasses and trees depend upon the earth, the earth is not the grasses and trees.

The trunks and roots of grasses and trees are all referred to by the general name “grasses and trees”; [even] the seeds of grasses and trees have no other name, but are called seeds solely because of their capacity to produce growth. The trunks and roots that arise are called grasses and trees, and all of them take root in the earth; therefore, the earth is their fundamental source.

[Within the teaching, this parable] corresponds to accumulated causes and accumulated effects. ^[23] Although both arise in dependence upon the five skandhas, the five skandhas are not themselves cause and effect. Nevertheless, accumulated causes must necessarily depend upon the five skandhas; when their growth has reached complete fulfillment, they are called accumulated effects. Since both effects and causes arise in dependence upon the skandhas, it is fitting that the mountains, rivers, and earth serve as their analogy. Since the grasses, trees, and seeds are all moistened by rainwater, it is fitting that their growth serve as the analogy.

[These analogies] also clarify the specific parable [given previously]. Although a mountain soars high, it still possesses all five differing characteristics, such as high and low. Even the level earth of the plains possesses five differing characteristics, such as mounds and ponds.

These represent the five skandhas of the five vehicles. “High mountains” represent the five skandhas of bodhisattvas; “rivers” represent [the five skandhas of] pratyekabuddhas; “ravines” represent [the five skandhas of] sravakas; “earth” represents [the five skandhas of] heavenly beings; and low-lying “streams” represent [the five skandhas of] humans. Each of the five skandhas [of these five vehicles] serves as the basis for accumulated causes and accumulated effects, just as the mountains, rivers, ravines, streams, and earth all serve as the basis [for the growth] of the seeds, trunks, roots, and so forth [of the various grasses and trees].

Furthermore, the great trichiliocosm is used to represent the principle of the primary cause, which is the common basis of all [dharmas]; the mountains, rivers, ravines, streams, and earth represent the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, karmic retributions, form, and mind of sentient beings; and the grasses, trees, and dense forests represent the accumulated causes of sentient beings. These three dharmas are never separate from one another. Accumulated causes must depend upon the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus; and the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus do not lie outside the Dharma-nature [that is, the principle of the primary cause]. This is just as grasses and trees depend upon mountains, rivers, and so forth, while mountains and rivers depend upon the world. Such is the meaning in brief.

The scriptural passage [presenting the parable] clearly contains six subsidiary points. ^[24] Why fabricate a different interpretation? Moreover, since the specific sequence has already been set forth as described above, why break it apart, confuse the scriptural passage, and record its earlier and later portions [in a disorderly manner]?”

From the words “there spring forth various kinds of grasses and trees, thickets and forests…” onward is the second minor point [in this parable], concerning the grasses and trees that grow [from the earth]. [The scripture uses the character] hui (卉) as a general designation for all kinds of grasses, while the character mu (木) refers generally to all kinds of trees. Many grasses growing together form a thicket, and many trees growing together form a forest. Those possessing an outstanding medicinal function are called medicines. In the same way, all wholesome dharmas can remedy evil deeds, but among them the undefiled wholesome dharmas can also remedy delusion, and this is their superior meaning.

Among grasses and trees, those forest trees whose branches and leaves provide extensive shade and great benefit are therefore used as an analogy for the 2 classes of bodhisattvas. ^[25] “However many varieties there may be” [is an analogy for] the seeds, causes, and fruits of the 5 vehicles and the 7 classes of expedient means; ^[26] [because their number cannot be determined], the text says “however many.” [“Their names and colors are all different”]: each variety has its corresponding stage, which is its “name,” and each has a [distinct] form and appearance, which is its “color.”

From the words “when the dense cloud spreads everywhere” onward is the third minor point, presenting the parable of the cloud covering all. Here, the form and color of the cloud provide sheltering shade; later in the scripture, the additional words “thunder resounds and reverberates afar” occur. The sheltering shade is an analogy for the Buddha’s compassion.

Thus, the form and color [of the cloud] are an analogy for the Buddha’s appearance in the world, while thunder is an analogy for the Buddha’s teaching. The “dense cloud” is an analogy for the three mysteries ^[27] [of the Buddha]. Compassion [like a cloud providing shade] is the mystery of the Buddha’s mind; the form and color [of the dense cloud] are the mystery of the Buddha’s body; and the sound of thunder is the mystery of the Buddha’s speech.

“Spreads everywhere” means pervading every place. Because the dense cloud also covers every place, the text says “spreads everywhere.” [Likewise, the Buddha] permeates his manifested transformation body with compassion and teaches the Dharma throughout the 10 Dharma realms; therefore, it is said to “spread everywhere.”

The Treatise on the Extraordinary Manifestations in the Sutras and Vinaya ^[28] says: Clouds have 5 colors, [manifestations of the 4 great elements]. Blue clouds contain a predominance of the wind element; red clouds contain a predominance of the fire element; yellow and white clouds contain a predominance of the earth element; and black clouds contain a predominance of the water element. There are 4 deities of thunder: in the east is Thân Vị, in the south is Bách Chủ, in the west is A-kiệt-la, and in the north is A-chú-lam. Thunder occurs when these four deities of thunder contend with one another. It is also [said that] thunder occurs when the 4 great elements—water, fire, wind, and earth—contend with one another.

There are 5 causes for the absence of rain [in a region]. First, wind blows [the clouds away]; second, a great fire burns [and disperses the clouds]; third, the asuras use their hands [to drive the clouds] into the sea; fourth, the rain deity [of that place] engages in debauchery [and neglects the work of making rain]; fifth, the king [of that place] governs the country without maintaining peace and stability, causing the rain deity to become angry and withhold the rain. Such is the general account.

From the words “at the same time, rain falls” onward is the fourth minor point, presenting the parable of the falling rain. It is an analogy for [the Buddha’s] use of the mystery of speech, through the 8 qualities of sound ^[29] and the 4 [unobstructed] eloquences ^[30], to proclaim the teaching, pour down the rain of Dharma, and bring beneficial, permeating nourishment to all sentient beings.

From the words “its moisture also permeates every place equally” onward is the fifth minor point, presenting the parable of moistening. The precious rain of Dharma pours down equally upon the 7 classes of sentient beings, ^[31] [causing] the seeds of causes and conditions permeating their minds to give rise to the wisdom acquired from hearing the Dharma; this is called moistening. As for branches, leaves, roots, and trunks: faith is analogous to the roots, moral discipline to the trunk, meditative concentration to the branches, and wisdom to the leaves.

Because these successively assist one another [in their common development], these 4 dharmas are used to present the analogy. “Small roots and small trunks” are an analogy for the faith and moral conduct of those in the two realms of devas and humans. “Medium roots and medium trunks” are an analogy for the faith and moral conduct of those of the Two Vehicles.

“Large roots and large trunks” are an analogy for the faith and moral conduct of bodhisattvas.

From the words “the various kinds of large and small trees” onward is the sixth minor point, presenting the parable of growth; however, it is abbreviated and merely states that “the various grasses and trees, according to their measure… absorb the rainwater.”

Because the habitual causes and retributive causes of wholesome dharmas have been moistened by the rain of Dharma, both their habitual fruits and retributive fruits increase and develop.

The phrase “according to their nature” clarifies the meaning that [the Buddha] employs provisional teachings according to the [appropriate] capacities of beings: for those of lesser capacity, the teaching does not exceed their abilities, while for those of greater capacity, it is not diminished. This refers to [the teaching being given according to] the habitual causes and retributive causes of the 7 classes of sentient beings.

“To blossom and bear fruit” refers to habitual fruits and retributive fruits. Furthermore, the passage concerning growth has 3 meanings. “According to their nature” explains the cause of growth, [namely, that the Buddha] establishes teachings suited to beings’ capacities. “Absorb what is appropriate and thereby grow” clearly explains growth itself. “To blossom and bear fruit” describes the characteristics of growth.

From the words “Although they are born from one earth…” onward is the second main point, ^[32] explaining the meaning of one earth and one rain in order to present the parable of nondifferentiation, thereby revealing that there is only the true One Buddha Vehicle. This point is further divided into 3 minor points.

First, the statement that they are born from one earth means that they arise from the mind-ground at the stages preceding the path, ^[33] and that ultimately they all attain the stage [of omniscience] through the cause belonging to the stage subsequent to the path. ^[34]

Second, the statement that rain falls from one cloud means that with one voice [the Buddha] proclaims the Dharma-gate of the One Vehicle, opening and giving rise to the 5 kinds of wholesome roots on the paths [of the 5 vehicles]; ^[35] ultimately, this is the one voice of the impartial teaching.

Third, the 3 kinds of medicinal herbs and the 2 kinds of trees receive benefit [when the rain falls] but cannot understand this themselves. This means that the 5 kinds of wholesome roots [of the 5 vehicles] all grow according to their respective capacities because the Buddha showers them with the rain of Dharma. Yet they do not themselves understand that the causes of all 5 kinds of wholesome roots rely upon the same Buddha-nature. Nor do they themselves understand that the teachings of the 5 vehicles are all the Great Vehicle. Nor do they themselves understand that [all 5 vehicles] advance together toward the wisdom of the Buddha. Only the Tathagata can know [these things].

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

“O Kasyapa! You should know that the Tathagata is also like this. He appears in the world just as a great cloud arises.

Amid the great assembly, he speaks with a great voice, causing it to be heard throughout the realms of devas, humans, and asuras, just as that great cloud covers the entire great trichiliocosm. He proclaims: ‘I am the Tathagata, Worthy One, Perfectly Enlightened One, One Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed Trainer of Persons, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.

Those who have not yet been delivered, I shall now cause to be delivered; those who are not yet at peace, I shall cause to be at peace; those who have not yet attained nirvana, I shall cause to attain nirvana. I truly and correctly understand all things in this life and future lives. I am the One who comprehends all, the One who sees and knows all, the One who knows the path, the One who opens the path, and the One who teaches the path.

All sentient beings in the realms of devas, humans, asuras, and so forth should come here to hear me expound the true Dharma.’

From the words “O Kasyapa! You should know that the Tathagata is also like this” onward is the second section, explaining the meaning corresponding to the parables, [with 2 points. The first point corresponds to the parables of differentiation, and the second point corresponds to the parables of nondifferentiation].

The first meaning, corresponding to the various distinct parables, has two minor points: first, it presents the meaning of the correspondence; afterward, it sets forth the parables and indicates where the correspondences lie.

The preceding section on the distinct parables had six minor points, and this section likewise has six corresponding points, though they do not follow the same order. The preceding section set forth parables to clarify capacities and therefore first discussed sentient beings; this section, which correlates the parables in order to clarify the responsive manifestations, first presents the correspondence with the Tathagata, because the Tathagata is the Lord of Teaching. ^[36]

In this minor point, the first item corresponds to the third minor point in the preceding section, the parable of the dense dark cloud, and at the same time also corresponds to the first minor point there, the parable of the earth throughout the entire world. The second item in this section corresponds to the fourth minor point in the preceding section, the parable of the falling rain. The third item in this section corresponds to the first minor point in the preceding section, the parable of the mountains, rivers, ravines, streams, and the earth of the world.

The fourth item in this section corresponds to the second minor point in the preceding section, the parable of grasses and trees. The fifth item in this section corresponds to the fifth minor point in the preceding section, the parable of being moistened [by the rainwater]. The sixth item in this section corresponds to the sixth minor point in the preceding section, the parable of the growth [of grasses and trees].

The order in which [this section] corresponds to the parables [in the preceding section] is intended to clarify [the sequence whereby] the Tathagata responsively manifests and appears in the world, whereupon he immediately teaches the Dharma with the eight kinds of voice. Once the Dharma is taught, sentient beings receive the teaching and transformation; when sentient beings hear the Dharma, they are all moistened by the Buddha Way. This moistening is the same, but their growth is not without differences. Such is the general outline.

£ [Now to explain] the first item, which corresponds to the parable of the dense dark cloud. First, the Buddha’s esoteric body, corresponding to the cloud [dense and dark] in possessing form, is presented. Thereafter, the Buddha’s esoteric speech, corresponding to the cloud [dense and dark] in possessing sound [the sound of thunder], is presented.

“The Tathagata is also like this, appearing in the midst of the world” corresponds to the responsive manifestation body [of the Buddha] appearing in the world.

“Like a great cloud arising” indicates the correspondence with the parable, clarifying the meaning that the Tathagata, with a mind of great loving-kindness, manifests a body to shelter and instruct all [sentient beings].

“With a great voice” presents the Buddha’s esoteric speech, corresponding to the cloud mass possessing the sound [of thunder].

“Devas, humans, and asuras” refers specifically to the three wholesome realms, ^[37] namely, the realms that receive benefit from the Buddha’s esoteric teaching. ^[38] This speaks of the capacities and natures of the Three Vehicles, [corresponding to the parable of] the thirty sons [in the Parable chapter] who gained benefit from hearing the teaching.

“Like that great cloud” presents the correspondence with the parable of the cloud possessing the sound [of thunder]. “Covering the entire great trichiliocosm” generally indicates that all [sentient beings] are children of the Buddha and all receive benefit from the Buddha’s esoteric teaching. Or it is sometimes held that [this section] corresponds only to the five minor points in the preceding parable; in that case, the passage beginning with “throughout the realms of devas, humans…” also corresponds to the meaning of “the earth throughout the entire world.” Here, “world” means the world as a realm or land; devas, humans, and asuras are provisional designations within the world of the five skandhas.

The provisional designations correspond to the preceding parable of the world, while the five skandhas correspond to the mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams in the preceding parable.

£ The passage beginning with “in the midst of the great assembly… he proclaimed” is the second item, corresponding to the fourth item above, the parable of the falling rain. [This passage] first clarifies the principal meaning and then exhorts [sentient beings] to listen and uphold it. The presentation of the principal meaning contains six meanings. First, it presents the Buddha’s ten epithets, namely Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, and so forth.

Second, it presents the four great vows, ^[39] namely, “Those who have not yet been delivered [I shall now] cause to be delivered,” and so forth. Third, it presents the three illuminating wisdoms, ^[40] namely, “truthfully knowing all matters in this life and future lives,” and so forth. Fourth, it presents the one Buddha-mind endowed with the three wisdoms, ^[41] namely complete knowledge.

Fifth, it presents the five eyes, namely “seeing and knowing all.” Sixth, it presents the three kinds of karma functioning in accordance with wisdom. “Knowing the path” means that the mind requires no guarding; “opening the path” means that the body requires no guarding; “teaching the path” means that speech requires no guarding. ^[42] He is also called the Guide, which conveys [the meanings of] “knowing the path,” and so forth.

The passage beginning with “all sentient beings in the realms of devas and humans…” exhorts sentient beings to listen and receive. With the eight kinds of voice, the Buddha clearly expounds the six kinds of Dharma gates [described above]. ^[43] Because he speaks with reference to the majority, he only gives the exhortation that [sentient beings in] the three wholesome realms should come to hear the Dharma.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

“At that time, innumerable thousands, myriads, and kotis of kinds of sentient beings all came to the Buddha’s presence to hear the true Dharma. At that time, the Tathagata observed all sentient beings and clearly knew whether their faculties and natures were keen or dull and whether they were diligent or indolent. Then, according to each kind’s capacity to receive, he taught the Dharma for their sake, employing innumerable methods so that all attained gladness and joy and swiftly gained excellent benefits.

After those sentient beings had heard the Dharma, their present lives were peaceful and secure, and in future lives they would be born in wholesome realms, take delight in cultivating the Way, and again be able to hear the Dharma. After hearing the Dharma, they would leave all hindrances far behind and, with respect to all dharmas, gradually enter the path of awakening according to their capacities.

The sentence, “At that time, innumerable thousands, myriads, and kotis of kinds of sentient beings all came to the Buddha’s presence to hear the true Dharma,” is the third item in this passage, corresponding to the first minor point in the preceding section, the parable of the mountains, rivers, and so forth. Sentient beings exist on the basis of all karmic retributions, just as a world exists on the basis of mountains, rivers, and so forth. “Thousands, myriads, and kotis…” refers to sentient beings in the ten Dharma realms; properly understood here, it means sentient beings belonging to the seven distinct classes of expedient means, in accord with what was stated above.

Alternatively, it is explained that the entire passage beginning with “all sentient beings in the realms of devas and humans…” corresponds to the parable of the mountains, rivers, and so forth in the preceding section.

The passage from “At that time, the Tathagata…” through “diligent or indolent” is the fourth item, corresponding to the second minor point above, the parable of grasses and trees. The scholars of the older interpretations held that this scriptural passage was superfluous and did not correspond to the preceding section. It is now clearly explained that, in the preceding parable, the grasses and trees differed and were not alike in size, while here it is clarified that [sentient beings’] faculties and natures may be keen or dull and that in cultivation they may be diligent or indolent.

This precisely means that the causal habits may be deep or shallow. Its meaning is the same as the comparison with [the differences among] grasses and trees; how could it fail to correspond to the parable and instead be deemed superfluous?

“At that time,” if discussed in terms of the initial stage of the gradual teaching, ^[44] refers to the first teaching of the Dharma of the Three Vehicles at the Deer Park; if discussed in terms of the subsequent period before the Buddha taught the Mahayana, then [wherever the Buddha taught the Dharma] may be referred to as “at that time.”

“Keen or dull”: generally speaking, beings in the three evil destinies, having created evil causes and received painful results, are unable to receive the Dharma of the Path and are therefore called “dull”;

beings of the seven classes of expedient means, upon hearing the teaching, immediately receive benefit and are therefore called “keen.” More specifically, among those in the two realms of devas and humans, those who merely undergo their karmic recompense and lack the capacity to receive the Dharma of the Path are called “dull,” while those possessing the faculties of the Three Vehicles, who can eliminate delusion and escape the three realms, are called “keen.” Furthermore, sravakas who contemplate arising and cessation are called dull, while bodhisattvas who contemplate neither arising nor cessation are called “keen.” [This is likewise true of the teachings of] the Shared Teaching, the Separate Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching.

Such is the general meaning.

“Diligent or indolent”: beings in the three evil destinies who abandon themselves to heedlessness and dissipation are called “indolent,” while beings in the two realms of devas and humans who observe the five precepts and practice the ten wholesome deeds are called “diligent.” Beings in the two realms of devas and humans who do not fear or grow weary of suffering are called “indolent,” while those of the Two Vehicles who dread impermanence are called “diligent.” Those of the Two Vehicles who desire to attain realization but do not seek Buddhahood are called “indolent,” while bodhisattvas resolutely seeking the Buddha Path are called “diligent.” Such is the general meaning.

From the words “according to the capacity of each kind to receive…” through “…swiftly attain goodness and benefit” constitutes the fifth point, corresponding to the fifth subordinate point above concerning the parable of being moistened [by rainwater].

“According to the capacity to receive” means that it is appropriate and suited to their faculties, without the fault of excess or deficiency.

“Joyfully and delightedly, they swiftly attain goodness and benefit” means that all beings are moistened by the grace of the Dharma rain and receive its benefit.

“After those beings have heard the true Dharma…” constitutes the sixth point, corresponding to the sixth subordinate point in the preceding section concerning the parable of growth. “Their present lives are peaceful and secure, and in future lives they are born into wholesome realms” means that the karmic cause of recompense brings about the fruit of recompense; this corresponds to the preceding parable in which growing grasses and trees “blossom.” From the words “they also hear the Dharma” through “enter the Path of awakening” means that the cause of cultivation leads to the fruit of cultivation; this corresponds to the preceding description of growing grasses and trees “bearing fruit.” “After hearing the Dharma” corresponds to the cause of growth mentioned above.

“Their present lives are peaceful and secure” corresponds to the essential meaning of growth. “In future lives they are born into wholesome realms” corresponds to the characteristics of growth.

The Buddha is like a great cloud that overspreads and shades all beings. Even [beings in] the three evil destinies are moistened and enabled to grow. Thus, when [the Buddha] preached the Prajnaparamita and Vaipulya scriptures, it was clearly stated that [beings in] the hells received benefit. Furthermore, the scriptures also relate how dragons, birds, ghosts, spirits, and other beings heard the Dharma and attained the Path.

If [in the hells] the fires are extinguished, the boiling water becomes cool, and so forth, this is “their present lives are peaceful and secure.” If [beings in the three evil destinies] are born in the deva or human realm, this is “in future lives they are born into wholesome realms.” Furthermore, if they cultivate the Dharma of the Path within the two realms of devas and humans, this is “taking delight in cultivating the Path.”

If devas and humans, after hearing the Dharma, observe the precepts and possess merit and virtue that protect them, so that ghosts and dragons cannot harm them, this is “their present lives are peaceful and secure.” If, after dying in the deva realm, they are reborn in the deva realm; after dying in the human realm, they are reborn in the human realm; or they are reborn successively between the two realms of devas and humans, this is “in future lives they are born into wholesome realms.”

After being born, if they are able to study and understand the Path, this is “taking delight in cultivating the Path.” When those of the Two Vehicles hear the Dharma and attain nirvana with remainder, this is “their present lives are peaceful and secure.”

A later passage of the scripture ^[45] further states: “Because of the merit they have attained, those persons conceive the idea that they have achieved extinction.… At that time, I become a Buddha in a land beyond the three realms, ^[46] under another name. Those persons… in that land beyond the three realms… hear this sutra….” This means that the realm of expedient means with remainder is the “wholesome realm.” “In that land beyond the three realms… hear this sutra” means that they attain the Path and experience joy.

If bodhisattvas still bearing bodies of flesh ^[47] hear Buddha Rocana preach the Dharma and then attain the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas, this is “their present lives are peaceful and secure.” Afterward, they are born in the Pure and Full World as members of the Dharma-body retinue; this is being in a “wholesome realm and taking delight in cultivating the Path.”

“Free from every obstruction” means “their present lives are peaceful and secure.” “According to their capacities… they gradually enter the Path of awakening” means that in future lives they “take delight in cultivating the Path.”

Regarding the Five Vehicles: [the Human Vehicle] is the vehicle of the five precepts, by which one escapes the suffering of the three evil destinies; [the Deva Vehicle] is the vehicle of the ten wholesome deeds, by which one escapes the eight sufferings of the human realm; the Sravaka Vehicle escapes the suffering of impermanence in the three realms; the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle escapes the hardship of having to hear the Dharma from others; ^[48] and the Bodhisattva Vehicle escapes the suffering of inwardly lacking luminous wisdom and outwardly lacking excellent physical characteristics. ^[49] This is the teaching of the Five Vehicles.

Question: [There is no need for as many as Five Vehicles.] The two realms of devas and humans should simply constitute the mundane vehicle, while all the remaining vehicles constitute the supramundane vehicle.

[Answer:] Alternatively, the Buddha may be called the true vehicle, while all other vehicles are expedient vehicles.

Or the Buddha may be regarded as the fruition vehicle, while all other vehicles are causal vehicles.

Or they may be divided into Three Vehicles: the two realms of devas and humans constitute the lower vehicle, those of the Two Vehicles constitute the middle vehicle, and the Buddha constitutes the highest vehicle.

Or the two realms of devas and humans may be called the vehicle that has not severed afflictions, those of the Two Vehicles the vehicle that has severed afflictions, and the Buddha the vehicle that neither severs nor fails to sever them.

Or the two realms of devas and humans may be called the vehicle that has not severed [afflictions], the Buddha the vehicle that has severed [afflictions], and those of the Two Vehicles the vehicle that both severs and does not sever [afflictions].

Or they may also be divided into such vehicles as those of ordinary beings, the worthy and the noble, and those who are neither ordinary nor noble; or into existence, nonexistence, and neither existence nor nonexistence.… Such is the general meaning.

[Question:] The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom sets forth five wholesome realms, and the Srimala Sutra speaks of four treasuries. How do these compare with [the Lotus Sutra’s] three kinds of medicinal herbs and two kinds of trees?

Answer: Among [the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom’s] five wholesome realms, the deva realm and the human realm are two, those of the Two Vehicles constitute one, and the Buddhas and bodhisattvas constitute [two, which together with the preceding three make] five. ^[50] This divides the Great Vehicle while combining the Lesser Vehicle. ^[51] [The classification into] Five Vehicles divides the Lesser Vehicle while combining the Great Vehicle. ^[52] [The Srimala Sutra’s] four treasuries combine ordinary beings while dividing the noble ones, ^[53] whereas the Five Vehicles divide both ordinary and noble beings. ^[54] They therefore differ according to causes and conditions.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

“Just as that great cloud pours down rain, refreshing all the grasses and trees, forests, and medicinal herbs, each according to its own nature, so that all are fully moistened and flourish in growth.”

From the words “Just as that great cloud…” onward is the second minor point, indicating how it corresponds to the [aforementioned] analogies. The “great cloud” corresponds to the first minor point, stating that the form and voice [manifested by the Buddha in response to beings] both bring benefit [to sentient beings]. “It rains down and refreshes all” corresponds to the second minor point, elucidating the six meanings of praising the Buddha. ^[55] “The various grasses, trees, and dense forests” corresponds to the fourth minor point, ^[56] stating that the sentient beings who receive instruction [possess faculties that are] keen or dull, are diligent or indolent, and have deeply or shallowly cultivated causes.

“Each, according to its own nature, is fully moistened” corresponds to the fifth minor point, stating that [sentient beings] receive the nourishing benefit of the teaching. “All flourish and grow” corresponds to the sixth minor point, stating that their present lives become secure and prosper.

SCRIPTURE

The Tathagata expounds the Dharma as having one and the same characteristic and one and the same flavor of Dharma: namely, the characteristic of liberation, the characteristic of detachment, and the characteristic of cessation, ultimately culminating in the attainment of wisdom of all modes.

From the words “The Tathagata expounds the Dharma as having one and the same characteristic…” onward is the second point, corresponding to the preceding portion of the analogy concerning non-difference. The preceding portion sets forth three things: [first, one earth; second, one rain; and third, three kinds of medicinal herbs and two classes of trees]. Here, too, it corresponds to these three things, though not in their proper order.

From “one characteristic and one flavor of Dharma” onward corresponds to both of the first two things, “one earth” and “one rain.” From “namely, the characteristic…” onward explains both “one earth” and “one rain.” From the words “If there are sentient beings…” onward corresponds to the preceding statement that “each kind of plant differs.” From the words “Why is this?” onward explains whether the Tathagata can clearly know differences as differences or as non-differences.

“One characteristic” means that the minds of all sentient beings equally possess the single characteristic of suchness; this is the meaning of “one earth.”

“One flavor of Dharma” means that the Dharma of the One Vehicle expounds only one and the same truth; this is the meaning of “one rain.” Originally there was only the one characteristic of reality, but as an expedient means [for teaching sentient beings], it was set forth as seven classes of expedient teachings, ^[57] and the teaching of the One Vehicle was differentiated and expounded as seven teachings. ^[58] The Buddha knows clearly that, ultimately, they all return to one characteristic and one flavor of Dharma.

From “namely, the characteristic…” onward explains both meanings: “one characteristic” and “one flavor of Dharma.” “The mind-nature… of sentient beings” refers to the virtues inherent in their nature. Regarding the three characteristics of liberation, detachment, and quiescent cessation, the Tathagata uses a single voice to expound these three dharmas, which are the three flavors of Dharma. Taking these three characteristics as the objects of cultivation, one practices the truths of dependent origination and the Middle Way, ultimately attaining the fruition of wisdom of all [modes]. Therefore, it is said that one ultimately attains wisdom of all modes.

The portion corresponding to the analogy that “grasses and trees are all different” is explained below and need not be recorded repetitively here.

This portion is also sometimes explained as three points of correspondence. The first is the point of non-difference, corresponding to the preceding [analogies] of “one earth” and “one rain”; the second is the point of difference, corresponding to the preceding [analogy] that “grasses and trees are all different”; the third is the point that “the Tathagata can clearly know,” which is explained under two minor points: [first, non-difference; and second, difference].

“Non-difference” is the meaning of “one characteristic” and “one flavor of Dharma.” “One characteristic” corresponds to the analogy of “one earth” given above. The characteristic of liberation is the characteristic of no longer having birth and death. The characteristic of detachment is the characteristic of there being no nirvana. The characteristic of quiescent cessation is signlessness, without even the characteristic of signlessness; there is solely the one characteristic of reality, and therefore it is called one characteristic. That one characteristic is the non-abiding basis from which all dharmas are established. Non-abiding and signlessness entail no difference; the establishment of all dharmas entails difference.

Difference is like grasses and trees; non-difference is like the one earth. Although the earth is without difference, it can produce peach trees, plum trees, and so forth—grasses and trees that differ from one another. Again, although peach trees, plum trees, and so forth differ from one another, they all share the single characteristic of solidity.

If one knows that the earth inherently contains peach trees, plum trees, and so forth in full, one knows that the provisional is contained within the real and understands that non-difference itself is difference.

If one knows the characteristic of solidity in peach trees, plum trees, and so forth, one knows that the real is contained within the provisional and understands that difference itself is non-difference.

For these reasons, “one characteristic” is used to correspond to the preceding analogy of “one earth.”

“One flavor of Dharma” is the true teaching, pure and unmixed. It may be understood by reference to the explanation of “one characteristic.”

“Liberation” means not being bound by the force of karma on either shore—sectional birth and death or transformational birth and death—and is therefore called the characteristic of liberation.

“The characteristic of detachment” is the attainment of the wisdom of the Middle Way. This wisdom is able to transcend both extremes, [neither existence nor nonexistence, neither permanence nor annihilation], and is free of attachment; therefore it is called the characteristic of detachment.

“The characteristic of quiescent cessation” means that when the [one-sided] causes belonging to the two extremes have ceased, nirvana with remainder is attained; when the [one-sided] fruits belonging to the two extremes have ceased, nirvana without remainder is attained. Therefore, it is called the characteristic of quiescent cessation. Each statement here accords with the meanings of difference and non-difference [explained above] and may be understood by reference to the explanation of “one characteristic.”

“Ultimately attaining wisdom of all modes” means that, upon reaching the characteristic of extinguishing the two one-sided extremes, both the delusions common to all vehicles and the distinct delusions are completely ended, and one enters the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. In employing wisdom of all modes and inwardly practicing prajnaparamita, the initial arousal and the final culmination are not different from each other; therefore it is called “ultimate.” This is the Buddha’s wisdom and is thus called wisdom of all modes.

SCRIPTURE

If there are sentient beings who, after hearing the Tathagata’s Dharma, receive and uphold it, recite and read it, and practice in accordance with that Dharma, [those sentient beings still] do not themselves know the merit they have acquired.

The second minor section, from the words “If there are sentient beings who hear the Tathagata’s Dharma… and do not themselves know” onward, sets forth the meaning of difference. From this point onward, [the scriptural passage] elucidates difference. Sentient beings are like mountains and rivers, [illustrating] the difference between the provisional and the real, and also the difference among seeds.

The Tathagata is like the rain cloud; [sentient beings’] hearing the Dharma is like the rain falling; reading, reciting, and practicing are like being moistened; and merit is like growth. Sentient beings themselves cannot know such differences. This minor section is divided into five parts.

The first states that sentient beings cannot know themselves; the second states that the Tathagata can clearly know; the third presents an analogy corresponding to the meaning that sentient beings cannot know; the fourth reiterates the preceding point by way of conclusion and explains how the Tathagata can clearly know; and the fifth resolves a doubt.

“If there are any living beings” indicates those who do not know. “Dharma” refers to hearing the Dharma from the one sound [of the Buddha]. ^[59] “Accepting and upholding, reciting and reading, and practicing in accordance with that Dharma” expresses the principal meaning of their inability to know. Since the ways in which they accept, uphold, recite, and read are not the same, their practices also differ. Gods and humans [hearing the Buddha’s Dharma] understand it as observing the precepts and doing good; those of the Three Vehicles [hearing the Buddha’s Dharma] understand it according to the Four Noble Truths, the twelve links of dependent origination, and the six paramitas. ^[60] Since their understandings are not the same, [their practices] consequently differ.

“They themselves do not know the merit they have obtained” means that although living beings of the Five Vehicles ^[61] each accept the Buddha’s teaching according to their respective vehicle, they do not know that the Buddha-Dharma has only one Dharma-flavor and that its teachings do not differ. Nor do they know that living beings of the seven classes of expedient means each understand [what is appropriate to themselves] and then cling to the belief that [only] their own understanding is true. Thus, they neither know the provisional teachings of the vehicles nor understand the true Dharma. This is to differ while “not themselves knowing.”

SCRIPTURE

Why is this? Because only the Tathagata clearly knows the natures, essences, categories, characteristics, and forms of living beings; [he clearly knows] what living beings think of, what they reflect upon, and what they cultivate; how they think, how they reflect, and how they cultivate; by what Dharma they think, by what Dharma they reflect, and by what Dharma they cultivate; and by what Dharma they attain which Dharma. Only the Tathagata truly knows, lucidly and distinctly without obstruction, the various stages [along the path of cultivation] in which living beings abide. It is just as the grasses, trees, thickets, forests, and medicinal herbs do not themselves know whether they belong to the superior, inferior, or intermediate class.

The second section explains the meaning that the Tathagata is able to know clearly. This part is somewhat abridged, presenting only ten objects, which together constitute four points. First, he knows by means of four dharmas; second, he knows by means of three dharmas; third, he knows by means of two dharmas; and fourth, he is able to know by means of one dharma.

First, knowing by means of four dharmas refers to seed, characteristic, essence, and nature. Seed means that the three evil destinies are the seeds of the three virtues. ^[62] The Vimalakirti Sutra says: “All kinds of afflictions are seeds of the Tathagata.” This elucidates the meaning that prajna arises from within the afflictions. It also says: “The five uninterrupted offenses ^[63] all produce the characteristic of liberation.” This means that from unwholesome dharmas arises the wholesome Dharma of liberation. All living beings are characterized by nirvana; there can be no further quiescence. This means that samsara itself is the Dharma-body.

This discussion of seeds is based on their relative characteristics. If discussed according to their categories, then all [acts of reverence, such as] bowing the head and joining the palms are seeds [of the virtue] of liberation; all worldly wisdom and the understanding minds of the Three Vehicles are seeds [of the virtue] of prajna; and the fact that all sentient beings will become Buddhas is the seed [of the virtue] of the Dharma-body.

The Tathagata can clearly know all such distinctions among seeds. Yet all these seeds are in truth only one seed—that is, they are without distinction—and the Tathagata can clearly know this as well. Distinction itself is non-distinction, and non-distinction itself is distinction; this too the Tathagata can clearly know.

Next, characteristics, essences, and natures are explained according to the ten Dharma realms and the Ten Suchnesses. When discussed in terms of distinction, they are the characteristics of the ten Dharma realms; when discussed in terms of non-distinction, they are the characteristics of the single Buddha realm. Whether distinct or non-distinct, the Tathagata can clearly know them all. Distinction itself is non-distinction, and non-distinction itself is distinction; this too the Tathagata can clearly know. The same method applies to the discussion of essence and nature, and can be readily understood.

From the words “what living beings think of…” onward, three dharmas are used to clarify the Tathagata’s ability to know clearly. These three dharmas are the three kinds of wisdom, ^[64] which are further divided into three levels. The first concerns the objects of the three wisdoms; the second, the essence of the three wisdoms; and the third, the causes and conditions of the three wisdoms.

“What they think of” clarifies the function of the three wisdoms. Thought retains the matters that are remembered; these are the objects of the three wisdoms. From the words “how they think” onward, the meaning is that thought remembers the dharmas one has heard; this is precisely to contemplate the essence of the three wisdoms.

From the words “by what Dharma they think” onward, the meaning is that the three wisdoms adhere to objects while hearing the Dharma; these are the causes and conditions of the three wisdoms. Furthermore, when the objects, the wisdom that cognizes those objects, and the causes and conditions of the three wisdoms combine, the dharmas of the three wisdoms arise; hence these too are called causes and conditions.

These three wisdoms belong to the Three Vehicles. Previously, their objects, essences, and causes and conditions were regarded as different, and thus there was distinction. If one enters the subtle and perfect three wisdoms, there is no distinction. Whether distinct or non-distinct in this way, the Tathagata can clearly know them all. Furthermore, distinction itself is non-distinction, and non-distinction itself is distinction; this too the Tathagata can clearly know.

From the words “by what Dharma they attain which Dharma” onward, two dharmas are used to clarify the Tathagata’s ability to know clearly. “By what Dharma” is the cause, and “attain which Dharma” is the effect. Each cause within the Five Vehicles leads to its corresponding effect, and thus there is distinction. Living beings are thus, and the Buddha is thus; they are identical in suchness, without two different dharmas. There is only one cause and one effect, and thus there is no distinction. Whether distinct or non-distinct, the Tathagata can clearly know them all. Distinction itself is non-distinction, and non-distinction itself is distinction; this too the Tathagata can clearly know.

From the words “Living beings abide in the various stages along the path of cultivation” onward, one dharma is used to clarify the Tathagata’s ability to know clearly. The seven classes of expedient means abide in their [respective] seven stages; therefore, the text speaks of “the various stages,” and thus there is distinction. The Tathagata uses the Buddha-eye to contemplate them in accordance with reality and sees clearly that, just as streams flowing into the ocean lose their former individual flavors [and retain only the salty flavor of the ocean], there is no distinction. [The Tathagata] employs the wisdom of expedient means to accord with the minds and inclinations of living beings and expound the Dharma; thus, the Tathagata is able to know distinctions clearly.

All the dharmas expounded by the Tathagata ultimately lead to the stage of wisdom of all modes; thus, the Tathagata is able to know clearly that which is without distinction. This is the meaning in brief.

From the words “It is just as the grasses, trees, thickets, and forests…” onward is the third section, which presents a parable corresponding to the meaning that living beings are unable to know clearly.

SCRIPTURE

“The Tathagata clearly knows this Dharma of one characteristic and one flavor, namely, the characteristic of liberation, the characteristic of detachment, the characteristic of quiescence, and ultimately the characteristic of everlasting, quiescent nirvana, which finally returns to emptiness. Having known this, the Tathagata further observes the dispositions and desires of living beings in order to aid them; therefore, he does not immediately expound to living beings [the ultimate Dharma for attaining] wisdom of all modes.”

From the passage, “The Tathagata clearly knows the Dharma…” onward is the fourth section, reiterating the preceding part in order to summarize the meaning that “the Tathagata is able to know clearly.” “Of one and the same characteristic, of one and the same Dharma flavor…” is as previously explained. “The characteristic of liberation, the characteristic of detachment, the characteristic of quiescent cessation…” arise through the differentiation of conditions; that is, within the one [Dharma] there are immeasurable [dharmas].

“Ultimate nirvana… finally returning to emptiness” means that within the immeasurable [dharmas] there is only the one [Dharma]. This reiterates the preceding part to explain once again the absence of difference. Why is this so?

If “the characteristic of liberation, the characteristic of detachment, the characteristic of quiescent cessation…” referred to the Dharma essence realized by the followers of the Two Vehicles, there would still be differentiated explanations. Here, however, it speaks of the ultimate and final Great Vehicle: “finally returning to emptiness,” meaning perfect penetration without distinction. “Ultimate nirvana” concludes the preceding statements: none of these is the nirvana with remainder or without remainder of the Two Vehicles; therefore, it is ultimate nirvana.

“Eternally abiding in quiescent cessation” concludes the preceding statements: only because it is not the quiescent cessation of the Lesser Vehicle is it eternally abiding quiescent cessation. The preceding scripture passage states: “From the beginning, all dharmas have always borne the characteristic of quiescent cessation.” This expresses precisely this meaning. “Finally returning to emptiness” does not mean the emptiness of destroying the body and extinguishing cognition [as understood in the Lesser Vehicle]; rather, it refers to the emptiness of the ultimate truth of the Middle Way.

Even down to joining one’s palms in earnest reverence, although this is a concise expression of the true Dharma, it still differs from the provisional Dharma.

The ancient commentators said that “finally returning to emptiness” means that although [the Buddha], through spiritual powers, could extend his lifespan to immeasurable kalpas and further manifest a lifespan many times greater than that number of kalpas, when his lifespan came to an end, he would ultimately arrive at the destruction of the body and extinction of the mind; hence it is said, “finally returning to emptiness.” Such an assertion truly contradicts the Buddha and contradicts the scripture. How could it be stated?

Master Guangzhai said: “Ultimately entering [nirvana] with remainder, one relinquishes the impermanent body and cognition.” Someone challenged this interpretation, asking: “If this is what it means, how would it differ from the Two Vehicles?”

This scripture passage speaks twice of the “ultimate.” The first occurrence, “ultimately attaining the wisdom of all modes,” indicates the fruition of the wisdom [of all modes], in contrast to the wisdom of the followers of the Two Vehicles, which is not ultimate. The second occurrence, “ultimate nirvana, eternally abiding in quiescent cessation, finally returning to emptiness,” indicates what is eradicated [by the Great Vehicle], in contrast to what is extinguished by the followers of the Two Vehicles, which is not ultimate. Examining how the passage expresses the meaning of the ultimate, one knows that it does not refer to the emptiness [taught by] the Lesser Vehicle.

Master Longyin said: “The emptiness of Great Nirvana means being empty of the characteristics of dharmas and empty of afflictions; therefore, it is called emptiness. Ultimately, all return to the eternally abiding emptiness of the ultimate truth.” The Master of the Middle ^[65] said: “Finally returning to the emptiness of the ultimate truth is wisdom itself.” Someone said: “The fruition of Buddhahood is free from encumbrances; therefore, it is called empty.” Another commentator said: “Only when emptiness and existence are both entirely transparent is it called emptiness.” None of the ancient masters interpreted this according to the Lesser Vehicle. Why did Master Guangzhai alone hold a different view?

From the passage, “Having clearly known this, the Buddha further contemplates… sentient beings,” onward is the fifth section, which dispels the doubts of sentient beings. [Someone raises the doubt:] The Buddha had previously clearly known that from beginning to end there is only the one [Buddha Vehicle]; why, then, did he not immediately teach the true Dharma [to sentient beings] at Deer Park? [The scripture] explains that he “contemplates the mental dispositions and inclinations of sentient beings” and therefore employs the three siddhantas ^[66] as appropriate to teach and save them. Because he feared that [sentient beings, failing to accept it, would] slander the Dharma, he did not teach [the true Dharma immediately].

SCRIPTURE TEXT

“O Kasyapa! You are exceedingly rare, for you are able to understand the Tathagata’s teaching of the Dharma according to what is appropriate, and you are able to believe and accept it. Why is this? Because the teaching of the Dharma according to what is appropriate by all Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, is extremely difficult to comprehend and extremely difficult to know.”

From the passage, “O Kasyapa! You are exceedingly rare…” onward is the second major section, reiterating the central principle and offering praise in order to resolve a doubt. The doubt here is this: “We have previously heard that the Buddha possesses immeasurable merit and virtue; therefore, even though it is said that the four disciples understood according to the teaching, how can it be certain that [their understanding] is the true Dharma?” [Because of this doubt,] the Buddha praises them [to confirm that], although they have not yet attained the stage of Buddhahood, the understanding of the four disciples according to the teaching is not false. This also serves to guide and inspire those of inferior faculties so that they too may attain awakening together.

This major section is divided into two parts: the first is the recounting, and the second is the explanation.

First, he praises this as exceedingly rare. If ordinary beings turn back, hear the Dharma, believe, and accept it, they can obtain benefit. Bodhisattvas, however, have already heard and understood it, so their believing and accepting it is nothing extraordinary. But for [followers of the Two Vehicles who have attained] the proper stage of the unconditioned to be able to relinquish what they have realized and enter the true Dharma is exceedingly rare.

“Being able to understand the Tathagata’s teaching of the Dharma according to what is appropriate” recounts the meaning of their being able to understand [the Buddha’s] revelation that abolishes the Three Vehicles. Next, “being able to believe and accept it” recounts their understanding of [the Buddha’s] disclosure of the One Vehicle.

[From the words] “Why is this?” onward, the meaning of what has just been recounted is explained. It clarifies that the Buddha’s [expedient] teaching of the one path [of the One Vehicle] as three is profound, subtle, and difficult to comprehend, yet “you… are able to believe and accept it.”

The preceding scripture passage states: “The Tathagata also possesses immeasurable, boundless asamkhyeyas of other merits and virtues. Even if you were to expound them for immeasurable hundreds of millions of kalpas, you could never exhaust them.” A later scripture passage states: “You truly are exceedingly rare.” In my own view, the Buddha’s benevolence is bestowed everywhere, like clouds and rain, leaving no place unmoistened; the Buddha’s benevolence shelters and sustains all things, like the great earth, from which there is nothing that does not arise. How could it be limited merely to one faculty or one land? Therefore, it is said: “Even if you were to expound them for immeasurable hundreds of millions of kalpas, you could never exhaust them.”

Although the Buddha’s benevolence is bestowed everywhere and sentient beings receive and make use of it every day, they do not themselves clearly recognize it. This is like the three kinds of medicinal herbs and the two kinds of trees [in the parable]: all are rooted in the earth and all are moistened by the rain, yet they do not themselves recognize this. [Therefore, the Buddha said that disciples such as Kasyapa] were able to understand clearly the Buddha’s ten benefactions from beginning to end, and this was truly exceedingly rare.

“Those who have not yet been delivered, [I] shall cause to be delivered.” This recounts how exceedingly rare it is to understand the benefaction embodied in the Buddha’s Four Great Vows.

[The Buddha enables] sentient beings to “dwell peacefully in this present life, be born in a wholesome realm in the next life, and take delight in cultivating the path.” This recounts how exceedingly rare it is to understand the benefaction whereby [the Buddha], through his mind of great loving-kindness, bestows happiness [upon sentient beings].

“After hearing the Dharma, they become free from all obstacles and, with regard to the various dharmas, gradually enter the path of enlightenment according to their own capacities [for cultivation].” This is the exposition of their recognition that the beneficence of [the Buddha’s] great compassion in rescuing sentient beings from suffering and affliction is exceedingly rare.

[The verse section says:] “…Wheel-Turning Kings, or Shakra and Brahma kings, are the small medicinal herbs.” This is the exposition of their recognition that the Buddha’s beneficence in exhorting and teaching goodness, thereby eliminating the burning heat of afflictions, is exceedingly rare.

[The verse section says:] “Those who understand the undefiled Dharma and can attain nirvana,” through “attain the fruit of a pratyekabuddha, are the medium medicinal herbs.” This is the exposition of their recognition that [the Buddha’s] beneficence in eliminating the burning heat of views, attachments, and cravings is exceedingly rare.

[The verse section speaks of] “the superior medicinal herbs” and “the small trees,” referring to [sentient beings] who are ashamed of following the Lesser Vehicle and aspire to the Great Vehicle. This is the exposition of their recognition that [the Buddha’s] beneficence in preventing evil is exceedingly rare.

[The verse section speaks of] “the great trees.” This is the exposition of their recognition that [the Buddha’s] beneficence of adornment is exceedingly rare.

[The sutra text says that] the ultimate truth is that they “grow from the same earth and are all moistened by the same rain.” This is the exposition of their recognition that [the Buddha’s] beneficence in “entrusting the family estate,” [enabling them] to sit upon the Dharma seat, their bodies and minds replete with the treasure of the true Dharma, free and joyful, is exceedingly rare.

[The explanation of] the Buddha’s exposition of the differentiated meanings within [Kashyapa’s] praise ends here. If one speaks of the exposition of the undifferentiated meaning within the praise, [it is, in general,] one great beneficence.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the Blessed One, wishing to restate the foregoing meanings, spoke in verse:

This verse section contains fifty-four and a half stanzas, restating the preceding sutra text that reveals the true Dharma. The revelatory portion of the sutra text contains the direct teaching of the Dharma and the teaching by analogy; now the verse section also restates both in full. The first four stanzas restate the meaning of the direct teaching of the Dharma, and the following fifty and a half stanzas restate the meaning of the teaching by analogy.

The overall verse passage on the direct teaching of the Dharma is further divided into two passages. The first introduces [the epithet] Dharma King; the second opens and reveals the true Dharma.

The first passage, consisting of the first half-stanza, restates the meaning that the Dharma King is never false.

The second passage comprises three and a half stanzas, restating the meaning of opening and revealing the true Dharma. The preceding sutra text presented the two teachings [provisional and true] and the two kinds of wisdom [provisional and true]. This verse section likewise [is divided into two subsections that] restate them in full. The first subsection, consisting of one and a half stanzas, concerns the two teachings [provisional and true]. The second subsection, consisting of two stanzas, concerns the two kinds of wisdom [provisional and true].

The first subsection [is divided into two divisions]. Beginning with “According to sentient beings’ desires” [is the first division,] consisting of half a stanza that restates the teaching of the provisional vehicle. The second division, beginning with “The honored Tathagata,” consists of one stanza that restates the true teaching.

The second subsection [is also divided into two divisions]. Beginning with “For when the wise hear it” [is the first division,] consisting of one stanza that restates the explanation of provisional wisdom. The second division, beginning with “Therefore, O Kashyapa,” consists of one stanza that restates the explanation of true wisdom. According to all manner of causes and conditions, he teaches all manner of doctrines, all to help [sentient beings] attain the right view of the Great Vehicle. [Thus, all understandings] from before are called wrong views.

This verse section presents the meaning of the Tathagata’s four siddhantas. [The epithet] “Dharma King, Destroyer of Existence” expresses the counteractive siddhanta. “According to sentient beings’ desires” expresses the worldly siddhanta. “For when the wise hear it, they will be able to believe and understand; but the ignorant will doubt and lose it forever” expresses the individual siddhanta. “Causing them to attain right view” expresses the siddhanta of the ultimate truth. The first three siddhantas restate the preceding sutra text saying that “[the Tathagata] expounds and teaches by means of skillful wisdom.” The fourth siddhanta, “causing them to attain right view,” restates the sutra text saying that he “leads them all to the stage of omniscience.” Such is the meaning in brief.

SUTRA TEXT

Beginning with the words “Kashyapa, you should know: it is like a great cloud…” [is the second overall passage], comprising fifty and a half stanzas that restate the preceding sutra text concerning the teaching by analogy, [divided into two passages]. [The first passage comprises] ten and a half stanzas that restate the presentation of the analogies; the second passage, consisting of the following forty stanzas, restates the correlation of the analogies.

The presentation of the analogies in the preceding sutra text contained two meanings, [differentiation and non-differentiation]. Now the first passage [is divided into two subsections. The first subsection comprises] nine and a half stanzas that restate the analogies illustrating differentiation; the second subsection, consisting of one stanza, restates the analogy illustrating non-differentiation.

The analogies illustrating differentiation in the preceding sutra text contained six points. Now the first subsection [is divided into six divisions] that likewise restate all six points in full. Their sequence, however, does not correspond to the presentation of the analogies in the prose section of the sutra text, but corresponds instead to the section correlating their meanings.

The first section consists of 3 stanzas, reiterating the third point in the preceding scriptural passage and presenting the analogy of the cloud. From the line “a single rain falls everywhere” onward is the second section, consisting of one stanza, reiterating the fourth point and presenting the analogy of the descending rain. The line “from mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams” is the third section, reiterating the first point and presenting the analogy of mountains, rivers, and the earth.

The next two lines, “in hidden and secluded places, there are forest trees and medicinal herbs,” form the fourth section, reiterating the second point and presenting the analogy of grasses, trees, and so forth. From the line “the great trees and the small trees” onward is the fifth section, consisting of 2 stanzas and 3 lines, reiterating the fifth point and presenting the analogy of [all grasses and trees] being thoroughly moistened.

From the line “all the various kinds of trees” onward is the sixth section, consisting of 2 stanzas, reiterating the sixth point and presenting the analogy of the growth of [grasses and trees].

The “cloud” is an analogy for the Buddha’s responsive transformation body. The conduct of the responsive transformation body always accords with wisdom; therefore, it is called a cloud of wisdom. Because it can fully contain the teachings of the twelve divisions of scripture, it is said to hold abundant moisture. If a Buddha’s responsive transformation body does not teach the Dharma, as in the cases of Buddha Sushanta and Buddha Prabhutaratna, it is still a cloud, but one that does not hold abundant moisture.

The [Buddha’s] body emits dazzling rays of light, like “flashes of brilliant lightning.” The Buddha’s voice resounds [in teaching the Dharma] with the four unobstructed eloquences, like “thunder reverberating afar.” The deviant lights of the ninety-five kinds of [non-Buddhist paths] cannot appear;

therefore, they are said to be “obscured.” [The Buddha-Dharma] eliminates the burning heat of the ninety-eight kinds of afflictions, like “the whole earth becoming cool and refreshing.” “Seeming as though one could reach out and touch it” means that although the Buddha’s responsive transformation body appears in the world and seems similar to [the bodies of sentient beings] in the three realms, when one attempts to grasp or hold it, it cannot be obtained. [The Buddha] employs eight kinds of voice and the four unobstructed eloquences to proclaim the teaching, like pouring down a rain of Dharma. [Thus it is said,] “A single rain falls everywhere, its waters pouring throughout the four directions.” This means that [when the Buddha teaches the Dharma,

all sentient beings] hear it simultaneously; hence it is also said that the four directions are alike.

All beings endowed with consciousness are moistened and benefited; therefore, it is said, “the whole earth is thoroughly drenched.”

Here the preceding portion is completed, and the following portion again presents the analogy of mountains and rivers. The line “from mountains, rivers, ravines, and streams” reiterates the first point in the preceding scriptural passage and presents the analogy of the earth. This represents the five skandhas of sentient beings in the seven classes of expedient means. Now, through the rain of Dharma, their bodies and speech all become gentle and harmonious, just as the earth is moistened by rainwater.

The line “in hidden places, they spring forth” reiterates the second point, presenting the meaning that sentient beings differ in their habitual tendencies and causes and conditions. This represents the habitual tendencies and causes and conditions planted by sentient beings since the distant [past], concealed within the five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, and eighteen dhatus; therefore, they are said to be “hidden.” Now, through the rain of Dharma, all are opened up and revealed; therefore, it is said that “they spring forth.”

“The hundred kinds of grain” is a general designation for all varieties of cereals, representing the [teachings] of the Five Vehicles, which can bring forth a hundred wholesome deeds. “Sugarcane fields and vineyards” represent meditative concentration and wisdom. “The dry earth is now evenly moistened” represents causing those who have not yet given rise to faith to develop faith. The remaining analogies may be understood according to the scriptural passage.

From the line “The form of each kind of tree, its nature either great or small” onward is 1 stanza, constituting [the second subsection], which reiterates the second point [in the preceding scriptural passage] and presents the analogy of non-difference. The preceding scriptural passage contained 3 points. Here, in this abbreviated reiteration, the point of “one earth” is omitted, being included within the point of “springing forth.” The first two lines reiterate the point that [grasses and trees] spring forth [from the earth and are the objects] moistened [by the rainwater].

Next, the line [“all are moistened in the same way”] reiterates how [the rain] is able to moisten [all things]; that is, it reiterates the meaning of non-difference. The line “each kind becomes more luxuriant” reiterates the meaning that although [the grasses and trees] all differ, they cannot know this by themselves.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the line “The Buddha is likewise so” onward [is the second passage], consisting of 40 stanzas, which reiterates the preceding second section concerning how the meanings correspond to the analogies. [This passage is further divided into 2 subsections.]

The first subsection consists of 35 stanzas, reiterating the meaning corresponding to [the analogies of] difference. The second subsection, from the line “Thus it is, Kasyapa!” onward, consists of 5 stanzas, reiterating the meaning corresponding to [the analogy of] non-difference.

In the preceding reiteration of the meaning corresponding to the analogies of difference, the principal correspondence was presented first, followed by the applicable correspondence. Now the first subsection [consisting of 6 sections] likewise first reiterates the meaning of correspondence and then presents the meaning of applicable correspondence.

The first section consists of the initial stanza, reiterating the meaning corresponding to the analogy of the cloud. [Within it,] the first 2 lines present the [Buddha’s] body as analogous to the cloud, while the latter 2 lines present the meaning applicable [to the cloud].

The second section, from the line “Once He has appeared in the world” onward, consists of 8 and a half stanzas, reiterating the second point, ^[67] corresponding to the analogy of falling rain. The preceding passage first presented the principal meaning and only afterward encouraged [the assembly] to listen and accept it. [This section is likewise divided into 2 points.]

From the line “Once He has appeared in the world” onward [is the first point, consisting of 4 and a half stanzas that present the principal meaning and contain 2 subpoints]. The first subpoint consists of 3 stanzas, briefly reiterating the 10 epithets [of the Buddha]. The second subpoint consists of 1 and a half stanzas, reiterating the four universal vows. The preceding passage contained 6 meanings [in praise of the Buddha], ^[68] but here only 2 meanings are reiterated. ^[69] From the line “Moistening all those” onward, 1 and a half stanzas reiterate the four universal vows. ^[70]

From the line “Sentient beings among devas and humans” onward is the second point, consisting of 4 stanzas, reiterating the meaning of encouraging [the assembly] to listen and uphold the teaching.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the line “I contemplate living beings” onward is the third section, consisting of four stanzas, reiterating the meaning corresponding to the third point in the preceding scriptural passage, which presented the analogy of mountains, rivers, [the earth], and so forth. Mountains and rivers represent the five skandhas of living beings [within the seven classes of expedient means]. Just as rain falls without choosing or discriminating among ravines, streams, and so forth, the Buddha teaches the Dharma impartially, making no distinction between this place and that place. [Nevertheless, because living beings themselves differ,] those with the appropriate conditions are called “here,” while those without such conditions are called “there”;

those who have planted wholesome roots are called “loved,” while those who are hostile and disobedient are called “hated”; the works of the Buddha are regarded as one’s own, while the works of Mara are regarded as belonging to another. [As for the verse saying “whether coming, going, standing, or sitting,”] the initial manifestation in response is “coming”; the subsequent manifestation in response is “going”; entering the true Dharma is “sitting”; and bringing forth the provisional Dharma is “standing.” The Buddha “contemplates living beings” in precisely this way.

This is the meaning of the phrase “like rain falling everywhere,” equally covering all mountains, rivers, [the earth], and so forth. This passage reiterates the preceding scriptural passage, which states: “Countless thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of millions of kinds of living beings all came to the Buddha’s presence to hear the true Dharma.”

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the line “Whether noble or lowly, above or below” onward is the fourth section, consisting of two stanzas, reiterating the fourth point in the preceding passage, which states: “At that time, the Tathagata observes all living beings.” It corresponds to the second meaning [of the analogy], in which grasses, trees, and dense forests grow [from the earth]. The lines from “Whether noble or lowly, above or below…” through “Quick-witted or dull of faculty” successively describe [the kinds of living beings within] the seven classes of expedient means.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the line “All kinds of living beings, having heard the Buddha’s Dharma” onward is the fifth section, consisting of eleven stanzas, reiterating the preceding passage that states: “Through countless means, he causes them all to rejoice and be delighted.” It corresponds to the analogy [of the rain falling and] providing moisture. This section is divided into three points. The first point consists of one stanza and presents generally how [living beings] are moistened [by the Buddha’s Dharma]. The second point consists of seven stanzas and explains in detail how [living beings] are moistened [by the Buddha’s Dharma]. The third point consists of three stanzas and concludes the explanation of [the Buddha’s Dharma] that provides moisture and [the living beings] that receive it.

Some commentators explain that devas and humans are the small herbs, followers of the Two Vehicles are the medium herbs, external ordinary beings are the large herbs, those at the inner ordinary stages are the small trees, and [bodhisattvas] from the first bhumi through the seventh bhumi are the large trees.

Others hold that those at the inner ordinary stages are the large herbs, [bodhisattvas] from the first bhumi through the seventh bhumi are the small trees, and [bodhisattvas] at the eighth bhumi are the large trees.

Still others hold that [bodhisattvas who remain at] the stage of the thirty minds are the large herbs, [bodhisattvas] from the first bhumi through the sixth bhumi are the small trees, and [bodhisattvas] from the seventh bhumi upward are the large trees.

Yet the Buddha himself, in the scriptural text, explained with perfect clarity the meanings corresponding to the analogy of the three kinds of medicinal herbs and the two kinds of trees. Why, then, do the minds of these people understand it contrary to the Buddha and in opposition to the sutra?

Within the [second] point, which explains in detail how [living beings] are moistened [by the Buddha’s Dharma], there are five subsidiary points.

The first subsidiary point consists of one stanza and concerns devas and humans, who have not yet eliminated delusion. It presents the meaning corresponding to the small medicinal herbs.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

Next, from the line “They clearly understand the undefiled Dharma” onward is the second subsidiary point, consisting of two stanzas. It concerns followers of the Two Vehicles, all of whom have eliminated delusions and realized the Way, and presents the meaning corresponding to the medium medicinal herbs.

From the line “Those who seek to become World-Honored Ones” onward is the third subsidiary point, consisting of one stanza, which explains the six paramitas. [These bodhisattvas] aspire to attain Buddhahood in order to transform and liberate living beings. Because they surpass followers of the Two Vehicles, they form a distinct class called the highest medicinal herbs.

From the line “There are also disciples of the Buddha” onward is the fourth subsidiary point, consisting of one and a half stanzas. It concerns [bodhisattvas] of the Shared Teaching, who have already eliminated the delusions shared by all three vehicles and who, relying upon their remaining habitual tendencies, make vows to enter birth and death in order to teach and transform living beings. ^[71] Compared with those below them, they are superior; compared with those above them, however, they remain inferior. Therefore, they are likened to the small trees.

From the line “Securely abiding in superknowledges” onward is the fifth subsidiary point, consisting of one and a half stanzas. It concerns [bodhisattvas] of the Distinct Teaching, who both practice themselves and teach and transform living beings. [Compared with the other classes,] their practice is loftier and broader; therefore, they are likened to the large trees.

[It is also explained] that, with respect to the three classes of bodhisattvas, each class is likened to three kinds of trees. [Bodhisattvas practicing] the six paramitas are divided into three kinds according to the stages through which they pass during three asamkhyeya kalpas. [Bodhisattvas] of the Shared Teaching are divided into three kinds according to the stages of the seventh, eighth, and ninth bhumis. [Bodhisattvas] of the Distinct Teaching are divided into three kinds according to the stage of the thirty minds.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the line “The Buddha teaches the Dharma impartially” onward is the third point, consisting of three stanzas, which concludes the explanation of [the Buddha’s Dharma] that can provide moisture and [the living beings] that receive it. This point is further divided into two subsidiary points.

The first subsidiary point consists of one and a half stanzas and presents a corresponding analogy to explain [the living beings] that are moistened [by the Buddha’s Dharma]. Although seven classes [of expedient means] are presented, these seven are extremely few [in comparison with all the living beings moistened by the Buddha’s Dharma], being only like a single drop of water in the great ocean.

From the line “The Buddha employs this analogy” onward [is the second subsidiary point], consisting of one and a half stanzas, which clarifies how the Buddha’s wisdom can moisten [living beings]. [That wisdom is vast and extensive,] as abundant as the great ocean.

From the words “The Tathagata pours down the rain of Dharma” onward is the sixth section, comprising eight and a half stanzas, reiterating the sixth point in the preceding scriptural passage concerning “after sentient beings hear this true Dharma,” corresponding to the analogies of rejoicing and growth. This section has two further points.

The first point comprises two stanzas and generally reiterates the meaning of growth. It is further divided into two minor points.

The first minor point comprises one stanza and generally reiterates the meaning of growth.

The second minor point also comprises one stanza, presenting a corresponding analogy by way of explanation.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the words “The Dharma of all the Buddhas” onward is the second point, comprising six and a half stanzas, which set forth the meaning of growth in detail. This point has four minor points.

The first minor point comprises one and a half stanzas and clarifies the meaning that devas and humans grow and all receive fulfillment. This reiterates the meaning of “their present lives are peaceful and secure” through “gradually cultivate and practice,” and also reiterates the meaning of “in future lives… they take delight in cultivating the Path.”

The second minor point, from the words “the shravakas and pratyekabuddhas” onward, comprises one and a half stanzas and clarifies the meaning that those of the Two Vehicles grow.

The phrase “abiding in their final bodies” has two explanations. According to the first explanation, those of the Two Vehicles bear their present bodies, but if they do not encounter a Buddha, these are not necessarily their final bodies. Because they encounter the Buddha, [their present bodies] become their final bodies; this is the meaning of growth. According to the second explanation, those of the Two Vehicles realize nirvana with remainder and abide in their final bodies. [Because they encounter the Buddha,] the five flavors of the Dharma ^[72] refine and mature them; they enter the teaching of the Lotus Dharma, and upon hearing the Mahayana Dharma they are able to accept and understand it. This is the meaning of growth.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the words “If there are bodhisattvas possessed of steadfast wisdom” onward is the third minor point, comprising one and a half stanzas, which sets forth the meaning that [bodhisattvas] of the Shared Teaching grow. “Steadfast” refers to the essence of the wisdom of the true Dharma, while “comprehend the three realms” means that they have eliminated all defilements.

From the words “Those who abide in meditative concentration” onward is the fourth minor point, comprising two stanzas, which sets forth the meaning that [bodhisattvas] of the Distinct Teaching grow. Such is the general meaning.

Question: [The scripture gives the analogy of] one cloud and one rain. Is this the same [in meaning] as, or different from, a single voice [preaching the Dharma]?

Answer: [Bodhisattvas at] the lower stages use a single voice to enable sentient beings to hear a single teaching. The Buddha uses a single voice, yet sentient beings of every kind understand it [in their own language]. Here, [the scripture’s expression] “one cloud and one rain” precisely conveys the meaning that “the Buddha speaks with a single voice, which every kind [of sentient being can understand].”

Some explain that because the Dharma-body is not divided into two, it is called one. Since sound issues from the Dharma-body, it is called a single voice. Others explain that because many sounds are uttered simultaneously, it is called a single voice. Still others say that, among the five tones, a single tone is employed according to [what is appropriate].

[We now refute these explanations:] The Great Treatise states that [the Buddha] expounds many sounds through a single voice, but it does not say that [those sounds] are uttered simultaneously, nor does it say that sound issues from the Dharma-body. The Vibhāṣā Treatise states that the Buddha used a single voice to teach the Four Noble Truths. The five men [of Kauṇḍinya’s group] heard it as a human voice, while eighty thousand devas heard it as the voice of the heavenly realm. [Sentient beings in] the hells, yakṣa spirits, and so forth each heard [the Buddha speak] in their own language. [The scripture says that the Buddha’s] proclamation reached as far as the Brahmā realm; that was the voice of the heavenly realm.

Furthermore, because the Buddha possessed the karmic reward of a voice supremely pure, subtle, and wondrous, it was praised as a heavenly voice. If, by virtue of karmic reward, [he had literally] possessed a heavenly voice, humans could not have heard [the Buddha preach the Dharma]; even if they could have heard it, they could not have understood it.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From the words “Thus it is, Kāśyapa!” onward is the second subsection, comprising five stanzas, which reiterates the meaning of the preceding scriptural passage that presents the analogy of nondifference. This subsection is divided into two sections. The first section comprises one and a half stanzas and reiterates the meaning that difference is nondifferent. The second section comprises three and a half stanzas and reiterates the meaning that difference itself is nondifference.

“Like a great cloud pouring down a single rain” reiterates the corresponding meaning in the preceding passage: “From that cloud there falls water of a single kind,” without differentiation.

“Moistening the flowers of humankind and enabling them all to bear fruit” reiterates the meaning of difference stated previously.

From the words “Kāśyapa, you should know that the use of various causes and conditions” onward is [the second section, which has two points].

[The first point comprises one and a half stanzas] and sets forth the meaning of the provisional vehicles. The provisional vehicles are differentiated teachings, corresponding to [the meaning of the scriptural passage] above [in the analogy of the various grasses and trees] being born [from the earth].

The second point, from the words “Now, for your sake” onward, [comprises two stanzas] and sets forth the meaning of revealing the true Dharma. The true Dharma is without differentiation, corresponding to [the meaning of the preceding scriptural analogy of] the one and the same earth. “Have not yet attained nirvana” means that they have not yet escaped transformational birth and death.

Here only those of the Two Vehicles are specifically mentioned because the Buddha wishes to give them confirmation and firm assurance. The fruits realized through the practice of devas and humans are not regarded as nirvana. Bodhisattvas who are midway through their cultivation do not cling to the stages of realization they have attained.

“Whatever you have done is entirely the bodhisattva path.” This is because bodhisattvas, while practicing the path, also cultivate the elimination of shared delusions. Since the śrāvakas have completely eliminated the shared delusions, this too is precisely the bodhisattva path. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra states: “After [those of the Two Vehicles] aroused the aspiration, they retreated and lost it, and then aroused it again.

None of the wholesome deeds they had previously cultivated were lost, and afterward the fruit they realized was also the same [as that of the bodhisattvas].” The wisdom by which those of the Two Vehicles eliminate the outflows ^[73] is precisely the bodhisattva path. Because those of the Two Vehicles cling to the fruit they have realized, [the Buddha] reproaches them and makes clear that it is precisely the bodhisattva path.

To say that the paths [of those of the Two Vehicles and the bodhisattvas are the same] means that their causes [of cultivation are the same].

Question: Yet bodhisattvas also have the fruit of bodhisattvahood. The Chapter on Faith and Understanding says: “They have attained the path and realized the fruit.” The Mahāprajñāpāramitā [Sutra] says: “When there are dharmas [still to be cultivated], this is the bodhisattva path; when there are no longer any dharmas [that must be cultivated], this is the fruit of bodhisattvahood.” Why does the sutra passage here not say, “All are the fruit of bodhisattvahood”?

Answer: This meaning may also be employed. The present explanation is that whether one speaks of the [bodhisattva] path or the [bodhisattva] fruit, both are causes of attaining Buddhahood. The cause here is the [bodhisattva] path.

6. Explanation of the Chapter on Bestowal of Predictions

SUTRA TEXT

Chapter Six: Bestowal of Predictions

Explanation of the Chapter’s Title

The Sanskrit is vyākaraṇa, translated into Chinese as “bestowal of predictions.”

Question: Many scriptures reject the bestowal of predictions. The Vimalakīrti Sutra says: “A prediction is received from the suchness of arising, and a prediction is received from the suchness of cessation; because suchness has neither arising nor cessation, one should know that there is no prediction.” ^[74] The Sutra Requested by Brahmā Viśeṣacintin ^[75] says: “May I never hear even the designation ‘bestowal of a prediction.’” The Mahāprajñāpāramitā [Sutra] says: “The bestowal of predictions is merely meaningless discussion.” Why, then, does this sutra speak of bestowing predictions?

Answer: If one perceives an act of bestowing a prediction and a person who receives the prediction, such a view should be rejected. If a bodhisattva vows to receive a prediction, then a prediction should be bestowed upon that bodhisattva. According to conventional truth, there should be the bestowal of predictions; according to ultimate truth, there is none. Furthermore, because it accords with the four siddhāntas, it is as explained below.

[There are also many different cases of bestowing predictions.] A prediction bestowed universally upon the entire assembly is like that found at the beginning of the Chapter on the Dharma Teacher. Individual predictions are like [those bestowed by the Buddha] after the three cycles of teaching. ^[76] A prediction based on the direct cause is like [the prediction concerning] Bodhisattva Never Disparaging. A prediction based on the conditioning cause is like the ten kinds of offerings described in the Chapter on the Dharma Teacher.

A prediction based on the revealing cause is like the predictions bestowed upon those of the three grades of capacities. ^[77] Predictions based on the direct cause are broad, while predictions based on the conditioning and revealing causes are narrow. Predictions may also be slow or swift. ^[78] They may be bestowed by a Buddha, as in this chapter of the sutra, or by a bodhisattva, as when Bodhisattva Never Disparaging [bestowed predictions upon others].

Although he did not specify the name of the kalpa or the name of the land, these are still regarded as predictions. Furthermore, predictions bestowed in the present concerning the future ^[79] are like those concerning future disciples in the Chapter on the Parable of the Conjured City.

Other scriptures only show predictions being bestowed upon bodhisattvas, not upon those of the Two Vehicles; only upon the virtuous, not upon the wicked; only upon men, not upon women; and only upon devas and humans, not upon animals. In this Lotus Sutra, however, predictions are bestowed upon all.

Just as the Śūraṅgama Sutra contains four kinds of predictions, this Lotus Sutra also contains all four. The prediction bestowed upon one who has not yet aroused the aspiration is like that in the Chapter on Never Disparaging; the prediction bestowed upon one who has just aroused the aspiration, and the prediction bestowed upon one who presently realizes the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas… ^[80] are like the predictions bestowed by the Buddha during the three cycles of teaching.

According to fascicle nine of the Bodhisattva Jeweled Necklace Sutra, there are eight kinds of predictions. ^[81] [The first is when] the recipient of the prediction clearly knows it, but others do not know [of the prediction]. The second is when everyone knows, but the recipient does not know. The third is when both the recipient and everyone else know. The fourth is when neither the recipient nor anyone else knows. The fifth is when those nearby clearly know, but those far away do not know. The sixth is when those far away clearly know, but those nearby do not know. The seventh is when those both near and far clearly know. The eighth is when those both near and far do not know.

[In the first case], the recipient knows but others do not. [This means that the recipient] has aroused the aspiration [for bodhi] and personally established a vow, but it is not yet sufficiently vast to [influence] others; the recipient has not yet attained the four kinds of fearlessness and has not yet attained skillful means in the provisional vehicle.

[In the second case], everyone knows, but the recipient does not. [This means that the recipient] has aroused a vast aspiration, attained the four kinds of fearlessness, and attained skillful means in the provisional vehicle.

[In the third case], both the recipient and everyone else know. This means that [the recipient] has reached the seventh bodhisattva bhūmi and has attained the four kinds of fearlessness, skillful means in the provisional vehicle, and the [samādhi] of contemplating emptiness.

[In the fourth case], neither the recipient nor anyone else knows. This means that [the recipient] has not yet entered the seventh [bodhisattva] bhūmi and has not yet attained the practice of nonattachment. Such is the general outline.

[In the fifth case], the prediction is known by those nearby but not by those far away. This is like the case of Bodhisattva Maitreya [receiving a prediction from the Buddha]: his wholesome roots are complete, and he does not abandon the Tathāgata’s practice of nonattachment. ^[82]

[In the sixth case], the prediction is not known by those nearby but is known by all those far away. This means that the recipient is not yet able to expound the practices of the noble sages, as in the case of Bodhisattva Siṃha-uttara. ^[83]

[In the seventh case], the prediction is known by those both far away and nearby. This means that [the recipient] possesses complete wholesome roots and does not abandon the Tathāgata’s practice of nonattachment, as in the case of Bodhisattva Gentle and Compliant.

[In the eighth case], the prediction is known neither by those far away nor by those nearby. This means that [the recipient] has not yet attained skillful means in the provisional vehicle and does not fully understand the treasury of the Tathāgata’s True Dharma, ^[84] as in the case of Bodhisattva Equal Practice. ^[85]

Other scriptures explain that [in a case of prediction where] those nearby know [but those far away do not], the prediction is bestowed by a present Buddha, as in the case of Bodhisattva Maitreya… [In a case where] those far away know [but those nearby do not], this means that the prediction is not bestowed by a present Buddha but will be bestowed by a future Buddha, as when the Buddha said to Māra Pāpīyas: “In the future, Bodhisattva Maitreya will bestow a prediction upon you.” ^[86] [In a case where] those both near and far know, this means that both a present Buddha and a future Buddha bestow predictions. [In a case where] those both near and far do not know, this means that neither a present Buddha nor a future Buddha bestows a prediction. ^[87]

Originally, all Buddhas appear in the world because of the causes and conditions of one great matter: to open and reveal the Buddha’s knowledge and vision to sentient beings, so that they may awaken to and enter it. Now that great matter has been revealed, the Buddha has finished teaching the Dharma, sentient beings have also entered it, the Buddha’s original intent has been fulfilled, and the aspirations of sentient beings have been brought to completion. In accordance with the Dharma, predictions should therefore be conferred. It is like a father who has found his son again; how could he possibly fail to entrust the family wealth to him?

Furthermore, practitioners have cultivated through innumerable kalpas, their aspirations always directed toward the present Buddha [Shakyamuni]. [Therefore,] the scripture says: “Because the original vow was such, the prediction now received is likewise such.” Because of the causes and conditions between the two parties [the Buddha and his disciples], predictions are conferred according to the meaning of the worldly siddhanta.

When those of the Two Vehicles hear this [Lotus] Sutra taught, they immediately turn from the Lesser Vehicle and enter the Great Vehicle. The complete cause has been fully perfected and must necessarily bring forth the [perfect] fruit; therefore, the Tathagata confers predictions upon them. All those in the assembly at that time clearly understand and make vows: some vow always to be close inner and outer retinues of the Buddha’s physical body and Dharma body, while others vow to be born in a particular land solely to benefit sentient beings. These two cases concern the meaning of the siddhanta for each person; therefore, predictions are conferred.

Furthermore, conferring predictions upon those of the Two Vehicles destroys [the thought of] bodhisattvas who wish to retreat from their resolve for the Great Vehicle and enter the Lesser Vehicle. Why is this? If the Two Vehicles were established as truly existing, one could retreat [from the resolve for the Great Vehicle] and follow the Lesser Vehicle. Now that [it is clarified that] the Two Vehicles do not exist, there is no place toward which one could retreat.

It also destroys [the thought of] those who wish to arouse the resolve for the Two Vehicles, [causing them to reflect:] others who have already realized the fruits of the Two Vehicles still relinquish them of their own accord; why, then, should I choose to follow [those fruits]?

It also destroys [the thought] of those who have not yet changed [their inclination toward] the Lesser Vehicle, [causing them] immediately to change and abandon the Lesser Vehicle.

Moreover, those who are about to realize the fruit of the Lesser Vehicle, [upon seeing predictions conferred upon those of the Two Vehicles,] immediately cease clinging to the realization of the Lesser Vehicle’s fruit.

In these four cases, predictions are conferred according to the meaning of the remedial siddhanta.

Furthermore, [those who realize] the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas in the present life necessarily do so because they have gained true and correct understanding, have opened the Buddha’s knowledge and vision without error, and have thoroughly and clearly penetrated Buddha-nature; therefore, they receive predictions. Those of the Lesser Vehicle who enter reality will certainly attain Buddhahood. If so, since all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, why did they [previously] not receive predictions?

It is because [previously] sentient beings possessed only the direct cause [which is Buddha-nature], but lacked the conditioning cause. Now, upon hearing this [Lotus] Sutra, believing, accepting, and clearly understanding it, both the conditioning cause and the direct cause are complete. To open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision is to understand Buddha-nature clearly.

To see the Buddha-Dharma is to see Buddha-nature. In these two cases, predictions are conferred according to the meaning of the siddhanta of ultimate truth.

These four cases of conferring predictions [according to the four siddhantas] encompass all the cases of conferring predictions discussed previously. Such is the matter in brief.

The expression “conferring a prediction” (授記) carries the meaning of bestowing something upon another. It is also written as “receiving a prediction” (受記), meaning that one obtains it. This includes two meanings: receiving a determination (受決) and receiving a distinction (受莂).

“Determination” means a decisive judgment, something established with certainty and without doubt. “Distinction” means clear discernment, understanding and distinguishing with complete clarity. Those of middling faculties, having heard the exposition of the true Dharma and the exposition through parables, [whereby the Buddha] revealed the elimination of the Three Vehicles and disclosed the One Vehicle, fully understood the meanings that the Tathagata recounted and confirmed.

Although at that time they knew for themselves that they would attain Buddhahood, they did not yet understand it with complete clarity. If, through the Buddha’s truthful words, they were informed of their future realization of the fruit [of Buddhahood] and told with certainty the name of their kalpa and the name of their land, clearly knowing whether the time would be long or short, they would necessarily rejoice exceedingly.

Now, through the prediction bestowed by the Buddha, they learn their [future] names; therefore, this is called the Chapter on the Conferral of Predictions.

This scriptural passage is the fourth major section within the exposition through parables. The preceding three major sections all employ parables in their teaching, and this section, which speaks of conferring predictions, also employs a parable.

Regarding the conferral of predictions, what is implied by the absence of a fifth major section? Some explain that only the preceding portion was stated, while the later portion was abbreviated and left undiscussed. Others say that in the Chapter on the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs, it is taught that all are moistened and all are enabled to grow. Upon careful examination, [this means that] all four assemblies received benefit; it is merely that the transcriber of the scripture abbreviated the account and did not record it.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

At that time, after the Blessed One had spoken the verses above, he immediately addressed the great assembly: “This disciple of mine, Mahakashyapa, in a future life will draw near to and serve three million koṭis of Buddha-Blessed Ones, reverently making offerings to them, honoring, praising, and extolling them, and extensively expounding the innumerable Great Vehicle teachings of those Buddhas. When he takes his final body, he will attain Buddhahood and be called Radiant Light Tathagata, Worthy One, Perfectly Enlightened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.

His land will be called Radiant Virtue, and his age will be called Great Adornment. The Buddha [Radiant Light] will have a lifespan of twelve minor kalpas. His true Dharma will abide in the world for twenty minor kalpas, and his semblance Dharma will likewise abide for twenty minor kalpas.

That land will be beautifully adorned and will contain no evils, roof tiles, stones, thorns, filth, or excrement. ^[88] Its ground will be level, without uneven heights or hollows, pits, mounds, or hills. The ground will be made of lapis lazuli, rows of jeweled trees will stand upon it, and cords of pure gold will be stretched along the roads to mark their boundaries. Various jeweled flowers will be scattered over the ground, and everywhere will be pure and beautiful.

That Buddha-land will contain innumerable thousands of koṭis of bodhisattvas, and the assembly of shravakas will likewise be innumerable. There will be no deeds of Mara. Although Mara and his subjects will be present, they will all support and protect the Buddha-Dharma.”

At that time, wishing to restate the meaning above, the Blessed One spoke in verse:

The scriptural passage in this section is again divided into two passages. The first concerns the [Buddha’s] bestowal of predictions upon those of middling faculties. The second concerns the Buddha’s promise to recount [the causes and conditions of] a former life for those of lesser faculties.

The first passage has two subsections. The first is the bestowal of a prediction upon the Venerable Kasyapa, and the second is the bestowal of predictions upon three other great disciples. Both subsections contain two parts: the prose passage of the sutra and the verses.

The prose passage [in the subsection concerning the bestowal of a prediction upon] the Venerable Kasyapa has six divisions. The first describes the causes of his cultivation; the second, his attainment of the fruit; the third, the name Great Adornment given to the kalpa and [the name of] the land [when the Venerable Kasyapa becomes a Buddha]; the fourth, [that Buddha’s] lifespan; the fifth, the length of time during which the True Dharma and the Semblance Dharma shall abide in the world, which can be understood from the scriptural passage; and the sixth, the purity of the land.

SUTRA TEXT

“At that time, Mahamaudgalyayana, Subhuti, Mahakatyayana, and the others were all shaken throughout body and mind. They immediately joined their palms single-mindedly and, gazing intently without taking their eyes from the Buddha’s honored countenance, spoke these verses together in one voice:

The second subsection, concerning [the bestowal of predictions upon] the other three great disciples, is further divided into two parts. The first is their request that [the Buddha] bestow predictions upon them, and the second is their receipt of [the Buddha’s] predictions.

The passage in which they request [the Buddha] to bestow predictions [is divided into four themes and] consists of seven stanzas. The first theme comprises one stanza and presents the request. The second comprises two and a half stanzas and gives an illustrative analogy. The third comprises two and a half stanzas and explains the meaning corresponding to the analogy. The fourth and final theme comprises one stanza and provides the conclusion.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the World-Honored One clearly knew the thoughts in the minds of the great disciples and addressed the bhikshus, saying: “This Subhuti, in a future age, shall draw near to and serve three million kotis of nayutas of Buddhas, reverently making offerings to them, honoring, praising, and extolling them. He shall constantly cultivate pure conduct and fully practice the bodhisattva path. Upon receiving his final body, he shall become a Buddha named Name-and-Form Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, Rightly and Fully Enlightened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Persons, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, World-Honored One.

That age shall be named Possessed of Jewels, and the land shall be named Jewel-Born. Its terrain shall be level, and its ground shall be made of crystal and adorned with jeweled trees. There shall be no mounds or hollows, sand or gravel, thorns or brambles, excrement, or filth.

Precious flowers shall cover the ground, and everywhere shall be pure and beautiful. The people of that land shall all dwell upon jeweled terraces and in beautiful, precious towers and pavilions. The shravaka disciples shall be innumerable; their number could not be known through calculation or analogy.

The assembly of bodhisattvas shall number countless thousands, millions, kotis, and nayutas. The lifespan of [Name-and-Form] Buddha shall be twelve minor kalpas. The True Dharma shall abide in the world for twenty minor kalpas, and the Semblance Dharma shall likewise abide for twenty minor kalpas.

That Buddha shall constantly dwell in midair, teaching the Dharma to the great assembly and bringing liberation to countless bodhisattvas and assemblies of shravakas.”

At that time, the World-Honored One, wishing to restate this meaning, spoke these verses:

At that time, the Blessed One again addressed the bhiksus: “I now tell you that in a future age, this Mahakatyayana will employ every kind of offering to make offerings to and serve 8,000 kotis of Buddhas with reverence and honor. After each of those Buddhas has entered nirvana, he will build a stupa-shrine in worship of that Buddha, one thousand yojanas high and five hundred yojanas square, constructed entirely of the seven treasures: gold, silver, lapis lazuli, mother-of-pearl, agate, pearls, and rose-colored gems.1 He will also offer to the stupa-shrines every kind of exquisite flower, jeweled necklace, anointing incense, powdered incense, burning incense, silk canopy, banner, and pennant.

After passing through these deeds, he will subsequently make offerings to another 20,000 kotis of Buddhas in the same manner as before. Having thus made offerings to those Buddhas and fully cultivated the bodhisattva path, he will become a Buddha named Jambunada-Gold-Light Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, Perfectly and Completely Awakened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.

That land will be level, with a ground of crystal, adorned with jeweled trees. Cords of pure gold will be stretched along the roads to mark their boundaries, and exquisite flowers will cover the ground. Everywhere will be pure and beautiful, bringing joy to all who behold it.

That realm will have none of the four evil destinies of hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, and asuras, but will contain many devas and humans. Countless myriads of kotis of sravakas and bodhisattvas will adorn that land. The lifespan of that Buddha will be twelve minor kalpas.

His true Dharma will abide in the world for twenty minor kalpas, and his semblance Dharma will also abide for twenty minor kalpas.”

At that time, wishing to restate this meaning, the Blessed One spoke in verse:

At that time, the Blessed One again addressed the great assembly: “I now tell you that in a future age, this Mahamaudgalyayana will employ every kind of excellent offering to make offerings to and serve 8,000 Buddhas with reverence and honor. After each of those Buddhas has entered nirvana, he will build a stupa-shrine in worship of that Buddha, one thousand yojanas high and five hundred yojanas square, constructed entirely of the seven treasures: gold, silver, lapis lazuli, mother-of-pearl, agate, pearls, and rose-colored gems.

He will also present as offerings every kind of exquisite flower, jeweled necklace, anointing incense, powdered incense, burning incense, silk canopy, banner, and pennant. After passing through these deeds, he will subsequently make offerings to another two million kotis of Buddhas in the same manner as before. Having thus made offerings to those Buddhas and fully cultivated the bodhisattva path, he will become a Buddha named Tamalapatra-Sandalwood-Fragrance Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, Perfectly and Completely Awakened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.

That age will be named Joy-Filled, and the land will be named Delighted Mind. The land there will be level, with a ground of crystal, adorned with jeweled trees. Pearl flowers will be scattered over the ground.

Everywhere will be pure and beautiful, bringing joy to all who behold it. That realm will contain many devas and humans, and its assemblies of bodhisattvas and sravakas will be innumerable. The lifespan of that Buddha will be twenty-four minor kalpas.

His true Dharma will abide in the world for forty minor kalpas, and his semblance Dharma will also abide for forty minor kalpas.”

At that time, wishing to restate this meaning, the Blessed One spoke in verse:

[The second section concerns] the predictions bestowed upon the three great disciples, explaining how each fully possesses the causes of cultivation, the attainment of the fruit, the [name of the] kalpa and land, the [Buddha’s] lifespan, [the length of time] the teaching will abide in the world, the number [of bodhisattva and sravaka disciples], and so forth. These details may all be understood according to the words of the sutra.

SUTRA TEXT

Beginning with the words “My disciples,” the following two and a half stanzas [contain the Buddha’s] promise to recount the causes and conditions of former lives for those of lesser faculties. These [people of lesser faculties] had already heard the two sections consisting of the exposition of the true Dharma and the exposition through parables. They now also saw that those of superior and intermediate faculties had all received predictions, yet doubts still remained unresolved in their minds, and they felt profoundly ashamed. [The Buddha,] wishing to help them advance upon the path, first bestowed a general prediction upon them all and then promised to tell them of the causes and conditions of their former lives. Such is the general meaning.

7. Explanation of the Chapter “The Parable of the Conjured City”

SUTRA TEXT

Chapter Seven: The Parable of the Conjured City

Explanation of the Chapter’s Title

“Conjured” means produced through the power of superknowledge. Because it is produced through the power of superknowledge, it suddenly comes into existence where previously there was nothing; hence it is called conjured. A “city” is so called because it prevents wrongdoing and resists opposition. [These two meanings,] when considered in relation to the teaching, correspond to the nirvana of the Two Vehicles, which is created through expedient wisdom. [The Buddha,] employing the power of expedient wisdom, teaches that [the nirvana of the Two Vehicles] exists where in fact it does not.

The teaching conjures [the attainment of the Two Vehicles]; because it prevents the delusions of thought and resists the delusions of views, it is called the [conjured city of] nirvana. ^[89] To provide urgent rescue, this Dharma is used to guide beings onto [the Buddha path]. Although it is not truly the ultimate culmination, it is nevertheless described as extinction. Because it is provisionally established through expedient means in this way, it is called the “conjured city.”

As for the meaning of the word “parable,” it is as explained previously in the [Parable of the Medicinal Herbs] chapter.

The above is an explanation according to causes and conditions.

If explained according to the teachings, then under the Tripitaka Teaching, one gives rise to the perception that nirvana is peaceful and secure, and to the perception that one has attained cessation. Under the Shared Teaching, the Two Vehicles regard nirvana in the same way as in the Tripitaka Teaching, but bodhisattvas are different. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: “It is like a father who has crossed a dangerous place: one foot has already entered the [secure] city, while the other remains outside the city gate.

Because his thoughts dwell upon his wife and children, he turns back from within the [secure] city and returns to the dangerous place.” [This means that bodhisattvas] make vows and, relying upon the residual force of habitual tendencies, enter birth and death [to liberate sentient beings]; therefore, they do not take the meaning of emptiness as their realization.

Explained according to the Distinct Teaching, it does not say that the city [of nirvana] is conjured by transformation, but maintains that the city serves as protection against danger. One passes through the city gate [in order to continue cultivating and advancing]; therefore, this city [of nirvana] is used as an expedient means for eliminating delusions of views and delusions of thought, without saying that this [nirvana] is the ultimate end.

Explained according to the Perfect Teaching, one clearly knows that since there are no bandits or afflictions, there is also no need for a city; therefore, it is called the conjured city. This sutra now employs the meaning of the Perfect Teaching, and thus entitles this the Chapter on the Parable of the Conjured City.

The explanations according to the original and the manifest, and according to contemplation of the mind, are not recorded here.

Question: This chapter speaks of the causes and conditions [from former times] that enable those of inferior faculties [today] to attain awakening. Should it not therefore be called the Chapter on Causes and Conditions from Former Lives?

Answer: At the beginning of this chapter, causes and conditions are extensively discussed, but in its concluding portion the parable of the conjured city is presented. If named according to the earlier portion, it should be called the Chapter on Former Lives. This sutra follows the latter portion and therefore calls it the Chapter on the Conjured City.

Furthermore, those of superior faculties had only slight doubts in their minds, which were easy to dispel; therefore, it was sufficient merely to relate how the Buddha sat beneath the Bodhi tree and contemplated for twenty-one days in order to clarify their causes and conditions. Those of middling faculties had somewhat heavier doubts, so a parable was also employed, and the profound matter of the twenty thousand koṭis of Buddhas who [had formerly] taught them with the unsurpassed Great Vehicle Dharma was examined and taken as their causes and conditions. Those of inferior faculties had still deeper and heavier doubts, so it was necessary to explain clearly the causes and conditions from extremely remote former lives.

If one begins with events from former lives and clarifies causes and conditions from the extremely remote past, then what is discussed midway is called the city conjured by transformation, while what is discussed as the final and ultimate destination is called the place of many treasures. When the scribes of the sutra assigned the chapter title, they found that this meaning was convenient and encompassed everything from beginning to end; therefore, they called it the Chapter on the Parable of the Conjured City.

Question: The conjured city is a provisional Dharma, while the place of treasures is the true Dharma. For what reason is the true set aside and the provisional adopted [as the title]?

Answer: Because when one clearly knows that the conjured city exists through transformation, one necessarily also clearly knows that the place of treasures is real. Therefore, although the conjured city is mentioned, the meaning of the true is not lost.

This portion of the sutra is divided into three major sections. Following the pattern of the preceding portion, there should be four; however, both the meaning of understanding and the presentation of accomplishment are contained in the section concerning predictions of buddhahood. Why is this so? If there were no understanding, how could one receive a prediction of buddhahood as a presentation of accomplishment? Therefore, these two meanings may be combined into one major section.

Furthermore, the three meanings—understanding, the presentation of accomplishment, and receiving a prediction of buddhahood—are not invariably presented in the same sequence. Nor is it always the same whether, after understanding, one remains silent or speaks. The sutra text is concise and does not provide enough material to divide them separately, so they are incorporated into other sections.

This chapter speaks entirely of causes and conditions. The following two chapters will discuss predictions of buddhahood.

SUTRA TEXT

The Buddha addressed the bhikshus: “In the past, an inconceivable number of countless asaṃkhyeya kalpas ago, there was at that time a Buddha named Great Universal Wisdom Excellence Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, Perfectly and Universally Awakened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Trainer of Persons, Teacher of Gods and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One. That Buddha-land was named Excellent City, and that era was named Great Form.

“Bhikshus! An exceedingly long time has passed since that Buddha entered nirvana. Suppose a person were to grind all the earth in this great trichiliocosm into ink, then travel eastward, and after passing through one thousand lands, place a dot of ink the size of an extremely fine particle of dust. He would then continue for another thousand lands before placing another dot, and proceed in this way until all the ink ground as described above had been exhausted. What do you think? If all the lands through which he had passed in this manner were counted, could any master mathematician or any of his disciples reach their limit and know their number?”

“No, Blessed One! They could not.”

“Bhikshus! Suppose all the lands through which that person had passed, whether or not they bore an ink dot as described above, were ground into extremely fine dust, and each extremely fine particle of dust were counted as one kalpa. The number of kalpas that have passed since Great Universal Wisdom Excellence Buddha entered nirvana would exceed even the number of those dust particles by immeasurable and boundless hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭis of asaṃkhyeya kalpas.

“Through the power of the Tathagata’s knowledge and vision, I contemplate that distant past and see it distinctly, just as though it were occurring today.”

The first major section is divided into two parts. The first reveals the extremely far-reaching knowledge and vision [of the Tathagata], and the second clarifies the formation of affinities in former lives. The Tathagata possesses three transcendent powers and ^[90] perceives events in the remote past as though seeing events today. Therefore, events of the past are first cited to establish that the Buddha’s words are not false, after which the events of former lives are clarified. Both parts contain prose passages and verses.

In the first part, the first subsection, consisting of prose, is further divided into three divisions. The first division presents the events seen by the Buddha: namely, that the land was called Excellent City, the era was called Great Form, and the Buddha was named Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, and so forth. The second division presents a parable to clarify the extreme remoteness of the time. The third division concludes by stating that the Buddha can see events of the distant past as though they were occurring today. Such is the general outline.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the Blessed One, wishing to restate this meaning, spoke in verse:

The second subsection consists of seven stanzas, reiterating the three meanings in the preceding prose passage. They can be understood from the scripture text itself, [so no explanation is needed].

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The Buddha told the bhikshus: “The Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence had a lifespan of five million four hundred thousand kotis of nayutas ^[91] of kalpas. When that Buddha sat at the place of enlightenment and had utterly vanquished the armies of Mara, he was about to attain unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment, yet the Dharma of all Buddhas still did not manifest before him. Thus he remained for one minor kalpa, and even for as many as ten minor kalpas, sitting cross-legged, his body and mind entirely motionless, yet the Dharma of all Buddhas still did not manifest before him.

“At that time, the devas of the Trayastrimsha Heaven had previously spread a lion throne for that Buddha beneath the bodhi tree, one yojana in height. Seated upon this lion throne, the Buddha would attain unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment. While the Buddha sat upon that throne, the Brahma heavenly kings rained down various celestial flowers, covering the area around the seat for one hundred yojanas.

Fragrant winds constantly blew, carrying away the withered flowers, whereupon fresh flowers rained down again. In this way, without interruption, they made offerings to the Buddha for the full duration of ten minor kalpas; and even until the Buddha entered extinction, they continued to rain down flowers in the same manner. The Four Heavenly Kings ^[92] constantly beat celestial drums as offerings to the Buddha, while the other devas played various kinds of celestial music.

They did so throughout the full ten minor kalpas, and even until the Buddha entered extinction, they continued making offerings in this manner.

The second passage, beginning with the words, “…the Buddha…had a lifespan of five million four hundred thousand kotis of nayutas of kalpas,” explains the formation of affinities [in the past]. Its causes are further divided into two subsections: the remote cause and the proximate cause.

The first subsection, concerning the remote cause, is further divided into two parts. The first part describes the attainment of enlightenment by the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence. The second describes how the Brahma heavenly kings from the ten directions came to entreat the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel.

The first part, concerning his attainment of enlightenment, contains five points. The first concerns the great length of the Buddha’s lifespan. The second, beginning with the words, “When that Buddha sat at the place of enlightenment…,” sets forth the events preceding his attainment of enlightenment.

Although the path of all Buddhas is the same, the circumstances of their conditions differ. Buddha Shakyamuni practiced austerities for six years; [sitting motionless in one place,] he did not notice even when grass grew through his thighs and reached his elbows, nor did he hear when the devas wailed and shook the earth. When he moved his seat [to beneath the bodhi tree], he attained the Way.

Buddha Maitreya will attain the Way on the very day he renounces the household life. The Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, however, [sat motionless] for as many as ten minor kalpas, “yet the Dharma of all Buddhas still did not manifest before him.” This was not because the faculties [of the Buddhas] differed in sharpness or dullness, nor because the path [of each Buddha] differed in difficulty or ease. It was solely because conditions might require haste or delay that they had to manifest a longer or shorter period before attaining Buddhahood.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

“O bhikshus! After the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence had passed ten minor kalpas in this manner, the Dharma of all Buddhas finally manifested before him, and he attained unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment.

“Before that Buddha renounced the household life, he had sixteen sons. The eldest was named Accumulated Wisdom. Each of these sons possessed various rare and precious playthings.

When they heard that their father had attained unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment, they all cast aside every precious possession and went to the Buddha’s dwelling place. Their mothers wept as they followed to see them off. Their grandfather, a wheel-turning sage king, accompanied by one hundred chief ministers and surrounded by more than hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of people, also went with them to the place of enlightenment where the Buddha had attained the Way.

They all wished to draw near to the Tathagata Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, respectfully make offerings to him, honor him, praise him, and extol him.

“When they reached the Buddha’s dwelling place, they all bowed their heads until their faces touched the ground, paying homage at the Buddha’s feet. They circumambulated the Buddha, then joined their palms and single-mindedly gazed reverently upon the World-Honored One. The princes together recited these stanzas:

At that time, after the sixteen princes had recited stanzas praising the Buddha, they immediately entreated the World-Honored One to turn the Dharma wheel, saying together: “May the World-Honored One expound the Dharma, bringing abundant peace and security, and compassionately benefiting devas and humans.”

They reiterated this meaning in verse:

The third point begins with the words, “O bhikshus! After the Buddha…had passed ten minor kalpas…,” and concerns his attainment of enlightenment.

The fourth point, beginning with the words, “Before that Buddha renounced the household life…,” explains how his relatives came to make offerings after he had attained enlightenment.

The fifth point, beginning with the words, “The princes together recited these stanzas…,” [and continuing to the end of the verses] sets forth their entreaty that he turn the Dharma wheel.

The first point is clear and readily understood from the scripture text. The second, concerning the events before the attainment of Buddhahood, contains two minor points. The first sets forth how the Buddha sat at the place of enlightenment for an extended period. The second concerns the offerings made by the devas.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The Buddha told the bhikshus: “When the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence attained unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment, five million kotis of Buddha lands in each direction throughout the ten directions all quaked in six ways. In those lands, dark places that the light of the sun and moon could not reach were now brilliantly illuminated. The sentient beings dwelling there could all see one another, and they said, ‘How is it that sentient beings have suddenly appeared in this place?’

“Moreover, throughout those lands, the palaces of the devas, including the palaces of the Brahma heavenly kings, ^[93] all quaked in six ways. A dazzling radiance illuminated every place, pervading all the worlds and outshining the radiance of the devas.”

The second section, beginning with the words, “The Buddha told the bhikshus... …attained unsurpassed, complete and perfect enlightenment…” and continuing thereafter, describes the Brahma kings requesting [the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel]. This section is divided into two points. The first concerns the radiance illuminating and shaking [the ten directions]. The second concerns the Brahma kings of the ten directions coming to request the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel.

Regarding the radiance in the first point, the Sutra of Past Causes and Effects ^[94] states: “When Bodhisattva Siddhartha was in his mother’s womb, a brilliant radiance suddenly appeared throughout the lands of the great trichiliocosm. Places beyond the illumination of the sun and moon were suddenly filled with light, enabling the beings in those places to see one another.” ^[96] When the Buddha first attained enlightenment, a similar radiance also appeared. The Sutra of Past Causes and Effects also states that in the morning the Bodhisattva [taught the Dharma] for the devas of the Form Realm; at noon, [he taught the Dharma] for the devas of the Desire Realm; and in the afternoon, he taught the Dharma for ghosts and spirits. At night he likewise [taught the Dharma] in this manner. ^[97]

Interpreted in terms of contemplation of the mind, the phrase “beings suddenly came into existence” means that the mind-nature [of beings] is originally pure, but because it is obscured by the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus, it is shrouded in darkness. If contemplative wisdom is cultivated, the principle of the original nature will be revealed. Furthermore, [by analogy,] the two mountains are the two truths, ^[98] and the space between them is the Middle Way; the light of the sun and moon represents the two kinds of wisdom [the provisional and the real], while the Buddha’s radiance represents the Middle Way. The light of non-discriminating wisdom clearly illuminates all three truths ^[99] that are inherently present.

SUTRA TEXT

“At that time, throughout five million koṭis of lands in the eastern direction, the palaces of the Brahma kings were all brilliantly illuminated, shining many times more brightly than usual. The Brahma kings in those lands each thought: ‘The brilliance now illuminating our palaces is unprecedented. We do not know through what causes and conditions this sign has appeared.’

“Then the Brahma kings assembled to discuss this matter together. Among them was a Brahma king ^[100] named Savior of All, who spoke these verses for the other Brahma kings:

“Then the Brahma kings from five million koṭis of lands in the eastern direction, each carrying his palace and a large sack filled with various celestial flowers, traveled together toward the west to seek the source of the illumination. They then saw Great Universal Wisdom Excellence Tathagata at the place of enlightenment beneath the bodhi tree. The Buddha was seated upon the lion throne, reverently surrounded by devas, dragon kings, gandharvas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, nonhumans, and others. They also saw the sixteen princes requesting the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel.

“The Brahma kings then bowed their heads and touched their faces to the Buddha’s feet in homage, circumambulated the Buddha hundreds of thousands of times, and scattered celestial flowers over the Buddha. The flowers they scattered were piled as high as Mount Sumeru,2 and they also offered them to the Buddha’s bodhi tree. That bodhi tree was ten yojanas3 high. After making their offering of celestial flowers, the Brahma kings each presented his palace4 to the Buddha and said: ‘May the Blessed One take pity upon us and bring us benefit. We now offer these palaces to the Buddha; may he mercifully accept them.’ Then, before the Buddha, the Brahma kings single-mindedly raised their voices in unison and praised him in verse:

“After the Brahma kings had praised the Buddha in verse, they each said: ‘May the Blessed One turn the wheel of Dharma, liberate sentient beings, and open the path to nirvana.’

“Then the Brahma kings single-mindedly raised their voices in unison and spoke these verses:

World-Hero, Honored One Perfect in Twofold Excellence,
We humbly beseech you to expound the Dharma.
With the power of great loving-kindness and compassion,
Save suffering and afflicted beings.

“At that time, Great Universal Wisdom Excellence Tathagata silently assented.

“Furthermore, bhikshus! The Brahma kings throughout five million koṭis of lands in the southeastern direction each saw his own palace brilliantly illuminated as never before. They were all filled with joy and delight and regarded this as a rare event. They then assembled to discuss the matter together. Among them was a Brahma king named Great Compassion, who spoke these verses for the other Brahma kings:

“Then five million koṭis of Brahma kings, each carrying his palace and a large sack filled with various celestial flowers, traveled together toward the northwest to seek the source of the illumination. They then saw Great Universal Wisdom Excellence Tathagata at the place of enlightenment beneath the bodhi tree. The Buddha was seated upon the lion throne, reverently surrounded by devas, dragon kings, gandharvas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, nonhumans, and others.

They also saw the sixteen princes requesting the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel. The Brahma kings then bowed their heads and touched their faces to the Buddha’s feet in homage, circumambulated the Buddha hundreds of thousands of times, and scattered celestial flowers over the Buddha. The flowers they scattered fell in a pile like Mount Sumeru, and they also offered them to the Buddha’s bodhi tree.

After making their offering of celestial flowers, the Brahma kings each presented his palace to the Buddha and said: ‘May the Blessed One take pity upon us and bring us benefit. We now offer these palaces to the Buddha; may he mercifully accept them.’

“Then, before the Buddha, the Brahma kings single-mindedly raised their voices in unison and praised him in verse:

“After the Brahma kings had praised the Buddha in verse, they each said: ‘May the Blessed One take pity upon all beings, turn the wheel of Dharma, and liberate sentient beings.’

“At that time, the Brahma heavenly kings, single-mindedly and with one voice, recited these verses:

“At that time, the Tathagata Great Universal Wisdom Excellence silently assented.

“Furthermore, bhikshus! The Brahma heavenly kings in five million koṭis of lands to the south each saw his own palace illuminated with a brilliant radiance such as had never existed before. They all rejoiced and were elated, regarding this as an extraordinary event. They immediately went to meet one another and discussed together: ‘What cause and condition has brought this dazzling light to our palaces?’

“At that time, among them was a Brahma heavenly king named Wondrous Dharma, who spoke these verses for the other Brahma heavenly kings:

“At that time, the five million koṭis of Brahma heavenly kings took their palaces with them, each filling a large sack with various heavenly flowers, and together traveled northward to seek the cause of the illumination. They then saw the Tathagata Great Universal Wisdom Excellence at the place of enlightenment beneath the bodhi tree. The Buddha was seated upon the lion throne, reverently surrounded by devas, dragon kings, gandharvas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, and nonhuman beings. They also saw the sixteen princes requesting the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel.

“The Brahma heavenly kings then bowed their heads until their faces touched the Buddha’s feet in reverence, circumambulated the Buddha hundreds of thousands of times, and scattered heavenly flowers over him. The scattered flowers fell like Mount Sumeru and were also offered to the Buddha’s bodhi tree. After making offerings of heavenly flowers, the Brahma heavenly kings each presented his palace to the Buddha and said: ‘May the Blessed One have compassion upon us and benefit us. We now offer these palaces; may the Buddha mercifully accept them.’

“At that time, the Brahma heavenly kings, before the Buddha, single-mindedly and with one voice, recited these verses of praise:

“At that time, after the Brahma heavenly kings had recited verses praising the Buddha, they each said: ‘May the Blessed One turn the wheel of Dharma, so that all devas, māras, Brahmas, śramaṇas, and brahmins in the world may attain peace and be delivered.’

“At that time, the Brahma heavenly kings, single-mindedly and with one voice, recited these verses:

“At that time, the Tathagata Great Universal Wisdom Excellence silently assented.

“From the southwest down to the nadir, the same events also occurred.

“At that time, the Brahma heavenly kings in five million koṭis of lands at the zenith each saw his own palace illuminated with a brilliant radiance such as had never existed before. They all rejoiced and were elated, regarding this as an extraordinary event. They immediately went to meet one another and discussed together: ‘What cause and condition has brought this dazzling light to our palaces?’

“At that time, among them was a Brahma heavenly king named Śikhin, who spoke these verses for the other Brahma heavenly kings:

“At that time, the five million koṭis of Brahma heavenly kings took their palaces with them, each filling a large sack with various heavenly flowers, and together traveled downward to seek the cause of the illumination. They then saw the Tathagata Great Universal Wisdom Excellence at the place of enlightenment beneath the bodhi tree. The Buddha was seated upon the lion throne, reverently surrounded by devas, dragon kings, gandharvas, kinnaras, mahoragas, humans, and nonhuman beings. They also saw the sixteen princes requesting the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel.

“The Brahma heavenly kings then bowed their heads until their faces touched the Buddha’s feet in reverence, circumambulated the Buddha hundreds of thousands of times, and scattered heavenly flowers over him. The scattered flowers fell like Mount Sumeru and were also offered to the Buddha’s bodhi tree. After making offerings of heavenly flowers, the Brahma heavenly kings each presented his palace to the Buddha and said: ‘May the Blessed One have compassion upon us and benefit us. We now offer these palaces; may the Buddha mercifully accept them.’

“At that time, the Brahma heavenly kings, before the Buddha, single-mindedly and with one voice, recited these verses of praise:

“At that time, after the five million koṭis of Brahma heavenly kings had recited verses praising the Buddha, they each addressed the Buddha: ‘May the Blessed One turn the wheel of Dharma, so that many beings may attain peace and many beings may be delivered.’

“At that time, the Brahma heavenly kings again spoke these verses:

The second meaning, beginning with the passage, “At that time, within five million koṭis of lands in the eastern direction…,” describes the Brahma kings of the ten directions [coming to entreat the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel]. This meaning is further divided into two subtopics. The first subtopic concerns the nine directions, and the second concerns the direction above.

The subtopic concerning the nine directions is further divided into four parts: first, the east; second, the southeast; third, the south; and fourth, a general account of the other six directions.

Regarding the first three directions, each scriptural passage concerning the Brahma kings contains seven details. First, they all behold an auspicious sign; second, they are astonished; third, they question one another and discuss the matter in order to ascertain it; fourth, they follow the light and arrive before the Buddha; fifth, they make offerings to the Buddha through all three modes of action [body, speech, and mind]; sixth, they entreat the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel; and seventh, [the Buddha] silently assents. All these parts may be understood according to the scriptural text.

The second subtopic, concerning the Brahma kings in the direction above, contains only six details. Since the World-Honored One assents and “immediately turns the Dharma wheel,” there is no detail of “silently assenting.”

The earlier commentators held that [the Brahma kings of] the two directions, east and southeast, entreated [the Buddha to teach] the Lesser Vehicle; those of the other seven directions entreated [the Buddha to teach] the Great Vehicle; and those in the direction above entreated [the Buddha to teach] both the Lesser Vehicle and the Great Vehicle.

According to the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, however, the Brahma kings originally entreated [the Buddha to teach] only the Great Vehicle. Although the Buddha taught the Lesser Vehicle, their wish was not thereby fulfilled. Even if the Buddha taught the prajnaparamita teaching, it would still differ from what the Brahma kings had requested.

According to the scriptural text of the Skillful Means chapter, the Brahma kings requested the Great Vehicle Dharma. Nevertheless, all the teachings of the Buddhas are equal and identical, so their entreaties should not have been partial. It is only because the extant sutras and treatises speak of this matter briefly that the masters, relying upon them, understood it in a partial manner. Furthermore, when considered in light of the present Buddha [Śākyamuni], ^[101] from beginning to end, the turning of the Dharma wheel [through the five periods] comprised the five flavors of the teaching, ^[102] and on each occasion it was in response to an entreaty from Brahma kings. It must surely have been the same with the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence.

At first, the sixteen princes entreated the Buddha to turn the perfect Dharma wheel, ^[103] corresponding to the present Buddha Śākyamuni’s exposition of the Avataṃsaka teaching. [The Brahma kings of] the two directions, east and southeast, entreated the Buddha to turn the [provisional vehicle’s] imperfect Dharma wheel, corresponding to the present Buddha Śākyamuni’s exposition of the Tripiṭaka teaching. Thereafter, [the Brahma kings of] the other seven directions entreated the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel that indicated the imperfect teaching in order to reveal the perfect teaching,

^[104] corresponding to the present Buddha Śākyamuni’s exposition of the Vaipulya sutras. [The Brahma kings of] the direction above entreated the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel that retained the imperfect teaching while clearly expounding the perfect teaching, ^[105] corresponding to the present Buddha Śākyamuni’s exposition of the prajnaparamita teaching.

Still later, the sixteen princes entreated the Buddha [to turn the Dharma wheel] that discarded the imperfect teaching and clearly expounded the perfect teaching, corresponding to the present Buddha Śākyamuni’s exposition of the Lotus Sutra, the teaching of the flavor of clarified butter. When the Buddha’s present expositions of the Dharma are compared with those of [the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence] in the past, the meanings of the scriptural passages correspond in every respect.

Such is the general outline.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

“At that time, the Tathagata Great Universal Wisdom Excellence accepted the entreaties of the Brahma kings of the ten directions, as well as those of the sixteen princes, and immediately turned the Dharma wheel three times in twelve aspects. ^[106] No śramaṇa, brahmin, deva, Māra, Brahma, or any other class of beings in the world was capable of turning such a Dharma wheel.

“The Buddha taught: ‘This is suffering; this is the cause of suffering; this is the cessation of suffering; this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.’ The Buddha also extensively expounded the teaching of the twelve links of dependent origination: ‘Conditioned by ignorance, formations arise; conditioned by formations, consciousness arises; conditioned by consciousness, name-and-form arises; conditioned by name-and-form, the six ayatanas arise; conditioned by the six ayatanas, contact arises; conditioned by contact, feeling arises; conditioned by feeling, craving arises; conditioned by craving, clinging arises; conditioned by clinging, becoming arises; conditioned by becoming, birth arises;

conditioned by birth, aging and death arise, together with sorrow, pain, suffering, and distress…

Thus, when ignorance ceases, formations cease; when formations cease, consciousness ceases; when consciousness ceases, name-and-form ceases; when name-and-form ceases, the six ayatanas cease; when the six ayatanas cease, contact ceases; when contact ceases, feeling ceases; when feeling ceases, craving ceases; when craving ceases, clinging ceases; when clinging ceases, becoming ceases; when becoming ceases, birth ceases; and when birth ceases, aging and death cease, together with sorrow, pain, suffering, and distress.’