攝大乘論釋

Entering the Superior Characteristics of Cause and Effect 4

Chapter 1: The Stages of Cause and Effect

Explanation: This meaning comprises eleven chapters: 1. The Stages of Cause and Effect, 2. Establishing the Number Six, 3. Characteristics, 4. Sequence, 5. Establishing the Names, 6. Cultivation, 7. Distinctions, 8. Inclusion, 9. Counteragents, 10. Merits, and 11. Mutual Disclosure.

The Treatise says: Thus, entry into the superior characteristics has already been explained.

How, then, is entry into the superior characteristics of cause and effect to be understood?

Explanation: “Thus” refers generally to the four stages of entry into the contemplation of consciousness-only explained previously. The four stages previously explained are the path of preparation, the path of seeing, the path of cultivation, and the ultimate path. Concerning entry into the superior characteristics that are to be known, how can the causes of this entry into the superior characteristics and the fruits attained after entry be explained extensively so that they become clear and readily apparent?

The Treatise says: Through the six paramitas, namely, Dana Paramita, Sila Paramita, Ksanti Paramita, Virya Paramita, Dhyana Paramita, and Prajna Paramita.

Explanation: This answers the preceding question. To clarify the superior characteristics of cause and effect and make them readily apparent, the Six Perfections are taken as the essence of cause and effect. At first, the Six Perfections are taken as causes; afterward, the Six Perfections are taken as fruits.

The Treatise says: Why is entry into consciousness-only attained through the six paramitas? And why do the six paramitas constitute the fruit of entry into consciousness-only?

Explanation: Although it was previously stated that the Six Perfections are the essence of cause and effect, the meaning was not yet explained. Therefore, it is asked again: In what sense are the Six Perfections said to be causes, and in what sense are the Six Perfections said to be fruits? These Six Perfections can eliminate the six consciousnesses’ obstructions to awakening and entering consciousness-only; therefore, the Six Perfections are the causes of entry into consciousness-only.

The first obstruction is delight in objects of desire. One takes pleasure in wealth and personal enjoyment and does not perceive superior merit. Because of this obstruction, one cannot enter consciousness-only.

Giving can eliminate this obstruction; therefore, giving is a cause of entry into consciousness-only. The second obstruction is the arising from the mind of bodily, verbal, and mental karma. Because of this obstruction, one cannot enter consciousness-only.

Moral discipline can eliminate this obstruction; therefore, moral discipline is a cause of entry into consciousness-only. The third obstruction is the inability to endure contempt, slander, and the sufferings of cold and heat. Because of this obstruction, one cannot enter consciousness-only.

Patience can eliminate this obstruction; therefore, patience is a cause of entry into consciousness-only. The fourth obstruction is clinging to the belief that not cultivating is pleasurable, regarding what has not been attained as attained, and failing to perceive the merit of what has been attained. Because of this obstruction, one cannot enter consciousness-only.

Diligence can eliminate this obstruction; therefore, diligence is a cause of entry into consciousness-only. The fifth obstruction consists of assorted pleasures and regarding rare worldly phenomena and causes of distraction as meritorious. Because of this obstruction, one cannot enter consciousness-only.

Concentration can eliminate this obstruction; therefore, concentration is a cause of entry into consciousness-only. The sixth obstruction is clinging to whatever is seen, heard, cognized, or known as real; diligently studying and imitating worldly conceptual proliferations; and, regarding scriptures of provisional meaning, clinging to their meaning merely according to the words. Because of this obstruction, one cannot enter consciousness-only.

Wisdom can eliminate this obstruction; therefore, wisdom is a cause of entry into consciousness-only.

The Treatise says: Here there are bodhisattvas within the true Dharma

Explanation: Only cultivation within the true Dharma can produce the causes for entry into consciousness-only. Outside the true Dharma, by relying on the teachings of the Two Vehicles, non-Buddhist teachings, and various worldly teachings, these causes cannot be obtained. Therefore, it is clearly established that the true Dharma is the basis upon which these causes are established. Those capable of establishing these causes are not followers of the Two Vehicles and so forth; therefore, they are called bodhisattvas. What Dharma do bodhisattvas cultivate in order to enter consciousness-only?

The Treatise says: who have no minds attached to wealth and pleasure and, up to correctly discerning dharmas in accordance with principle, attain entry into the contemplation of consciousness-only.

Explanation: This clarifies freedom from the obstruction to giving through freedom from the obstruction to wisdom, as fully explained above. Therefore, the Six Perfections are taken as the causes of entry into consciousness-only.

The Treatise says: By relying upon the six paramitas, bodhisattvas have entered the stage of consciousness-only. They subsequently attain a pure mind of faith and aspiration, encompassed by the six paramitas.

Explanation: By relying upon the Six Perfections, bodhisattvas eliminate the six obstructions and enter consciousness-only. At that time, the bodhisattvas further attain a pure mind of faith and aspiration encompassed by the Six Perfections. Regarding the true teaching of the Six Perfections, the mind is resolute and free from doubt; this is called faith.

Seeking and wishing to cultivate in accordance with the teaching in which one has faith is called aspiration. This mind of faith and aspiration has five causes and conditions and is therefore called pure: First is the purity of nonattachment, meaning that one does not give rise to dharmas contrary to the paramitas. Second is the purity of non-observation, meaning that one’s mind never contemplates personal recompense or the fruits of the paramitas.

Third is the purity of non-loss, meaning freedom from defiled dharmas intermixed with the paramitas and freedom from practices lacking skillful means. Fourth is the purity of non-discrimination, meaning freedom from attachment to the characteristics of the paramitas according to verbal descriptions. Fifth is the purity of dedication, meaning that, regarding the Six Perfections that have already arisen and developed and those that have not yet arisen and developed, one constantly seeks to attain great bodhi.

Each paramita fully includes these five kinds of pure faith and aspiration. Furthermore, the pure mind of faith and aspiration means that one has passed beyond the stage of aspiration and entered the stage of seeing and so forth. One attains the noble ones’ faith and aspiration, which differs from the faith and aspiration of the stages preceding the grounds, and it is therefore called pure.

Furthermore, the pure mind of faith and aspiration means entering contemplation of suchness through samatha and vipasyana. Because the non-discriminating wisdom and the subsequent wisdom of non-discrimination that one attains include a mind of faith and aspiration, it is called pure.

The Treatise says: Within the true Dharma are bodhisattvas who have no minds attached to wealth and pleasure, no minds inclined to transgress the moral precepts, no minds that deteriorate when confronted with suffering, and no lazy minds regarding the cultivation of virtue. They do not abide in these causes of distraction and therefore constantly practice one-pointedness. Correctly discerning dharmas in accordance with principle, they attain entry into the contemplation of consciousness-only.

By relying upon the six paramitas, the bodhisattvas have entered the stage of consciousness-only. They subsequently attain a pure mind of faith and aspiration encompassed by the six paramitas. Therefore, even if, during the intervening period, they should become separated from the six paramitas, nevertheless, through the functioning of applied practice,

Explanation: Because they have entered the contemplation of consciousness-only, the text says, “Therefore.” From the stage of seeing through the ultimate stage is called “the intervening period.” Even if, during this period, such persons do not deliberately exert themselves in cultivating the Six Perfections, the Six Perfections are naturally fulfilled. Why is this so?

The Treatise says: through faith and aspiration regarding the true teaching, loving esteem, sympathetic joy, the wish to attain, and contemplation,

Explanation: The Tathagata’s true teaching accords with the Six Perfections. Although it is exceedingly difficult to understand, these persons have faith and aspiration regarding it, without doubt. Because of this faith and aspiration, there is nothing they do not practice.

In practicing the Six Perfections, they perceive immeasurable merit, and loving esteem arises in their minds. Because of this loving esteem, there is nothing they do not practice. Who can attain this mind of faith and aspiration?

Only the Buddhas, the Tathagatas, who have reached the ultimate stage of the paramitas, can attain this mind and know that the supreme cause has been accomplished. Deeply rejoicing in and praising the supreme cause is called sympathetic joy. Because of this sympathetic joy, there is nothing they do not practice.

Wishing that sentient beings, equally with themselves, may attain this pure mind of faith and aspiration is called the wish to attain. Because of this wish to attain, there is nothing they do not practice. According to the Mahayana Dharma doors established by the Buddha, relying upon giving and the other Six Perfections and upon the twelve divisions of the Agamas, they constantly contemplate through the wisdoms born of hearing, reflection, and cultivation.

Through contemplation with the wisdom born of hearing, the attained fruit is perfected. Through contemplation with the wisdom born of reflection, the mind enters the principle of the Dharma that has been heard. Through contemplation with the wisdom born of cultivation, accomplishment occurs naturally.

Because these enable entry into the grounds and the purification of the grounds, through these four kinds of contemplation there is nothing they do not practice.

The Treatise says: Therefore, they continually practice without cease. Thus they cultivate the six paramitas to ultimate perfection.

Explanation: Because of these four contemplations, bodhisattvas are constantly free from negligence and heedlessness. Because they are free from negligence and heedlessness, they cultivate the six paramitas. At the causal stage, their cultivation is brought to completion; upon reaching the fruit, it is perfected. This stage can encompass the six paramitas and cause the five kinds of purity to be fully present; therefore, it is called the stage of purified intention. What are its characteristics? To reveal these characteristics, three verses are given after the prose passage.

The Treatise says: Here are the verses:

Cultivating perfectly pure dharmas,

They swiftly attain keen acceptance.

To bodhisattvas, the Mahayana

Is taught as exceedingly profound and vast.

The Treatise says: “Cultivating perfectly pure dharmas,”

Explanation: Previously, at the stage of aspiration and practice, they skillfully developed the provisions of the path. To clarify this meaning, the first line is stated. Because their cultivation has passed through the forty stages of mind, it is called perfect.

The three grades of pure dharmas—giving, morality, and cultivation—are called pure. Furthermore, the pure dharmas are the faculty of faith, the faculty of wisdom, the faculty of diligence, and the faculty of concentration. These four faculties are precisely the four stages.

The faculty of mindfulness pervades all four stages and can eliminate the four dark hindrances: the icchantika, non-Buddhist paths, shravakas, and pratyekabuddhas. It enables one to attain the four virtues of purity, self, bliss, and permanence; therefore, these are called pure dharmas. Once the provisions have been perfected, what is attained next?

The Treatise says: “They swiftly attain keen acceptance.”

Explanation: The capacity to gladly accept is the meaning of acceptance. Because they can accept and practice the vast and profound Dharma, which is difficult to accept and difficult to practice, it is called keen. Because it continually arises without cease, it is called swift. This line reveals acceptance of the highest grade. When bodhisattvas abide in this stage of acceptance, they necessarily attain purity through this sphere. To reveal this sphere,

The Treatise says: “To bodhisattvas, the Mahayana is taught as exceedingly profound and vast.”

Explanation: The Mahayana is exclusively the sphere of bodhisattvas; therefore, it is called their own vehicle. The Mahayana can cause bodhisattvas to become purified. Within this vehicle there are distinct spheres. The single principle of the selflessness of dharmas is called exceedingly profound. Space, the vessel-world, concentration, and so forth are called vast. The former is the sphere of wisdom, and the latter is the sphere of concentration. These two spheres can cause bodhisattvas to become purified. Through this contemplation, bodhisattvas attain purity. To reveal this meaning, the second verse is stated.

The Treatise says:

Awakening that all is mere discrimination,

They attain wisdom free from attachment.

This is purified joyful faith,

Precisely the purified stage of intention.

The Treatise says: “Awakening that all is mere discrimination,”

Explanation: Bodhisattvas clearly understand that all dharmas of the Mahayana, even those that are exceedingly profound and vast, are created by discrimination. Such clear understanding is called contemplation. This contemplation can cause bodhisattvas to become purified. What do purified bodhisattvas attain?

The Treatise says: “They attain wisdom free from attachment.”

Explanation: Bodhisattvas see that all dharmas are merely discrimination and that no external objects exist. Since external objects cannot be established, discrimination itself also cannot be established. When bodhisattvas see that both inner and outer are nonexistent, they are free from attachment. This is non-discriminating wisdom. This wisdom is purity. What is the essential nature of this purity? To reveal this meaning, the third line of the verse is stated.

The Treatise says: “This is purified joyful faith.”

Explanation: Joyful faith is the essence of non-discriminating wisdom. Because one takes no delight in the seven deluded realms of sentient beings, it is called joy. Because the mind has absolutely no doubt regarding the three kinds of Buddha-nature, it is called faith. Being free from the seven attachments, joy is purified. Being free from falsity, faith is purified.

The Treatise says: “Precisely the purified stage of intention.”

Explanation: Because joyful faith is purified, this stage is called purified. Furthermore, this stage is the stage of seeing; it is the sphere of non-discriminating wisdom and the place of purification for bodhisattvas. Because this wisdom takes joyful faith as its essence, this stage is called the purified stage of intention. What are the characteristics of purified joyful faith?

The Treatise says:

Bodhisattvas within the stream of Dharma

See all Buddhas before and afterward.

Knowing that bodhi is near,

They realize it easily, without difficulty.

The Treatise says: “Bodhisattvas within the stream of Dharma see all Buddhas before and afterward.”

Explanation: Purified joyful faith has two characteristics: first, one constantly abides in tranquility; second, one constantly and clearly sees the Buddhas. Because of joy, one relinquishes the seven attachments and constantly enters contemplation to cultivate the path; therefore, it is said that one constantly abides within the stream of Dharma. When bodhisattvas abide within the stream of Dharma, what do they see? Because they believe in the three kinds of Buddha-nature, they first contemplate the dharmakaya and later realize the dharmakaya. First they attain a comparative wisdom that sees the dharmakaya, and later they attain the realized wisdom that sees the dharmakaya. What merit does this joyful faith possess?

The Treatise says: “Knowing that bodhi is near, they realize it easily, without difficulty.”

Explanation: Those who abide in the stage of purified joyful faith clearly see that they are already near bodhi. Having themselves passed through the forty stages of mind, they enter the correct skillful means without difficulty; therefore, attainment is easy. Through these three verses, the provisions, sphere, and acceptance are accomplished. The essential nature and characteristics of contemplation are all revealed.

Chapter 2: Establishing the Number Six

The Treatise says: Why are there only six paramitas?

Explanation: This asks why the paramitas are definitively established as six in number, neither more nor fewer.

The Treatise says: Because they counteract the six kinds of afflictive hindrances, because they are the basis for the arising of all Buddha-dharmas, and because they are the basis for bringing all sentient beings to maturity in accordance with their dispositions.

Explanation: The six paramitas are established for the following three reasons: first, to eliminate afflictions; second, to bring forth the Buddha-dharmas; and third, to bring sentient beings to maturity. Eliminating afflictions benefits oneself in the present. Bringing forth the Buddha-dharmas and bringing sentient beings to maturity benefit both oneself and others in the future.

Once the afflictions have been permanently eliminated, one presently abides in peace and bliss. Why is this? Because one need not exert effort to destroy and restrain these afflictions or prevent them from arising again, one gains benefit in the present.

Once the afflictive hindrances have been eliminated, one will certainly perfect the Buddha-dharmas oneself in future lives. Moreover, because one is capable of bringing sentient beings to maturity, both oneself and others gain benefit.

The Treatise says: To counteract the causes that prevent the arising of bodhicitta, two paramitas are established: giving and morality. The causes that prevent the arising of bodhicitta are attachment to wealth and home.

Explanation: Attachment to possessions obstructs giving. Attachment to home obstructs morality. Because of these attachments, one cannot arouse the resolve to practice.

The Treatise says: Once bodhicitta has arisen, to counteract the causes that weaken the mind and make it wish to retreat, two paramitas are established: patience and diligence.

Explanation: Although one may already be able to practice giving and morality, if one cannot patiently endure suffering, the mind devoted to giving and morality will weaken and retreat. Although one may be able to endure suffering, if one does not diligently cultivate all wholesome dharmas and eliminate all evil, the mind devoted to giving, morality, and patience will weaken and retreat. Therefore, to counteract this weak and retreating mind, these two paramitas must be established.

The Treatise says: The causes that weaken the mind and make it wish to retreat are the sufferings caused by the opposition and hostility of sentient beings in samsara.

Explanation: Not conforming to principle is called “sentient beings in samsara.” Acting contrary to the bodhisattva teachings is opposition. Inflicting harm upon a bodhisattva’s body is hostility. All these are forms of suffering. If one cannot patiently endure these sufferings, anger will arise. Anger is a cause of the mind’s weakness and retreat.

The Treatise says: And weariness caused by long periods of preparatory cultivation of wholesome dharmas.

Explanation: Through diligent preparatory practice, one cultivates all wholesome dharmas over a long period. If one has no mind of loving-kindness and compassion toward sentient beings, cherishes one’s own body, and fails to see the surpassing merit of cultivation, weariness will arise during practice. Because of this state of mind, one cannot be diligent; this is laziness, and laziness is a cause of the mind’s weakness and retreat.

The Treatise says: If one has already aroused the resolve to cultivate and is not weak, then, in order to counteract the causes of impairment, two paramitas—meditative concentration and wisdom—should be established. The causes that impair the mind are distraction and erroneous knowledge.

Explanation: Distraction impairs mental tranquility. Erroneous knowledge causes the loss of right understanding.

The Treatise says: Therefore, in order to counteract the six kinds of delusions or hindrances, the six paramitas are established as the basis for the arising of all Buddha-dharmas.

Explanation of the Meaning: The six perfections are the causes that foster the growth of the Buddha-dharma.

The Treatise says: The first four paramitas are causes of non-distraction.

Explanation: There are four hindrances that cause distraction: 1. the hindrance to relinquishment; 2. the hindrance to renunciation; 3. the hindrance to peaceful acceptance; and 4. the hindrance to repeated correction. Because of craving and attachment, one is unable to relinquish. Because greed, anger, and delusion give rise to the ten unwholesome deeds, one is unable to renounce them.

Because of anger, one is unable to accept things peacefully. Because of such afflictions as greed, anger, and delusion, one is unable to correct oneself continually. These four hindrances cause the mind to become distracted.

Since the first four perfections can counteract these four hindrances, they are causes of non-distraction. Next, the five hindrances are regarded as obstructions to meditative concentration. Four of the hindrances are causes that obstruct meditative concentration.

One hindrance obstructs both right concentration and the wisdom generated by concentration. Craving, restlessness and remorse, anger, and sloth and torpor—the four hindrances—are causes of distraction. The four perfections are causes of non-distraction.

Because doubt leaves one undecided regarding the object, the mind becomes distracted. A concentrated mind firmly holds to a single object; therefore, doubt obstructs right concentration. Because doubt prevents one from seeing the principle, it also obstructs the wisdom generated by concentration.

Thus, meditative concentration and wisdom are used to counteract doubt.

The Treatise says: Next, one paramita is the essence of non-distraction. By relying upon non-distraction, one can know the true principles of all dharmas in accordance with reality. The true Dharma of all Tathagatas thereby arises; hence it is called the basis for the arising of all Buddha-dharmas.

The six paramitas are established as a basis for bringing all sentient beings to maturity in accordance with their capacities. Through the Paramita of Giving, sentient beings are benefited. Through the Paramita of Moral Discipline, sentient beings are not harmed or afflicted.

Through the Paramita of Patience, one can remain composed when others insult or slander one, without giving rise to thoughts of retaliation. Through the Paramita of Diligence, wholesome roots are produced and unwholesome roots are destroyed. Through these causes of benefit, all sentient beings are tamed.

Next, those whose minds have not yet attained tranquility are brought to tranquility, while those who have attained tranquility are led to liberation. Therefore, the two paramitas of meditative concentration and wisdom are established. Through the Dharma of these six perfections, bodhisattvas skillfully teach and transform sentient beings.

Explanation: “Skillfully teach and transform” has two meanings. First, teaching in accordance with right principle is called teaching and transforming. Second, continually expounding the Dharma for sentient beings is called skillfully teaching and transforming.

The Treatise says: Thus they can be brought to maturity. Therefore, the six paramitas are established as the basis through which all sentient beings may be brought to maturity in accordance with their capacities.

Chapter 3: Characteristics

The Treatise says: How may the characteristics of these six paramitas be discerned?

Explanation: Why is this question posed? Worldlings, practitioners of the Two Vehicles, and bodhisattvas all practice the six deeds, such as giving. If the characteristics of the six paramitas practiced by bodhisattvas are not clearly understood, how can one know whether these are paramitas or not? Therefore, the characteristics of the paramitas must be asked about.

The Treatise says: They are distinguished by six supreme qualities. The paramitas have six common characteristics. First is the supremacy of their basis. This means that they arise in reliance upon the aspiration for unsurpassed bodhi.

Explanation: This clarifies the difference in their basis. The giving and other practices performed by worldlings and practitioners of the Two Vehicles do not arise in reliance upon the aspiration for unsurpassed bodhi. Only the giving and other practices performed by bodhisattvas arise in reliance upon the aspiration for unsurpassed bodhi. Therefore, supremacy of basis is taken as a characteristic of the bodhisattva’s practice of the six perfections.

The Treatise says: Second is the supremacy of their categories. Briefly stated, each paramita has three categories, all of which bodhisattvas cultivate fully.

Explanation: This explains the difference in objects. Superior to worldlings and practitioners of the Two Vehicles, none of whom can fully practice giving and the other deeds in all their categories—that is, external, internal, and both internal and external—bodhisattvas practice giving and the other deeds fully in every category. Therefore, supremacy of categories is taken as a characteristic of the six perfections practiced by bodhisattvas.

The Treatise says: Third is the supremacy of their purpose. This means bringing benefit and happiness to all sentient beings. Bodhisattvas practice the six perfections in order to accomplish both of these purposes.

Explanation: This explains the difference in purpose. What functions does the bodhisattva’s practice of the six perfections fulfill? First, it brings worldly happiness to sentient beings in the present and the future. Subsequently, according to differences in the faculties and dispositions of sentient beings, it enables them to attain the distinct fruits of the Three Vehicles. Worldlings and practitioners of the Two Vehicles practice giving and the other deeds only for their own benefit and happiness, yet they cannot even fully accomplish these, much less bring benefit and happiness to sentient beings. Therefore, purpose is taken as a characteristic of the bodhisattva’s six perfections.

The Treatise says: Fourth is the supremacy of skillful means. Bodhisattvas practice the paramitas by means of non-discriminating wisdom. All are subsumed within non-discriminating wisdom.

Explanation: This explains the difference in skillful means. Purity of the three spheres is called the bodhisattva’s skillful means. The purity of the three spheres is precisely non-discriminating wisdom.

Through this wisdom, a bodhisattva does not discriminate among the giver, the recipient, and the gift. Worldlings and practitioners of the Two Vehicles cannot relinquish these three discriminations; consequently, they give rise to self-attachment, cling to material possessions, and cannot regard people impartially. Therefore, skillful means is taken as a characteristic of the bodhisattva’s six perfections.

The three spheres of moral discipline consist in being free from discrimination concerning time and circumstances in relation to sentient beings. The three spheres of patience consist in being free from discrimination concerning the faults of oneself and others. The three spheres of diligence consist in being free from discrimination concerning superior and inferior service in relation to sentient beings.

The three spheres of meditative concentration consist in being free from the deluded discrimination of objects by sentient beings. The three spheres of prajna consist in being free from the cognitive discrimination of objects by sentient beings.

The Treatise says: Fifth is the supremacy of dedication. Bodhisattvas practice the paramitas and dedicate them to unsurpassed bodhi, thereby assuredly proceeding toward the fruit of omniscience.

Explanation: When bodhisattvas practice giving and the other perfections, they should first arouse this thought: “I give this object to sentient beings in the six realms. This object belongs to sentient beings. I practice giving for the sake of sentient beings. May all sentient beings attain unsurpassed bodhi.” Moreover, because this giving is dedicated so that sentient beings may attain unsurpassed bodhi, the practice of giving never comes to an end. The other perfections among the six are likewise practiced with such dedication. Since worldlings and practitioners of the Two Vehicles make no such dedication, dedication is taken as a characteristic of the bodhisattva’s six perfections.

The Treatise says: Sixth is the supremacy of purity. This means permanently eliminating, without remainder, the two hindrances of the afflictions and the knowable. Through their practice of the paramitas, bodhisattvas eliminate the two hindrances part by part until they have eliminated them entirely.

Explanation: Two kinds of purity are revealed here. The first is purity of cause, and the second is purity of stage. Purity of cause means that giving and the other practices are purified because they are causes for eliminating the two hindrances of afflictions and cognition. Purity of stage means that, prior to entering the bodhisattva grounds, the hindrance of afflictions is progressively eliminated; afterward, upon ascending to the first ground, the cognitive hindrance is progressively eliminated. At these two junctures, it is called purification part by part, referring to the causal stage. When the fruit of Buddhahood is reached and the six perfections are perfected, this is called complete purity, referring to the resultant stage.

The Treatise says: Is giving itself a paramita, or is a paramita itself giving?

Explanation: What does this question seek to clarify? It seeks to distinguish and determine which characteristics constitute a paramita and which do not.

The Treatise says: There is giving that is not a paramita.

Explanation: This is the practice of giving that is apart from the six characteristics of superior reliance. This giving is not included within the six perfections; therefore, it is merely giving and not a paramita.

The Treatise says: There is that which is a paramita but is not giving.

Explanation: This refers to the practice of morality and the other perfections among the six perfections, complete with the six characteristics of superior reliance.

The Treatise says: There is giving that is a paramita.

Explanation: This refers to the practice of giving complete with the six characteristics of superior reliance.

The Treatise says: There is that which is neither giving nor a paramita.

Explanation: This refers to what is apart from the preceding three propositions. Neutral and unwholesome conduct and the like are all included in this fourth proposition.

The Treatise says: Just as there are four propositions concerning giving, it should be understood that there are also four propositions concerning each of the other paramitas.

Explanation: Just as giving is distinguished according to whether or not it is a paramita, so too should each of the other perfections among the six perfections be distinguished in this way.

Chapter 4: Sequence

The Treatise says: Why are the paramitas taught in this sequence?

Explanation: This question is asked either because of doubt or because of a lack of understanding. To ask because of doubt means this: before undertaking any action, one must first use wisdom to understand its causes and effects, and only then arouse right effort. Through these two causes, one may act according to one’s intention.

Thus, the sequence might have to be reversed or there might be no fixed sequence. Because this doubt exists, the question must be asked. To ask because of a lack of understanding means this: one who wishes to cultivate the practices may not yet know which are shallow or profound and which are difficult or easy to perform.

What is shallow is easy to perform, while what is profound is difficult. What is easy should be learned first, and what is difficult should be learned afterward. In order to understand this principle, the question must be asked.

The Treatise says: It is because each preceding paramita accords with and successively gives rise to the paramita that follows it.

Explanation: A bodhisattva cannot bear to see sentient beings afflicted by poverty and hardship, and so continually practices relinquishing possessions. One who constantly relinquishes possessions does not wish to do anything that harms sentient beings, and thus leaves the household life and observes morality; therefore, giving gives rise to morality. Because the bodhisattva cherishes and safeguards the morality that has been undertaken and does not wish to destroy pure morality through resentment toward sentient beings, the bodhisattva practices patience; therefore, morality gives rise to patience.

Because the afflictions have not yet been exhausted, patience may sometimes succeed and sometimes fail. To cherish and safeguard this patience, the bodhisattva then practices diligence; therefore, patience gives rise to diligence. One who constantly practices diligence can govern the mind.

Through this diligence, if the mind sinks into torpor, one can raise it up; if the mind becomes agitated, one can restrain it and prevent agitation from arising; and if the mind is balanced, one can maintain its continuity. Because the mind is harmonized, samadhi is attained; therefore, diligence gives rise to samadhi. When the mind attains samadhi, it can penetrate suchness; therefore, samadhi gives rise to wisdom.

Thus, each preceding perfection can give rise to the one that follows.

The Treatise says: Furthermore, each preceding paramita is purified by the paramita that follows it.

Explanation: Giving is purified by morality. If one does not observe morality, the actions of body, speech, and mind are impure, and the giving one performs is likewise impure because its basis is impure. Because the basis of moral discipline is pure, the practice of giving is purified.

Morality is purified by patience. If one is capable of patience, the actions of body, speech, and mind are all purified. Patience is purified by diligence, because diligence can generate good and eliminate evil.

Diligence is purified by samadhi. If diligence is not situated within the stage of cultivation, it cannot eliminate the afflictions. Samadhi is purified by wisdom.

If one does not clearly understand suchness, then even though samadhi is attained, because it is still contaminated, it remains a phenomenon of samsara. If one sees suchness, the samadhi attained becomes uncontaminated and constitutes the path to nirvana. Thus, each succeeding perfection can purify the one that precedes it.

Because of these two principles, the paramitas are arranged in this sequence.

Chapter 5: Establishing the Names

The Treatise says: On the basis of what meaning is the name “six perfections” established? How can this meaning be understood?

Explanation: In the world, names are established for many reasons. Some names are established according to kind of birth, some according to characteristics, some by provisional designation, some out of contempt, and some out of reverence. Among these five reasons, according to which meaning are the six perfections named? Their names are established on the basis of two reasons. Because their lineage is distinct, they are named according to kind of birth. Because their merits are abundant, they are named out of reverence. The names established for them are both common and individual. All six are called paramitas; this is their common name. Giving, morality, and so forth are distinct; these are their individual names. Why is their common name “paramita”?

The Treatise says: Because, among all the roots of goodness found in the worlds, among shravakas, and among pratyekabuddhas, giving and the rest are supremely excellent.

Explanation: There are six kinds and three kinds of supreme excellence. The six kinds are those previously explained among the six characteristics. The three kinds are: 1. supreme excellence of time; 2. supreme excellence of preparatory practice; and 3. supreme excellence of result.

Each perfection is cultivated throughout three asamkhya kalpas; therefore, it possesses supreme excellence of time. Supreme excellence of preparatory practice consists of four kinds and five kinds. There are also another five kinds and another six kinds.

The four kinds are the four dharmas of cultivation discussed previously. The first five kinds are the five kinds of purity discussed previously. The other five kinds are the five dharmas of cultivation.

The six kinds are the six intentions. The five cultivations, six intentions, and the result will be discussed below. “Incomparable” means supremely excellent and reveals unsurpassed bodhi.

The Treatise says: Because they enable one to reach the other shore, they are collectively called paramitas.

Explanation: Reaching the other shore itself has three meanings: 1. To bring whatever is cultivated to complete fulfillment without omission is to reach the other shore. Worldly beings and those of the Two Vehicles also have practices that they cultivate, but their cultivation is not brought to ultimate completion; therefore, it is not reaching the other shore. 2.

Just as all rivers ultimately flow into the sea, so too do giving and the other perfections enter suchness as their culmination. Thus, entering suchness is taken to be reaching the other shore. Although worldly beings and those of the Two Vehicles cultivate giving and the other practices, they cannot enter suchness; therefore, theirs is not reaching the other shore. 3.

Attaining the supreme result is reaching the other shore, for there is no result superior to this result. Because it is the highest among all results, it is called the other shore. Although worldly beings and those of the Two Vehicles cultivate giving and the other practices, they do not seek this result; therefore, theirs is not reaching the other shore.

A bodhisattva’s cultivation undertaken to reach the other shore possesses all three of these meanings; therefore, the six are collectively called paramitas. Why do they have the individual names Da, Na, and so forth?

The Treatise says: Because it is able to eliminate stinginess and jealousy, as well as the sufferings of poverty and lowly status, it is called Da.

Explanation: Stinginess obstructs abundant wealth, and jealousy obstructs honor and nobility. When, in cultivating the cause, one can eliminate stinginess, then upon attaining the result one will obtain abundant wealth and escape the suffering of poverty. When, in cultivating the cause, one eliminates jealousy, then upon attaining the result one will gain honor and escape lowly status. Why is this so? If one has not yet eliminated the mind of stinginess and jealousy, one cannot practice giving; therefore, it is said that giving can destroy and remove these obstacles. It is impossible that one who practices giving, and can thereby destroy and remove these obstacles, should afterward undergo the suffering of poverty and lowly status.

The Treatise says: Furthermore, because it enables one to attain abundant riches and can lead to the accumulation of merit, it is called Na.

Explanation: One who is capable of giving and can make use of wealth is called a great possessor of riches. Because one is the possessor, one can bring forth the accumulation of merit. Because it possesses all these meanings, it is called Dana.

The Treatise says: Because it is able to bring wrong morality and the evil destinies to quiescence, it is called Shi.

Explanation: When cultivating the cause, one can destroy and remove wrong morality; when attaining the result, one can depart from the evil destinies. It is impossible for one who has not abandoned evil karma to observe morality. Therefore, wrong morality must first be destroyed. It is impossible for one who has destroyed wrong morality and observes right morality to fall into the four evil destinies. Therefore, upon attaining the result, one can depart from the evil destinies.

The Treatise says: Furthermore, because it enables one to attain the wholesome path and samadhi, it is called La.

Explanation: Because one first observes the precepts and afterward receives the fruit—the wholesome paths among humans and devas—whether in the causal stage or in the resultant stage, through observing the precepts, body and speech become pure. Because they are pure, there is no remorse; because there is no remorse, the mind is at ease; because the mind is at ease, one attains joy; because there is joy, one attains well-being; because there is well-being, one attains delight; because there is delight, one attains concentration; because there is concentration, one sees things as they truly are; because one sees things as they truly are, one attains disenchantment and detachment; because one attains disenchantment and detachment, one attains liberation.

Therefore, through observing the precepts, one attains samadhi. Because it possesses all these meanings, it is called Śīla.

Treatise: Because it is capable of extinguishing anger, indignation, and hatred, it is called Śan.

Explanation: While cultivating the causes, by contemplating five meanings, one extinguishes anger and the indignation and hatred born from anger. The five meanings are: 1. Contemplate that all sentient beings, from beginningless time until now, have shown kindness to me. 2.

Contemplate that all sentient beings are constantly perishing thought after thought. Who is it that causes harm? Who is it that is harmed? 3.

Contemplate that there are only dharmas and no sentient being; then who is it that causes harm, and who is it that is harmed? 4. Contemplate that all sentient beings already undergo suffering themselves; how could one wish to inflict still more suffering upon them? 5. Contemplate that all sentient beings are my children; how could one wish to give rise to a mind that would harm them?

Through these five contemplations, anger can be extinguished. Once anger has been extinguished, indignation and hatred can also be eliminated.

Treatise: Furthermore, because it can create harmony between oneself and others, it is called Ti.

Explanation: This applies to both cause and result. This patience can prevent oneself from being defiled by the fault of anger; thus one preserves harmony within oneself, harbors no resentment, and causes no suffering to others. As a sutra says: If a person practices patience, that person acquires five virtues: 1. being free from hatred, 2. not reviling others, 3. being loved by others, 4. acquiring a good reputation, and 5. being reborn in a wholesome realm. These five virtues constitute harmony. Because it possesses all these meanings, it is called Śānti.

Treatise: Because it extinguishes laziness and evil dharmas, it is called Vī.

Explanation: To sink into evil states is called laziness. Neither becoming weary of evil nor rejecting evil conduct is also called laziness. Because of laziness, one abandons wholesome conduct and produces evil dharmas. Because the three karmic activities constantly give rise to offenses, they are called evil dharmas. By extinguishing laziness, one can eliminate the evils born from laziness. This is called the diligence that extinguishes dark dharmas.

Treatise: Furthermore, because it is not careless or heedless and causes immeasurable wholesome dharmas to arise and increase, it is called rya.

Explanation: This explains joyful confidence in cause and result in order to clarify diligence. One has confidence that the cause can be practiced and delights in knowing that the result can be attained. Therefore, constantly practicing with reverence is called being free from heedlessness. Through reverent practice, one can cause wholesome qualities not yet arisen to arise and wholesome qualities already arisen to increase. This is precisely the arising of the Dharma of diligence. Because it possesses all these meanings, it is called Vīrya.

Treatise: Because it is capable of extinguishing the distracted mind, it is called Dhyā.

Explanation: There are five kinds of distraction: 1. intrinsic distraction, namely, the five consciousnesses; 2. external distraction, namely, the mental consciousness racing after external objects; 3. internal distraction, namely, mental elation and depression, attachment to meditative experiences, and so forth; 4. distraction through gross heaviness, namely, attachment to self, what belongs to self, and so forth; 5. distraction of thought, namely, an inferior state of mind in which a bodhisattva abandons the Mahayana and turns in thought toward the Hinayana.

Treatise: Furthermore, because it can guide the mind to abide in an inner object, it is called na.

Explanation: Guiding the mind to abide in the five kinds of tranquility is called an inner object. Because it possesses all these meanings, it is called Dhyāna.

Treatise: Because it is capable of extinguishing all views and all erroneous knowledge, it is called Pra.

Explanation: The activity of views refers to the sixty-two views. Erroneous knowledge refers to the deluded understanding of the world. The activity of views constitutes the afflictive obstruction. Erroneous knowledge constitutes the cognitive obstruction.

Treatise: It is capable of taking the true characteristic as its object,

Explanation: This means taking suchness as its object; this is wisdom that accords with principle.

Treatise: according to their categories,

Explanation: Categories are of two kinds, namely, conditioned and unconditioned; together with name and the other categories, there are five in all. Knowing these dharmas is wisdom that accords with the full extent of phenomena.

Treatise: and thereby knowing all dharmas; therefore, it is called jñā.

Explanation: The characteristic of suchness and the various categories are called all dharmas. Wisdom that accords with principle is prajna. Wisdom that accords with the full extent of phenomena is the fruit of prajna and is also called prajna. These two kinds of wisdom are revealed through three meanings: first, that which is counteracted and known, namely, the two obstructions; second, their object, namely, suchness; and third, the result, namely, wisdom that accords with the full extent of phenomena. Because it possesses all these meanings, it is called Prajñā.

Chapter 6: Cultivation

Treatise: How should it be understood that the paramitas are to be cultivated?

Explanation: Both worldly beings and followers of the Two Vehicles cultivate generosity and the other practices. A bodhisattva’s cultivation of generosity differs from that of worldly beings and followers of the Two Vehicles. How may this be known?

Treatise: In general, it should be understood that five matters are to be cultivated:

Explanation: If cultivation is explained extensively, there are twelve kinds: 1. cultivation that reveals, 2. cultivation that diminishes, 3. cultivation that remedies and accomplishes, 4. cultivation of subsequent practice, 5. associated cultivation, 6. supreme cultivation, 7. increasingly superior cultivation, 8. cultivation at the initial stage, 9. cultivation at the intermediate stage, 10. cultivation at the final stage, 11. cultivation with something higher, and 12. unsurpassed cultivation.

Cultivation that reveals is the cultivation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, which can reveal the meaning of the Four Noble Truths. Cultivation that diminishes is the cultivation of the Four Right Efforts, which can gradually extinguish evil dharmas. Cultivation that remedies and accomplishes is the cultivation of the Four Bases of Spiritual Power, whereby meditative concentration is remedied and accomplished by eliminating the five deficiencies and preserving the eight provisions for elimination.

Cultivation of subsequent practice is the cultivation of the Five Powers, which continue the path of seeing. Supreme cultivation is the cultivation of the Factors of Awakening in order to enter contemplation of the Four Noble Truths. Increasingly superior cultivation is the cultivation of the Noble Eightfold Path in order to surpass the path of seeing.

Cultivation at the initial stage is the cultivation of morality by ordinary beings until they attain the contemplation of impurity and mindfulness of breathing, in order to counteract inverted views. Cultivation at the intermediate stage is the cultivation of those in training; here, no inversion remains to be counteracted. Cultivation at the final stage is the cultivation of those beyond training; here, nothing whatsoever can be called an inversion.

Cultivation with something higher is the cultivation practiced by śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and those at corresponding stages. Unsurpassed cultivation is the cultivation of bodhisattvas on the ten bhumis, who surpass all others.

Treatise: First, cultivation through preparatory practice.

Explanation: This means that the activities of body, speech, and mind can become pure, vast, and supreme.

Treatise: Second, cultivation of joyful confidence.

Explanation: This refers to hearing the teachings, as explained in Chapter 1.

Treatise: Third, cultivation through reflection.

Explanation: The cultivation of reflection has three kinds: cherishing and honoring, sympathetic joy, and the aspiration to attain. Together they are called cultivation through reflection, as explained in Chapter 1.

Treatise: Fourth, cultivation through the skillful means of supreme wisdom.

Explanation: This is nonconceptual wisdom, which has three meanings: first, vastness; second, purity; and third, swift realization. Because it possesses these three meanings, it is given the name “the skillful means of supreme wisdom.”

Treatise: Fifth, cultivation through performing deeds that benefit others. Here it should be understood that the first four kinds of cultivation are as previously explained. As for cultivating conduct that benefits others, the Buddhas, with effortless minds, do not abandon the activities of the Tathagata,

Explanation: This clarifies what is taught in the Mahayana doctrine. Although the Buddhas have entered parinirvana, they still cause minds to arise. Parinirvana is the Dharma body. The renewed arising of minds refers to the two bodies of response and transformation. Having come to abide in the Dharma body, through the power of their original vows the Buddhas are apart from the three karmic activities; yet, in accordance with what benefits sentient beings, their response and transformation bodies naturally manifest. They never abandon the true activities of the Tathagata and the practice of the paramitas. Therefore, the Buddhas cultivate the paramitas.

Treatise: They cultivate the paramitas until reaching the stage of perfection, and then they cultivate the paramitas yet again.

Explanation: Buddhas and bodhisattvas have either partially perfected or fully perfected [the paramitas]. If, at this stage of perfection, they cultivate the paramitas, what they themselves need to accomplish has already been completed, so their practice is no longer for their own sake. Seeing that sentient beings, through practicing these paramitas, can leave the four evil destinies and enter the paths and fruits of the Three Vehicles, they continue to cultivate the paramitas for the benefit of others.

The Treatise says: Furthermore, the cultivation of contemplation consists of the contemplation of cherishing, the contemplation of sympathetic joy, and the contemplation of aspiring to attainment, which encompass the cultivation of the six intentions.

Explanation: This section explains the meaning of cultivation in general. Previously, five modes of cultivation were discussed, but no distinction was made between the stages at which they are cultivated. How can it be known that cultivation at the stage of aspiration and practice differs from cultivation at the stage of purity? If the cultivation of the paramitas through the three contemplations that encompass the six intentions is practiced, it must occur at the stage of purity. At the stage of aspiration and practice, this meaning does not apply. The three contemplations are the foundation of cultivation. The six intentions adorn and sustain these three contemplations.

The Treatise says: The six intentions are: 1. the vast intention; 2. the long-term intention; 3. the joyful intention; 4. the intention of gratitude; 5. the lofty intention; and 6. the virtuous intention.

The vast intention is this: however many asamkhyeya kalpas a bodhisattva must pass through before attaining unsurpassed bodhi,

Explanation: Since the number of kalpas is generally described as indefinitely great, the expression “however many” is used. The concept of the number of kalpas is not employed uniformly in the Mahayana and Hinayana sutras, and there is no fixed number. The Hinayana teaches that Buddhahood is attained after three asamkhyeya kalpas. The Mahayana teaches that Buddhahood may be attained after three, seven, or thirty-three asamkhyeya kalpas.

The Treatise says: during that period, in each and every ksana,

Explanation: Whether three asamkhyeya kalpas are combined into a single ksana or thirty-three asamkhyeya kalpas are combined into a single ksana, it is still called a ksana. In this way, from one ksana to immeasurable ksanas constitutes a day, a month, and so forth, up to one asamkhyeya kalpa. From one asamkhyeya kalpa up to thirty-three asamkhyeya kalpas must pass before Buddhahood is attained. To show that the bodhisattva’s intention never grows weary, such an extended period is described.

The Treatise says: the bodhisattva constantly relinquishes body and life,

Explanation: The words “during that period” refer generally to a long span of time. The word “ksana” here is used in its ordinary worldly sense, whereas the word ksana mentioned previously denotes a long period. In each and every ksana, the bodhisattva constantly relinquishes body, life, and possessions until attaining Buddhahood, without ever becoming weary.

The Treatise says: together with treasures of the seven precious substances sufficient to fill worlds as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, giving them in generosity and offering them to the Tathagatas, from the first arising of the aspiration until abiding in the coolness of ultimate bodhi,

Explanation: Nirvana with remainder is called “pure” because it is free from the defilement of the afflictions. Nirvana without remainder is called “cool” because it is free from the scorching heat of all suffering. Furthermore, bodhi has purity and bliss as its essence. To reveal the virtue of purity, it is called pure, meaning clear and undefiled; to reveal the meaning of peace and bliss, it is called cool and refreshing.

The Treatise says: yet that bodhisattva still considers this insufficient. Moreover, throughout that period, in each and every ksana, the entire three-thousandfold great-thousand world is filled with blazing fire. Within it, whether walking, standing, lying down, or sitting—the four deportments—the bodhisattva forsakes every means of sustaining life,

Explanation: What follows describes the bodhisattva’s cultivation of the other five perfections among the Six Perfections. In each and every ksana throughout such a long period, the bodhisattva constantly dwells in places of the most extreme suffering and hardship, lacking all necessities of life. Although enduring such suffering, the bodhisattva never gives rise to discouragement while cultivating the paramitas.

The Treatise says: yet the bodhisattva’s mind constantly and immediately cultivates morality, patience, diligence, samadhi, and prajna until abiding in the coolness of ultimate bodhi. Still, that bodhisattva considers the cultivation of morality, patience, and the rest to be incomplete, and the mind never grows weary. This is called the bodhisattva’s vast intention.

If, from the first arising of the aspiration until attaining Buddhahood, the bodhisattva never abandons this tireless mind, this is called the bodhisattva’s long-term intention. If, through the Six Paramitas, the bodhisattva performs deeds benefiting others and always gives rise to immense joy surpassing even the happiness of the sentient beings who receive the benefit, this is called the bodhisattva’s joyful intention.

If, after practicing the Six Paramitas to benefit sentient beings, the bodhisattva regards those beings as having shown great kindness to oneself but does not regard oneself as having bestowed any kindness upon them, this is the bodhisattva’s intention of gratitude. If the bodhisattva possesses roots of virtue and merit produced by the Six Paramitas, and gives and dedicates them to all sentient beings with a mind free from attachment so that they may obtain desirable and cherished results, this is the bodhisattva’s lofty intention.

If the bodhisattva takes the roots of virtue and merit arising from the practice of the Six Paramitas and dedicates them equally so that all sentient beings may attain unsurpassed bodhi, this is the bodhisattva’s virtuous intention.

Through these six intentions, the bodhisattva’s cultivation is encompassed by the contemplation of cherishing.

Explanation: The contemplation of cherishing means the mind that seeks realization and attainment because it sees their great merit and therefore wishes to attain them.

The Treatise says: If a bodhisattva rejoices in the roots of virtue and merit produced by the practices and preparatory cultivation of the six intentions by immeasurable bodhisattvas, this is called the bodhisattva’s six intentions as encompassed by the contemplation of sympathetic joy.

Explanation: This reveals a mind free from doubt: having rejoiced in the practices of these supreme persons, one is resolute and without doubt.

The Treatise says: If a bodhisattva aspires that all sentient beings cultivate the six intentions encompassed by the Six Paramitas, and also aspires personally to cultivate the six intentions encompassed by the Six Paramitas, undertaking preparatory cultivation until attaining Buddhahood, this is called the bodhisattva’s six intentions as encompassed by the contemplation of aspiring to attainment.

Explanation: The contemplation of aspiring to attainment reveals the mind of great compassion, which does not seek solely for oneself. These three contemplations eliminate three kinds of mind: first, they eliminate the mind that does not practice; second, they eliminate the mind that advances and retreats; and third, they eliminate the mind that advances one-sidedly.

The Treatise says: If a person merely hears of the six intentions encompassed by the bodhisattva’s contemplative cultivation and gives rise to a single thought of faith, that person will accumulate immeasurable and boundless merit. All evil karmic obstructions will be completely eradicated.

Explanation: The eradication of karmic obstructions has two meanings: first, the capacity to destroy all karma completely; second, although the karma remains, the great power of the roots of virtue can prevent the retribution of rebirth in the evil destinies, causing one never to undergo that karma. This is also called eradication.

If a person who merely hears of this obtains immeasurable and boundless merit, how much more so does a bodhisattva who is able to practice it all.

Chapter 7: Distinctions

The Treatise says: How are the distinctions among the paramitas to be known?

Explanation: What does this question seek to express? The categories of the paramitas are beyond enumeration. To clarify their true essence, this question is posed. By explaining the distinctions among the paramitas, their true essence is revealed.

The Treatise says: The distinctions are known because each paramita has three categories.

Explanation: This gives the general number in answer to the question.

The Treatise says: The three categories of giving are: 1. the gift of Dharma; 2. the gift of material possessions; and 3. the gift of fearlessness.

Explanation: The gift of Dharma benefits the minds of others. Through the gift of Dharma, others’ wholesome roots and merits, such as wisdom born of hearing, arise. The gift of material wealth benefits the bodies of others. The gift of fearlessness benefits both the bodies and minds of others. Furthermore, through the gift of material wealth, in some cases one can draw those who do evil back to goodness. Through the gift of fearlessness, one can receive them and make them one’s own companions. Through the gift of Dharma, one causes them to produce wholesome roots and mature toward liberation. Because it possesses all these meanings, giving is said to have three categories.

The Treatise says: The three categories of Moral Discipline are: 1. the discipline of observing the precepts, 2. the discipline that embraces wholesome dharmas, and 3. the discipline that embraces deeds benefiting sentient beings.

Explanation: Observing the precepts is the support of the other two kinds of discipline. If a person does not abandon evil and embrace the good, that person cannot benefit others. If one observes the precepts, one can give rise to and embrace wholesome dharmas, provide a support for the Buddha-Dharma, and engender bodhi.

If one abides in the first two kinds of discipline, one can give rise to and embrace the kinds of discipline that benefit sentient beings, providing a support for bringing sentient beings to maturity. Furthermore, through observing the precepts and abandoning evil, one’s mind is free from the distress of remorse, and in this present life one can abide in peace and bliss. By abiding in peace and bliss, one can cultivate wholesome dharmas in order to bring the Buddha-Dharma to maturity.

If one abides in the first two kinds of discipline, one can cultivate the kinds of discipline that benefit sentient beings in order to bring others to maturity. These three categories of discipline are the causes of the four fearlessnesses. Why is this?

The first discipline is the virtue of abandonment; the second discipline is the virtue of wisdom; and the third discipline is the virtue of beneficence. The four fearlessnesses do not lie outside these three virtues; therefore, they are said to be the causes of the four fearlessnesses. Because it possesses all these meanings, moral discipline is said to have three categories.

The Treatise says: The three categories of Patience are: 1. patience in enduring reproach and slander, 2. calm patience in enduring suffering, and 3. patience in examining dharmas.

Explanation: Through patience in enduring reproach and slander, one can patiently endure the wrongs committed by others. Why is this? Although a bodhisattva who resolves to cultivate practices for the benefit of others may be reproached and slandered by others, the bodhisattva does not cling to these offenses and retreat from the original resolve to practice.

Through calmly enduring suffering, although dwelling amid the suffering and hardships of birth and death, one does not retreat from the original resolve to practice because of that suffering. Through patience in examining dharmas, a bodhisattva can enter the truth of all dharmas. This patience is the support of the preceding two kinds of patience, because it can eliminate the two attachments to persons and dharmas.

Because it possesses all these meanings, patience is said to have three categories.

The Treatise says: The three categories of Diligence are: 1. earnest diligence, 2. diligence in preparatory practice, and 3. diligence that does not fear difficulties, failure, or privation.

Explanation: How is it known that diligence has these three aspects? Because the Buddha said in the sutras that such a person possesses steadfastness, superior capacity, courage, the power of mastery, and does not abandon wholesome deeds. These five statements were made to reveal the three aspects.

To reveal earnest and courageous diligence, it is said that one possesses steadfastness. To reveal diligence in preparatory practice, it is said that one possesses superior capacity. Why is this?

During preparatory practice, such a person has the capacity to prevail, because whatever that person wishes to accomplish can be accomplished. To reveal the absence of fear toward difficulties, failure, and privation, the three statements—that one possesses courage, possesses the power of mastery, and does not abandon wholesome deeds—are then given in sequence. Why is this?

There are those who, initially wishing to attain unsurpassed bodhi, first possess steadfastness in preparatory practice and at times have the capacity to prevail; but because a long time passes without the characteristics of the fruit they seek becoming manifest, they develop a discouraged and inferior state of mind midway. To counteract this state of mind and reveal diligence that does not lose heart, it is said that one possesses courage.

Although one may recover a courageous mind and not retreat, if the sufferings and hardships of birth and death obstruct that mind, one may retreat from the vow of bodhi. To counteract this state of mind and reveal diligence that is difficult to destroy, it is said that one possesses the power of mastery. Because one possesses the power of mastery, the sufferings and hardships of birth and death cannot cause one to retreat.

Although a person may encounter suffering without retreating, upon attaining only a little, that person may conceive the notion that it is sufficient. Because of this notion of sufficiency, unsurpassed bodhi cannot be attained. To counteract this state of mind and reveal insatiable diligence, it is said that one does not abandon wholesome deeds.

Because it possesses all these meanings, diligence is said to have three categories.

The Treatise says: The three categories of Concentration are: 1. concentration in which the mind abides in peace and bliss, 2. concentration that gives rise to supernormal powers, and 3. concentration directed toward benefiting others.

Explanation: There is a concentration through which one abides in peace and bliss in this present life. Why is this? Because it enables one to abandon all defiled dharmas.

Relying upon this concentration, benefit for oneself arises. That is, the three kinds of clear knowledge can lead to the accomplishment of the six supernormal powers. From the cause that leads to the accomplishment of the supernormal powers arises concentration directed toward benefiting others.

Benefiting others consists of the three wheels. The first is the wheel of supernormal powers: namely, the supernormal power of bodily transformation, the divine eye, and the divine ear. This wheel causes those inclined toward error to turn back and return to what is right.

The second is the wheel of discerning minds: namely, the knowledge of others’ minds, the divine eye, and the divine ear. If those who have already returned to what is right have not yet accepted it in faith, this wheel causes them to accept it in faith. The third is the wheel of correct teaching: namely, the knowledge of former lives and the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows.

Through the knowledge of former lives, one knows their faculties and dispositions. Through the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows, one knows one’s own attainment and teaches them the correct doctrine, causing those in whom the seed has been planted to mature toward liberation. Because it possesses all these meanings, concentration is said to have three categories.

The Treatise says: The three categories of Prajna are: 1. preparatory nonconceptual prajna, 2. nonconceptual prajna, and 3. subsequently attained nonconceptual prajna.

Explanation: By hearing the Mahayana teaching of signlessness, one acquires the wisdoms born of hearing, reflection, and cultivation and enters the emptiness of conceptual notions; these are collectively called preparatory nonconceptual prajna. Having entered the three kinds of non-nature, the resulting nonconceptual wisdom is called nonconceptual prajna. Having attained nonconceptual wisdom and afterward emerged from contemplation, one either reflects personally upon what was previously realized or explains it to others; this is called subsequently attained nonconceptual prajna. Prajna also has three categories. They are

the faculty of one who does not yet know and wishes to know, the faculty of knowing, and the faculty of one who has already known; their nature, abiding, function, and transcendence of the world. Because it possesses all these meanings, Prajna is said to have three categories.

Chapter 8: Inclusion

The Treatise says: How is it known that the meanings of the paramitas mutually include one another?

Explanation: Why is it necessary to understand the meaning by which all other wholesome dharmas and the Prajnaparamita mutually include one another?

The Treatise says: All wholesome dharmas are included within the six paramitas.

Explanation: All wholesome dharmas—namely, vows, up to the four unobstructed knowledges, the six supernormal powers, and the Tathagata’s treasury of secret Dharma—are all included within the six paramitas.

The Treatise says: They constitute their nature.

Explanation: Because the paramitas are the dharma-nature of vows and so forth, these vows and so forth are also included within the paramitas. Because vows and so forth constitute the nature of the paramitas, and because all the paramitas take nonconceptual wisdom as their nature, they mutually include one another.

The Treatise says: They are the fruits of the six paramitas; therefore,

Explanation: “They” refers to the six supernormal powers, the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, up to such Buddha-dharmas as the unique qualities, all of which are fruits of the six paramitas; therefore,

The Treatise says: all wholesome dharmas are accordingly accomplished.

Explanation: Wholesome dharmas such as faith, pliancy, and so forth are included within the bodhisattva path. In accordance with whatever a bodhisattva intends to do, all the paramitas can bring it to accomplishment. The paramitas are fruits arising from them, and therefore they mutually include one another.

Chapter 9: Counteraction

The Treatise says: What are the things counteracted by the paramitas?

Because all the afflictions

Explanation: Since the paramitas can encompass all purified qualities, that which the paramitas counteract must likewise encompass all impure qualities. How is this known?

Treatise: Because it is their nature.

Explanation: The paramitas take non-attachment as their nature and therefore encompass all wholesome dharmas. That which the paramitas counteract takes attachment as its nature and therefore encompasses all impure qualities.

Treatise: Because it is the cause of their arising.

Explanation: Dharmas such as lack of faith, wrong views, and the view of a self can produce effects such as stinginess, jealousy, wrong conduct, and anger. Because they share the same nature, they can serve as their causes.

Treatise: Because it is the effect that proceeds from them.

Explanation: This means that stinginess, jealousy, wrong conduct, anger, and so forth, through attachment to self and others, give rise to evil conduct—that is, the ten unwholesome deeds and so forth. Because they likewise share the same nature, these are their effects. For these reasons, they are mutually included within one another.

Chapter 10: Merits

Treatise: What are the merits of the paramitas?

Explanation: The worldly practice of giving also possesses merit. How, then, are the merits of the bodhisattva’s paramitas to be known? The merits of the bodhisattva’s paramitas are in some respects similar to worldly merits and in other respects different. There are six similarities and four differences. The six similarities are as follows.

Treatise: If a bodhisattva continues revolving within samsara, he will be born into a station of great wealth and sovereignty,

Explanation: The stations of a wheel-turning king, Sakra, Lord of the Devas, and Brahma King are stations of great wealth. To be master therein is called sovereignty. Both bodhisattvas and ordinary beings who practice giving obtain this recompense.

Treatise: born in a noble and excellent state,

Explanation: “Noble and excellent” is rendered in the original text as “great birth.” Great birth is of three kinds: first, excellence of the path; second, excellence of lineage; and third, excellence of majestic virtue. These are the three kinds of superiority. Both bodhisattvas and ordinary beings who observe the precepts obtain this recompense.

Treatise: having many relatives and followers,

Explanation: One’s kin are called relatives, and those who follow one are called followers. Relatives and followers also possess three kinds of superiority. As explained above, they are therefore called great. They all cherish one another without becoming jealous, always gather together joyfully, and neither oppose nor distance themselves from and abandon one another. Both bodhisattvas and ordinary beings who practice patience obtain this recompense.

Treatise: achieving great success in the occupations by which one earns a livelihood,

Explanation: There are four kinds of occupations by which one earns a livelihood: 1. cultivation, 2. animal husbandry, 3. commerce, and 4. official service. Harmonious cooperation without contention is called proper conduct of affairs. To find satisfaction and fulfillment in everything one seeks is called achievement. Both bodhisattvas and ordinary beings who practice diligence obtain this recompense.

Treatise: being free from illness and distress, and having few desires,

Explanation: The four immeasurables are all included within concentration. From this concentration one obtains the fruit of a body free from illness and a mind free from distress, and one is therefore always joyful. Other concentrations likewise yield their corresponding fruits. Although one dwells as a householder, because one has few afflictions, one is no different from a desire-free sage and obtains excellent physical marks, longevity, and so forth. Both bodhisattvas and ordinary beings who cultivate concentration obtain this fruit.

Treatise: being skilled and intelligent in all arts and crafts.

Explanation: To earn a livelihood, one must know arts and crafts—that is, one must understand the sixteen kinds pertaining to the present, the future, and the Dharma of liberation. Among these are the two principles of establishing and refuting. These can be mastered through discerning wisdom. Both bodhisattvas and ordinary beings who cultivate prajna obtain this recompense. The four differences are as follows.

Treatise: All things accord with one’s wishes,

Explanation: Bodhisattvas who practice giving and so forth obtain the recompense of wealth and happiness and are always free from faults. This means that the benefit to themselves and others is undefiled. Although worldly people who practice giving possess merit, they do not obtain these qualities. This is the first distinguishing characteristic.

Treatise: wealth and happiness are not lost,

Explanation: Bodhisattvas who practice giving and so forth obtain the recompense of wealth, happiness, and so forth, and therein everything accords with their wishes. This means that in using these for themselves and for others, they constantly give rise to three kinds of joy. Although worldly people who practice giving and so forth possess merit, they do not obtain these qualities. This is the second distinguishing characteristic.

Treatise: they principally use wealth and happiness to benefit sentient beings.

Explanation: The merits produced by bodhisattvas through practicing giving and so forth are always dedicated to sentient beings and to performing deeds of supramundane benefit, not to themselves. Although worldly people who practice giving and so forth possess merit, they do not attain this. This is the third distinguishing characteristic.

Treatise: The merits of the six paramitas cultivated by bodhisattvas remain forever unchanged until they abide in the coolness of ultimate bodhi.

Explanation: The merits produced by bodhisattvas through practicing giving and so forth, from the moment they first arouse the aspiration until they attain the supreme fruit, are always directed toward benefiting others and toward no other purpose. These are therefore abiding merits. Although worldly people who practice giving and so forth possess merit, they do not attain this. This is the fourth distinguishing characteristic.

Chapter 11: Mutual Illumination

Treatise: How do the paramitas illuminate one another?

Explanation: In the sutras, the prajnaparamita and the other paramitas are explained in thirty-six statements. To speak of any single paramita is also to speak of the other five paramitas. How is this so?

Treatise: The Blessed One sometimes teaches the paramitas under the name of Giving, sometimes under the name of Morality, sometimes under the name of Patience, sometimes under the name of Diligence, sometimes under the name of Concentration, and sometimes under the name of Prajna.

Explanation: Five paramitas enter into one paramita. Thus, all six are fully included within a single paramita, although they are taught solely under the single name of Giving.

Treatise: With what intention did the Tathagata teach in this way?

Because, among the skillful means for cultivating the paramitas, all the paramitas converge and assist one another in bringing each to fulfillment. This is the intention of the Tathagata’s teaching.

Explanation: When a bodhisattva undertakes the preparatory practice of any one paramita, the other paramitas all assist that paramita. For example, while bodhisattvas are practicing giving, they guard their bodies and speech and refrain from the seven unwholesome acts. This is the morality of right speech, right action, and right livelihood.

Through this morality, giving is brought to fulfillment; therefore, morality can fulfill giving. While bodhisattvas are practicing giving, they can patiently endure the contrary words and conduct of the recipients, and can even endure the sufferings encountered while practicing giving. Through the power of this patience, the practice of giving is brought to fulfillment; therefore, patience can fulfill giving.

While bodhisattvas are practicing giving, their wish to give enables their minds to eliminate craving; great compassion enables them to eliminate anger; humility enables them to eliminate pride; the wish to bring peace and happiness to recipients enables them to eliminate stinginess and jealousy; and understanding that giving has causes and effects enables them to eliminate ignorance and wrong views. Diligence can engender such wholesome dharmas and counteract such unwholesome dharmas.

Through diligence, giving is brought to fulfillment; therefore, diligence can fulfill giving. While bodhisattvas are practicing giving, their minds continuously and single-mindedly focus upon benefiting and bringing happiness to sentient beings. Through this concentration, giving is brought to fulfillment; therefore, concentration can fulfill giving.

While bodhisattvas are practicing giving, through clearly understanding cause and effect and not clinging to the three spheres, prajna can bring giving to fulfillment. Thus, all the paramitas assist in bringing a single paramita to fulfillment. Therefore, the six paramitas are taught together under the collective name of Giving.

As with Giving, so it is with Morality and the others. Since each paramita contains all six paramitas, there are thirty-six statements.

Treatise: Here there is a verse uttered by the author himself:

Sequence and numerical order,

Names, cultivation, distinctions,

Counteractions and merits—

The six paramitas illuminate one another’s meaning.