善見律毘婆沙

Preface

With utmost reverence, I bow before all Buddhas.

The One who, throughout a hundred billion kalpas,

Through time beyond all measure,

For the sake of all sentient beings,

Endured the utmost hardships,

To liberate the whole world—

I take refuge in the One of Great Loving-Kindness and Compassion.

Because beings do not know the teaching,

They remain forever in samsara throughout the world.

Bowing my head, I respectfully pay homage

To the wondrous, exceedingly profound Dharma,

Which utterly destroys

The net of ignorance and afflictions.

Those endowed with morality, concentration, and wisdom,

Perfect in liberation and conduct,

Who have cultivated abundant merit—

The precious Sangha, the excellent field of merit—

With one-pointed mind I take refuge in you,

And bow with my head and face in reverence.

Having paid homage to the Three Jewels,

I shall now expound the meaning of the Vinaya,

So that the true Dharma may long endure

And benefit all sentient beings.

May the merit of this endeavor

Dispel every evil calamity,

And may those who delight in observing the precepts

Be liberated from all suffering.

With utmost reverence, I bow before the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Enlightened One.

It is hereby explained: The Vinaya was first proclaimed when the Blessed One was dwelling at Veranja (Tena samayena buddho bhagavà veranjàyam viharati). This was recited by Upali, the foremost authority, at the great council held among an assembly of five hundred bhikkhus. Why was this so? After first attaining enlightenment, the Tathagata went to the Deer Park and turned the Dharma wheel of the Four Noble Truths; finally, he taught the Dharma and brought Subhadda to liberation. Having completed all that was to be done, in the sal grove belonging to the Malla rulers in Kusinara, at daybreak on the fifteenth day of the second month (Visakhà punnamadivasa paccùsasamaya), he entered nirvana without remainder.

Seven days later, Kassapa, accompanied by five hundred bhikkhus of the Sangha, was returning from Pava to Kusinara to pay respects to the Blessed One. On the road, they encountered an ascetic, and Kassapa asked him:

—Have you seen my Teacher?

The ascetic replied:

—Your teacher, the ascetic Gotama, passed away seven days ago. After he entered nirvana, devas and humans came to make offerings. I obtained this heavenly mandara flower there.

On hearing that the Buddha had entered nirvana, Kassapa and the senior bhikkhus were overcome with anguish, wept, and fell rolling upon the ground. At that time, a bhikkhu named Subhadra Mahallaka said: “Enough, cease your lamentation. What is there to mourn? While that Great Ascetic was alive, he would say, ‘This is allowable; this is not allowable. This should be done; this should not be done.’ From now on, we may follow our own wishes: if we want to do something, we shall do it; if we do not, we shall refrain.”

Kassapa silently committed those words to memory and reflected: “Before evil doctrines arise, we must compile the treasury of the Dharma. If the true Dharma remains present in the world, it will benefit sentient beings.”

Kassapa further reflected: “While the Buddha was still in the world, he told Ananda: ‘After I enter nirvana, the Dharma and Vinaya that I have taught and established shall be your supreme Teacher’ (Dhammo ca vinayo ca desito pannatto so vo mam' accayena satthà). Therefore, I shall proclaim that teaching.”

Kassapa thought to himself: “While the Tathagata was still in the world, he gave me his kasaya robe (Kàsàyani vatthàni). The Buddha also once told the bhikkhus that when he entered the first meditative absorption, Kassapa entered that same absorption; in this way, the Tathagata praised me. I have fully attained the noble benefits, no differently from the Buddha. This is due to the merit bestowed upon me by the Tathagata. It is like a mighty warrior who removes the armor he is wearing, gives it to his son, and tells him to protect the lineage. The Tathagata knew and foretold that after his passing, Kassapa would preserve the true Dharma. Therefore, the Tathagata bestowed that robe upon me.”

Having assembled the Sangha of bhikkhus, Kassapa said:

—Previously, I heard Subhadra Mahallaka say: “While the Great Ascetic was alive, he would say, ‘This is allowable; this is not allowable. This should be done; this should not be done.’ From now on, we may follow our own wishes: if we want to do something, we shall do it; if we do not, we shall refrain.” Venerable elders, we should compile the treasury of the Dharma and the treasury of the Vinaya.

The bhikkhus said to Venerable Kassapa:

—The Venerable One should select the bhikkhus. Venerable Kassapa, the bhikkhus who have extinguished craving and thoroughly mastered all nine divisions of the Buddha’s teaching (Sakalanavangassatthusàsana pariyattidhare), as well as the trainees who are stream-enterers and once-returners, number not merely in the hundreds or thousands (aneka sate anekasahassa). Yet only 499 bhikkhus have extinguished craving, understand the Three Baskets, have attained the four unobstructed eloquences, possess great powers of superknowledge, have realized the threefold knowledge, and have been praised by the Buddha.

The reason Venerable Mahakassapa could select only 499 was that the elder Ananda remained in the stage of training (Sekha sakaraniya) and therefore was not counted among them. Yet without the elder Ananda, there would be no one to compile the Dharma.

To forestall criticism, Venerable Mahakassapa did not select Ananda. Therefore, the bhikkhus said:

—Although Ananda remains in the stage of training, he formerly attended closely upon the Buddha and therefore retained the discourses and verses (Sutta geyya). He delights in the Dharma, is a venerable elder, and is the Tathagata’s paternal cousin among the Sakyan clan; moreover, he no longer associates with the three poisons. Venerable Kassapa should include Ananda to complete the number of five hundred. This is the judgment of the noble assembly.

The venerable bhikkhus reflected: “Where should we compile the treasury of the Dharma? Rajagaha possesses all the requisites needed for our livelihood. We should go there, enter the three-month rains retreat, and compile the Vinaya Basket. Other bhikkhus should not be permitted to spend the rains retreat there.” Why was this? Fearing that other bhikkhus might not act in harmony with them, they instructed those bhikkhus to go elsewhere.

At that time, Venerable Kassapa carried out a formal act with a motion followed by one proclamation (nattidutiyakamma), as explained in detail in the Compilation Chapter (Samgitikkhandhaka).

After the Tathagata entered nirvana, commemorative rites (sàdhukilana) were held for seven days, and offerings were made to his relics (Dhàtupùja) for another seven days. Thus half a month passed, leaving only a month and a half before the rains retreat.

Knowing that the rains retreat was approaching, Kassapa told the elders: “It is now time for us to set out for Rajagaha.”

Venerable Kassapa led 250 bhikkhus along one road. Venerable Anuruddha (Anuruddhatthera) led 250 bhikkhus along another. The worthy Ananda, carrying the Tathagata’s robe and bowl (pattacìvara) and surrounded by the community of bhikkhus, went to the Tathagata’s former residence in Savatthi. When the people of Savatthi saw Ananda again, they grieved and wept, asking:

—Where is the Tathagata now, that you have come here alone?

Everyone wailed as though the Tathagata had only just entered nirvana. The worthy Ananda instructed them in the Dharma of impermanence. Having instructed them, Ananda entered Jetavana, opened the door of the Buddha’s chamber (Dasabalena vasitagandhakuti), brought the Blessed One’s bed and seat (mancapitha) outside and cleaned them, then went inside and washed the chamber. After sweeping it clean and discarding the withered offering flowers, he restored the bed and seat to their former places. The worthy Ananda performed the same acts of veneration as when the Buddha was still in the world.

After the Buddha entered nirvana, Ananda had sat for such long periods that his body became weary. Wishing to treat it, he had to take milk obtained from the monastery’s offerings for three days. At that time, a brahmin named Subha-manava came to invite Ananda. Ananda replied:

—Today I am taking medicine and therefore cannot accept your invitation. I shall come tomorrow.

The following day, Ananda took an elder bhikkhu with him to the home of Subha-manava. Because Subha-manava questioned him about the meaning of the discourse, the tenth discourse in the Agama is therefore called the Subha Sutta (Dìghanikàye Subha-suttam nàma dasamam suttam).

After completing the repairs to the dwelling quarters at Jetavana, Ananda, wishing to enter the rains retreat, departed for Rajagaha.

The Venerable Kassapa, Anuruddha, and the community of bhikkhus went together to Rajagriha. They saw that all eighteen great monasteries had fallen into disrepair because, after the Tathagata attained nirvana, the bhikkhus had departed, leaving robe racks and other objects scattered about in disorder. Therefore, in accordance with the Buddha's teaching, all five hundred venerable bhikkhus repaired the dwellings and surrounding quarters (vihāra pariveṇa). If they did not repair them, the followers of other paths would say, “While the ascetic Gotama was alive, the dwellings were maintained, but after he attained nirvana, his disciples abandoned them and went away.” To prevent such criticism, they had to make the repairs. Kassapa said:

“When the Buddha was still in the world, he praised the repairing of dwellings as the first task to be undertaken before the rains retreat.”

After calculating the anticipated expenses, Kassapa went to King Ajatasattu to request the necessary funds. Seeing the bhikkhu approaching, the king prostrated himself with his head at the venerable one's feet and asked:

“What does the Venerable One require?”

Kassapa replied:

“All eighteen great monasteries have fallen into disrepair, and we wish to restore them. May Your Majesty be informed of this.”

The king replied:

“Excellent.”

The king supplied workers to carry out the repairs. During the month preceding the rains retreat, Kassapa completed the restoration of the monasteries. The venerable one then went to the king and said:

“The restoration of the monasteries has been completed. We now wish to compile the Treasury of the Dharma and the Treasury of the Vinaya.”

The king replied:

“Very good. May your aspiration be fulfilled.”

The king further said:

“I shall wield the royal wheel of authority (Āṇācakka), while the Venerable Ones shall expound the unsurpassed Wheel of Dharma (Dhammacakka). I shall obey whatever the Venerable Ones command.”

The Sangha replied:

“First, have an assembly hall constructed.”

The king asked:

“Where should it be built?”

They replied:

“It may be built beside the entrance to the meditation cave on the forward slope of Mount Vebhara (Vebhārapabbatapassa Sattapaṇṇiguhādvāra), for that place is tranquil.”

The king said:

“Very good.”

Through the sovereign power of King Ajatasattu and with craftsmanship like that of Vissakamma in the second Tavatimsa heaven, the assembly hall was completed before long, fully furnished with rafters, pillars, partitions, and corridors, and adorned with many wondrous carvings. The hall was ornamented with beautiful precious objects, and brilliant flowers of many kinds were hung everywhere. The floor was likewise decorated with various wondrous and beautiful ornaments, so that the hall was no different from the palace of Brahma (Brahmavimāna).

Five hundred seats facing north were spread with thick woolen cushions. Moreover, among the elevated seats adorned with various precious substances, the most exquisitely fashioned and beautiful high seat was selected and placed facing east, in preparation for its use as the Dharma seat.

The Sangha said to Ananda:

“Tomorrow the Sangha will assemble to compile the Vinaya Pitaka, but you still remain at the stage of a stream-enterer. How, then, can you join the assembly? Do not lose heart.”

Ananda then thought:

“Tomorrow the community of noble ones will compile the Dharma. How can I, still one in training, enter the assembly?”

During the first watch of the night, Ananda practiced mindfulness of the body (Kāyagatāya satiyā vītināmetvā), but even by midnight he had not attained realization. Ananda thought: “Previously, the Blessed One taught that I had cultivated meritorious qualities and that, if I entered meditative concentration, I would quickly attain arhatship. The Buddha's words are certainly true. It is only because my mind has been excessively strenuous. From now on, I must cultivate in accordance with the Middle Way.”

Leaving the walking-meditation path (caṅkama), he washed his feet and entered his room. Ananda sat upon his bed. Wishing to rest for a little while, he leaned over to lie down. At the moment when his feet had just left the ground and his head had not yet touched the pillow, the venerable one attained arhatship. If anyone should ask which person in the Buddha-Dharma attained the Path while in none of the four postures of walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, it was Ananda.

Then, on the second day after the middle of the month, namely the seventeenth day of the sixth month, after the midday meal and after arranging his robe and bowl, the Venerable Kassapa assembled the Sangha in the Dharma hall (Dhammasabhā). Wishing to reveal his attainment to the assembly, the worthy Ananda did not enter together with the Sangha. Once inside, the members of the Sangha took their seats in order, leaving Ananda's seat vacant. As the junior monks successively paid homage to the senior monks, they came to the vacant place and asked:

“For whom is this seat reserved?”

They replied:

“For Ananda.”

They asked:

“Where is Ananda?”

Knowing the thoughts of the Sangha, Ananda manifested his supernormal power, vanished from his former place, and appeared upon his seat.

After the Sangha had taken their seats, Mahakassapa asked:

“Elders, shall we recite the Treasury of the Dharma or the Treasury of the Vinaya first?”

The bhikkhus replied:

“Venerable One, the Vinaya Pitaka is the life of the Buddha's dispensation (Buddhasāsanassa āyu). As long as the Vinaya Pitaka endures, the Buddha's dispensation endures. Therefore, we shall compile the Vinaya Pitaka first.”

He asked:

“Who shall be the Dharma master?”

“Let the Elder Upali be appointed.”

Someone in the assembly asked:

“Why can Ananda not serve as the Dharma master?”

They replied:

“Ananda cannot serve as the Dharma master. Why? While the Buddha was still in the world, he frequently praised Upali, saying, ‘Among my śrāvaka disciples, Upali is foremost in upholding the Vinaya.’”

Someone in the assembly said:

“It is now time to question Upali in order to compile the Vinaya Pitaka.”

The Venerable Mahakassapa made a formal Sangha motion to question Upali:

“Venerable Sangha, please listen. If it is the proper time for the Sangha and the Sangha approves, I shall question Upali concerning matters of the Vinaya. This is the motion.”

Upali made a formal Sangha motion:

“Venerable Sangha, please listen. If it is the proper time for the Sangha and the Sangha approves, I shall answer the Venerable Kassapa concerning the Vinaya. This is the motion.”

After the formal motions had been made, Upali arranged his robes, faced the assembly of bhikkhus, and prostrated himself with his head at their feet. He then ascended the seat, sat down, and held an ivory fan before his face. Once he was seated, Kassapa asked Upali:

“Elder, where was the first pārājika rule (Paṭhama pārājika) proclaimed, and concerning whom?”

He replied:

“It was laid down at Vesali (Vesālī), arising on account of Sudinna, the son of Kalanda (Sudinna Kalandakaputta).”

He asked:

“What offense did he commit?”

He replied:

“He committed the offense of sexual intercourse (Methunadhamma).”

Kassapa questioned Upali about the offense, the occasion, the person who committed it, the original promulgation of the rule, and its supplementary promulgation (Vatthu, Nidāna, puggala, Paññatti, anupaññatti). He asked both what constituted an offense (Āpatti) and what did not constitute an offense (anāpatti). In this manner, Mahakassapa questioned Upali, and Upali answered in full concerning the causes and circumstances, from beginning to end, of the first pārājika rule, and then of the second, third, and fourth. Therefore, this is called the Chapter of the Four Pārājikas.

The questions proceeded in sequence concerning the thirteen Sanghadisesa rules (saṅghādisesa), the two Indeterminate rules (aniyata), the thirty Nissaggiya Pacittiya rules (nissaggiyapācittiya), the ninety-two Pacittiya rules (pācittiya), the four Patidesaniya rules (pāṭidesanīya), the seventy-five Rules of Training (sekhiya), and the seven rules for the Settlement of Disputes (adhikaraṇasamatha). Thus the recitation of the Great Patimokkha (mahā-pāṭimokkha = mahā-vibhaṅga) was completed.

Next, questions were asked about the eight Parajika rules for bhikkhunis, called the Parajika Chapter; the seventeen Sanghadisesa rules; the thirty Nissaggiya Pacittiya rules; the one hundred and sixty-six Pacittiya rules; the eight Patidesaniya rules; the seventy-five Rules of Training; and the seven rules for the Settlement of Disputes. Thus the recitation of the Bhikkhuni Patimokkha was completed. Thereafter, the Khandhakas were recited, down to the Parivara (Chinese translation: the three expulsions and four formal acts) (parivāra)...

Thus the compilation of the Vinaya Pitaka was completed. The Venerable Kassapa raised each matter in full, and Upali answered every question completely; hence this was called the compilation of the Vinaya Pitaka by the Five Hundred Arhats. Then the Elder Upali lowered his fan and descended from the high seat, paid homage to the venerable bhikkhus, and returned to his former seat.

Mahakassapa said:

—The compilation of the Vinaya Pitaka has been completed. When the Dharma Pitaka is compiled, who shall serve as the Dharma teacher?

The bhikkhus then nominated the Elder Ananda. The Venerable Kassapa made a formal motion:

—Venerable Sangha, hear me. If it is suitable to the Sangha, let the Sangha consent that I question the Elder Ananda concerning the Dharma Pitaka. This is the motion.

The Venerable Ananda likewise made a formal motion:

—Venerable Sangha, hear me. If it is suitable to the Sangha, let the Sangha consent that I answer the Venerable Kassapa concerning the Dharma Pitaka. This is the motion.

Thereupon Ananda rose from his seat, bared his right shoulder, bowed at the feet of the venerable Sangha, ascended the seat, and took up the ivory fan.

The Venerable Kassapa asked Ananda:

—Where was the Brahmajala Sutta in the Dharma Pitaka delivered?

Ananda replied:

—That discourse was delivered at the royal rest house in the Mango Grove (Rājāgāraka Ambalaṭṭhikā), on the road between Rajagaha and Nalanda (Nālandā).

He asked:

—On whose account did it arise?

Ananda replied:

—It arose on account of two persons: Suppiya the wanderer and the brahmin youth Brahmadatta (Suppiya paribbājaka, Brahmadattamāṇavaka).

After the Venerable Kassapa had questioned Ananda concerning all the circumstances, from beginning to end, of the Brahmajala Sutta, he next asked:

—Where was the Samaññaphala Sutta delivered?

Ananda replied:

—It was delivered in Jivaka’s Mango Grove (Jīvakambavana) at Rajagaha.

He asked:

—To whom was it delivered?

Ananda replied:

—It was delivered to King Ajatasattu, son of the Videhi lady... (Ajātasattu Vedehiputta).

Thus, just as he questioned him concerning all the circumstances, from beginning to end, of the Samaññaphala Sutta, Kassapa questioned him in the same manner concerning the Five Nikayas (pañca-nikāya). What are the Five Nikayas?

The answer was:

—The Long Discourses (Āgama, Dīgha Nikāya), the Middle-Length Discourses (Majjhima Nikāya), the Connected Discourses (Saṃyutta Nikāya), the Numerical Discourses (Aṅguttara Nikāya), and the Minor Collection (Khuddaka Nikāya).

He asked:

—What is the Khuddaka Nikaya?

The answer was:

—Apart from the four Nikayas, all other teachings given by the Buddha are called the Khuddaka Nikaya.

All the miscellaneous discourses were recited by Ananda, apart from the Vinaya Pitaka. The Buddha’s teaching has only one flavor, but when distinguished according to function, it is twofold. According to the meaning of the words of the Dharma, it is divided into three: the beginning, the middle, and the end. The Three Pitakas likewise comprise morality, concentration, and wisdom. When divided according to collections of the same form, there are Five Nikayas; when each individual type is distinguished separately, there are nine divisions of scripture. Thus, when reckoned by aggregates, there are eighty thousand aggregates of the Dharma.

He asked:

—Why is it called one flavor?

The answer was:

—From the time he attained unsurpassed perfect enlightenment until he entered nirvana, throughout those forty-five years the Blessed One taught the Dharma to devas, nagas, yakkhas, gandhabbas, asuras, kinnaras, mahoragas, human beings, and nonhuman beings... It had only one flavor; having the single characteristic of liberation, it is one flavor.

He asked:

—How is it twofold?

The answer was:

—It is the Dharma Pitaka and the Vinaya Pitaka.

He asked:

—What is meant by the beginning, the middle, and the end?

The answer was:

—The Buddha’s teaching has a beginning, a middle, and an end; these are the three.

The verse says:

Through countless rounds of birth I wandered,

Journeying on without respite,

Seeking only the builder of this house;

Painful is birth again and again.

House-builder! You are seen;

You shall build no house again.

All your rafters and ridgepole

Are shattered; there will be no rebirth.

The mind is freed from defilements;

Craving ended, nirvana is attained. — (Dhammapada 153, 154)

At this point, a Dharma teacher (Buddhaghosa) (Keciyadā have pātubhavanti dhammā ti khandhake udānagātham āhuesā panapātipadadivase sabbaññubhāvappattassa somanassamāyanānena paccayākāram paccavekkhantassa uppannā udānagāthā ti veditabbā) explained this udana verse as follows:

—Having just attained omniscience on the third day of the month, the Tathagata joyfully contemplated causes and conditions and uttered this verse. These were his first words.

Having realized the Dharma of dependent arising, as stated in the Khandhaka.

When the Tathagata was about to enter nirvana, he instructed the bhikkhus:

—Living within my Dharma, you should not be heedless; this was his final instruction. The words spoken between those two occasions are called the teaching in the middle.

He asked:

—What are the Three Pitakas?

The answer was:

—The Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Vinayapiṭaka, Suttantapiṭaka, Abhidhammapiṭaka); these are called the Three Pitakas.

He asked:

—What is the Vinaya Pitaka?

The answer was:

—The two Patimokkha divisions, the twenty-three Khandhakas, and the Parivara are called the Vinaya Pitaka. {Dve vibhaṅgāni (two Vibhaṅgas), dvāvīsati khandhakāni (twenty-two Khandhakas), soḷasa parivārā (sixteen chapters of the Parivara)} are called the Vinaya Pitaka.

He asked:

—What is the Sutta Pitaka?

The answer was:

—Beginning with the Brahmajala Sutta, all thirty-four discourses (catuttiṃsa-sutta) are included in the Digha Nikaya; beginning with the Mulapariyaya Sutta (Mūlapariyāya-sutta—The Discourse on the Root of All Things), all 152 (252?) discourses are included in the Majjhima Nikaya; beginning with the Oghatara-apadana (Oghatara-apadāna; compare Oghataraṇa-sutta), all 7,762 discourses are included in the Samyutta Nikaya; beginning with the Cittapariyadana Sutta (cittapariyādāna-sutta), all 9,557 discourses are included in the Anguttara Nikaya;

the Khuddakapatha, Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka, Suttanipata, Vimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragatha, Therigatha, Jataka, Niddesa, Patisambhida, Apadana, Buddhavamsa, and Cariyapitaka (Khuddakapāṭha—Short Passages, Dhammapada—Verses of the Dharma, Udāna—Inspired Utterances, Itivuttaka—Thus It Was Said, Suttanipāta—Collection of Discourses, Vimānavatthu—Stories of Celestial Mansions, Petavatthu—Stories of Hungry Ghosts, Theragāthā—Verses of the Elder Monks, Therīgāthā—Verses of the Elder Nuns, Jātaka—Birth Stories, Niddesa—Exposition, Paṭisambhidā—The Path of Discriminative Knowledge, Apadāna—Legends, Buddhavaṃsa—The Lineage of the Buddhas, Cariyāpiṭaka—The Basket of Conduct), divided into fifteen parts, are all included in the Khuddaka Nikaya.

This is called the Sutta Pitaka.

He asked:

—What is the Abhidhamma Pitaka?

Answer: They are the Dhammasaṅgaṇī—the Enumeration of Phenomena; the Vibhaṅga—the Book of Analysis; the Dhātukathā—the Discourse on Elements; the Puggalapaññatti—the Designation of Individuals; the Kathāvatthu—the Points of Controversy; the Yamaka—the Book of Pairs; and the Paṭṭhāna—the Book of Conditional Relations.

This is the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.

Question: What is the meaning of Vinaya (discipline)?

Answer:

It brings forth many benefits,

And disciplines bodily and verbal karma;

Those who understand the meaning of discipline

Explain the Vinaya in this way.

Question: What are the five divisions of the Pātimokkha?

Answer: The first is the pārājika division. The five divisions comprise seven classes of offenses, which form the matrix of the various precepts (mātikā). Through extensive methods of establishing rules in accordance with unwholesome bodily and verbal actions, they lead to the firm accomplishment of the holy life. Because this discipline restrains bodily and verbal karma, it is called Vinaya.

Question: What is the meaning of Sutta?

Answer:

It reveals many meanings of the teaching;

Its wholesome words are like flowering rice;

It is warp and woof, and a flowing spring,

A carpenter’s line and a thread that strings all together.

Thus it is called Sutta,

Its meaning profound, subtle, and wondrous.

Question: What does “reveals” mean?

Answer: It means that it reveals its own meaning and enables others to understand that meaning.

Question: What are “wholesome words”?

Answer: One first observes the minds of others and only afterward speaks words that are wholly good.

Question: What does “flowering like rice” mean?

Answer: Just as a luxuriantly flowering ear of rice produces firm grains.

Question: What are “warp and woof”?

Answer: Weaving is accomplished by means of threads running crosswise and lengthwise.

Question: What is a “flowing spring”?

Answer: Like a spring from which much water may be drawn and which continues to flow without ceasing.

Question: What is a “carpenter’s line”?

Answer: Like a straight inked line that enables the crooked part of a piece of wood to be removed.

Question: What is the “thread”?

Answer: Just as flowers strung together on a thread are not scattered when the wind blows, so too does the Sutta string together the characteristics of phenomena so that they are not dispersed.

Question: What is Abhidhamma?

Answer:

It has the meanings of mind, cognition, and Dharma,

Praise and discernment;

The teaching of what is surpassing and developed

Is called Abhidhamma.

In this verse concerning Abhidhamma, mind, cognition, praise, discernment, and development are meanings of Abhidhamma.

Question: What is “mind”?

Answer: In the discourses there is the statement, “Some say that thought is exceedingly swift.” This is the meaning of “mind” in Abhidhamma.

Question: What is “cognition”?

Answer: It clearly discusses the obscure passages in the discourses; this is the cognitive meaning of Abhidhamma.

Question: What is “praise”?

Answer: It is the king among kings of treatises (Rājābhirāja); this is the laudatory meaning of abhi.

Question: What is “discernment”?

Answer: Abhi possesses all powers; this is the discerning meaning of abhi.

Question: What is “development”?

Answer: Abhi means exceedingly abundant (abhikkanta)—in Chinese, “superior”; this is the meaning of increase or superiority (adhika) in abhi.

It is also said that, upon rebirth in the Form Realm, one pervades one direction with a mind of loving-kindness; this is the meaning of cognition. Clearly knowing form, sound, and so forth through contact is also the meaning of cognition. Praise means the unsurpassed Dharma among the practices of those in training and those beyond training in the world; this is the meaning of praise. Discernment means that, when one encounters a phenomenon, one gains understanding through it; this is the meaning of discernment. “Superior” means the great and immeasurable Dharma, the unsurpassed Dharma; this is the meaning of superiority. The meaning of abhi should be understood in this way. Dhamma means Dharma.

Question: What is the meaning of piṭaka, “collection”?

The verse answers:

A treasury of wisdom, containing meaning and flavor;

According to its meaning, it is a vessel for learning.

Gathering these together, I speak of them in general;

You should understand the meaning of treasury and receptacle:

This is the meaning of piṭaka. (piṭakaṃ piṭakatthavidū pariyattibhājanatthato āhu tena samodhānetvā tayo pi vinayādayo ñeyyā)

Question: What is a piṭaka?

Answer: A treasury means learning; it is a repository of Dharma. As stated in the discourses, “Suppose a man were to come carrying a sharp spade and basket” (atha puriso āgaccheyya kuddālapiṭakam ādāya’ti); here it has the meaning of a vessel (bhājana). Having explained the meaning of the three Piṭakas in general, one should know that there are two meanings.

As briefly stated, the Vinaya Piṭaka is a treasury of wisdom and is also called a treasury of meaning; the Sutta is likewise. It is further said that the Abhidhamma is also a receptacle; thus this matter has been clearly understood. Furthermore, the matters that teach the Buddha-Dharma within the Piṭakas employ differentiated language according to the fetters under study, eliminating profound characteristics, analyzing characteristics of combination and separation, and expounding their meanings sequentially through written words.

I shall now present in order the meanings of these three Piṭakas.

Within the word abhi itself, abhi has the meanings of mind, cognition, praise, analysis, transcendence, extensiveness, greatness, and unsurpassedness. Mind means recollection. Cognition means differentiation.

Praise means that it is always praised by noble ones. Analysis means distinguishing each verse. Transcendence means surpassing other phenomena.

Extensiveness means that it is the most extensive Dharma among all dharmas. Greatness means that it is the greatest Dharma among all dharmas. Unsurpassedness means that no other Dharma can equal it.

The word dhamma has the meanings of raising up, carrying, and protecting. Raising up means placing beings upon the wholesome paths. Carrying means taking up beings and preventing them from entering the three evil destinies.

Protecting means safeguarding beings and enabling them to attain happiness. A piṭaka is a receptacle. What is a receptacle?

A receptacle is that which is capable of gathering together a multitude.

Question: Are the Abhidhamma Piṭaka and Abhidhamma identical or different in meaning?

Answer: They are identical in meaning.

Question: If they are identical in meaning, it should suffice merely to say Abhidhamma. Why is it necessary to add the word Piṭaka?

Answer: When noble ones expound the Dharma, they wish the wording to be complete, and therefore add the word Piṭaka. The meanings of the three Piṭakas are likewise. Furthermore, they are for instruction, education, differentiation, preservation, relinquishment, profound characteristics, and separation and combination.

Wherever bhikkhus go, they should clearly expound all such meanings. Thus, the three Piṭakas, in accordance with their respective power and in their proper sequence, clearly reveal the correct meaning: according to offenses, according to comparisons, according to the teaching, and according to views that bind one to distinctions of name and form. Whoever practices in accordance with the Vinaya attains meditative concentration; upon attaining concentration, one perfects the threefold knowledge.

Therefore, virtue is the root of cultivation. Through right concentration, all six higher knowledges are attained. Whoever studies the Abhidhamma gives rise to true wisdom.

Once true wisdom has arisen, one possesses the four analytical knowledges. Whoever follows the disciplinary precepts attains worldly happiness.

What is worldly happiness? A person of pure virtue is praised by devas and humans and continually receives the four requisites offered by the world. Sensual pleasure is excluded from this worldly happiness. As stated in the discourses: “Having understood the Buddha’s teaching, I did not remain in the household life but went forth to train in the path and attained its paths and fruits.” One attains the path through the power of virtue, concentration, and wisdom.

A person follows evil because of a lack of wisdom. Because of lacking wisdom, one misunderstands the Buddha’s teaching. Because of misunderstanding it, one slanders the Tathagata, creates evil karma, and harms oneself.

Through these causes and conditions, wrong views arise and spread unchecked. Because of deficient study of the Abhidhamma, if one compels the mind to proceed too hastily, the mind becomes heedless and gives rise to confused thoughts. As stated in the discourses, the Buddha told the bhikkhus: “There are four inconceivable matters which, if one tries to conceive of them, cause the mind to become deranged.” The Dharma teacher Buddhaghosa said: Thus, in due sequence, the matters of breaking the precepts, wrong views, mental confusion, the wholesome, and the unwholesome have been explained.

The verse says:

Complete and incomplete,

Attainment comes through practice;

Bhikkhus who delight in learning

Should cherish and honor this Dharma.

Having understood the meaning of the Piṭakas in this way, one should understand all the teachings of the Buddha. What does Āgama mean?

The Dharma master said: “There are five Āgamas. First: the Dīrgha Āgama. Second: the Madhyama Āgama. Third: the Saṃyukta Āgama. Fourth: the Ekottarika Āgama. Fifth: the Kṣudraka Āgama.”

Question: “What does the Dīrgha Āgama comprise?”

Answer: “It comprises three sections, beginning with the Brahmajāla Sūtra. There are thirty-four sūtras in all, arranged into three sections; therefore, it is called the Dīrgha Āgama.”

The Dharma master asked: “Why is it called dīrgha, ‘long’?”

Answer: “Because it is a collection of very long Dharma discourses, it is called ‘long.’”

Question: “Why is it called an Āgama?”

Answer: “Āgama means an assemblage and repository. As stated in a sūtra, the Buddha taught the bhikkhus: ‘In these three realms, I do not see any āgama like the animal āgama, which is merely a gathering place for sentient beings.’ This is its meaning. The Madhyama Āgama should likewise be understood: because it is neither long nor short, it is called ‘middle.’ It has fifteen sections, beginning with the Sūtra on Training the Faculties; altogether, its 152 sūtras are called the Madhyama Āgama.

In the seventh month, Mahākāśyapa completed the compilation of the Dharma of the One Possessing the Ten Powers. In accord with everyone, the earth rejoiced and acclaimed: ‘Excellent! Excellent!’

As far as the borders of the land, everywhere the earth shook in six ways, and many wondrous and auspicious signs appeared. This is called the First Council of the assembly of five hundred arhats. As a verse says:

Five hundred dwelling in the world,

Arhats compiled this Dharma;

It is called the Council of Five Hundred—

May all venerable ones understand.

(yà loke, satehi pancahi katà tena pancasatà ti ca, tereh'eva katattà ca therikà ti pavuccatìti)

Question: “At that time, the assembly said: ‘Mahākāśyapa questioned Upāli concerning the place where a precept was established, the matter constituting the offense, the causes and conditions, and the person who committed the pārājika offense. Venerable sir, please explain how this was done.’”

Answer: “The time, the causes and conditions, and the person for whom the precept was established—this is the sequence in which the precepts were established, and I shall set it forth: ‘At that time, the Buddha was dwelling at Verañjā...’ (tena samayana Buddho Bhagavà Veranjàyam viharati).

Question: “When was this account recited?”

Answer: “It was recited at the First Council of the Five Hundred.”

Thus, the meanings were successively set forth.

Question: “Why did Upāli recite it?”

Answer: “Because Mahākāśyapa requested him to do so.”

Question: “Thus the code of precepts was promulgated, but who preserved it, and where did its preservers dwell?”

Answer: “I shall explain its lineage; now I shall state the meaning of each sentence. ‘At that time, the Buddha was dwelling at Verañjā.’ This is how the origin of the Vinaya Piṭaka was related. The elder Upāli received and preserved it from the Buddha before the Buddha entered nirvana. Myriads of arhats who had attained the six superknowledges received and preserved it from Upāli. After the Blessed One’s nirvana, Mahākāśyapa, at their head, compassionately assembled the great community from throughout Jambudvīpa (Jambusirivhaya).

Who received and preserved it? First was Upāli; thereafter, the Vinaya masters successively transmitted and preserved it, down to the great elders who preserved it at the Third Council. The names of those teachers, in succession, were Upāli, Dāsaka, Sonaka, Siggava, and Tissa Moggaliputta (Dàsaka, Sonaka, Siggava, Tissa Maggaliputta). These five conquered the defilements and successively transmitted and preserved the Vinaya without interruption in Jambudvīpa. All the Vinaya masters down to the Third Council derived their lineage from Upāli; this was the succession stemming from Upāli.

Why was this so? Upāli himself heard the precepts and Vinaya from the golden mouth of the Buddha, retained them in his heart, and then imparted them to others. Among those known to have received them were innumerable trainees, stream-enterers, once-returners, and non-returners; there were also as many as one thousand bhikkhus whose craving was extinguished (Khìnàsava—those with the taints exhausted).

Dāsaka was a disciple of Upāli. Having heard the teaching directly from his master, he himself fully understood its profound principles. Innumerable trainees newly received it from him, as did one thousand bhikkhus whose craving was extinguished.

Sonaka was a disciple of Dāsaka. After studying the Vinaya directly under his master, he recited it and personally attained a thorough understanding of it. Innumerable trainees newly received it from him, as did one thousand bhikkhus whose craving was extinguished.

Siggava was a disciple of Sonaka. After studying the Vinaya directly under his master, Siggava, foremost in faculties among one thousand arhats, attained knowledge of the Vinaya. Innumerable trainees newly received it from him, as did hundreds of thousands of innumerable bhikkhus whose craving was extinguished.

At that time, there were innumerable communities of bhikkhus in Jambudvīpa. Through the spiritual power of Tissa Moggaliputta, the Third Council desired that the Vinaya Piṭaka thus remain present in Jambudvīpa (Evam idam vinayapitakam jampudipe tàva imàya àcariyaparamparàya yàva tatiyasamgiti tàva àbhatan ti veditabbam). It should be understood that the Dharma masters successively received and preserved it down to the Third Council.

Question: “What was the Third Council?”

Answer: “It was the occasion when the great elders, for the third time, completed the compilation of the radiant Sublime Dharma through wisdom.”

There is a verse of praise:

Five hundred dwelling in the world,

Possessing luminous wisdom,

With the great elder Kāśyapa

At the head of the five hundred.

Like a lamp whose oil is spent,

They entered nirvana without remainder.

Chapter on the Vajjiputtakas: The Compilation of the Dharma Piṭaka.

Thereafter, as days and nights passed, the noble community departed one after another. One hundred years after the Blessed One’s nirvana (Vassasataparinibbute Bhagavati), ten unlawful practices arose at Vesālī among the Vajjiputtaka bhikkhus (Vesàlikà Vajjiputtakàbhikkhù). Those ten practices were:

One, the permitted practice concerning salt—storing salt. (kappati singilonakappo)

Two, the permitted practice of two fingerbreadths. (kappati dvangulakappo)

Three, the permitted practice between villages. (kappati gàmantarakappo)

Four, the permitted practice concerning residences. (kappati àvàsakappo)

Five, the permitted practice of subsequent consent. (kappati anumatikappo)

Six, the permitted practice of established custom. (kappati àcinnakappo)

Seven, the permitted practice concerning unchurned milk. (kappati amathitakappo)

Eight, the permitted practice of drinking palm sap. (kappati jalogi pàtum)

Nine, the permitted practice of using a borderless sitting cloth. (kappati adasakam nisidànam)

Ten, the permitted practice concerning gold and silver. (kappati jàtarùparajatam).

These ten unlawful practices appeared at Vesālī. A son of Susunāga named Kālāsoka, who belonged to the Vajjiputtaka lineage (Tesam Susunàgaputto Kàlàsoko nàma ràjà pakkho ahosi), became king and supported the Vajjiputtaka faction. At that time, the elder Yasa Kākandakaputta, the son of Kākandaka, was gradually traveling into the Vajjian country when he heard that ten unlawful practices had arisen at Vesālī among the Vajjiputtaka bhikkhus. Thinking, ‘I should not remain here and allow the Dharma of the One Possessing the Ten Powers to be destroyed. I must seek a means to eliminate those unwholesome practices,’ the elder went to Vesālī. At that time, the elder Yasa Kākandakaputta stayed in the Kūṭāgāra Hall in the Great Wood.

During the recitation of the precepts, the Vajjiputtaka bhikkhus filled a bowl with water and placed it in the midst of the Bhikkhu Sangha. When the lay devotees (upàsaka) of Vesālī arrived, those bhikkhus told them that they might freely offer money to the Sangha—half a coin (màsaka), or one coin—so that the Sangha could procure robes and all the other requisites they mentioned. Because this compilation of the Vinaya Piṭaka was conducted by exactly seven hundred bhikkhus, it is called the Council of the Seven Hundred Bhikkhus for the Compilation of the Vinaya Piṭaka.

Twenty thousand bhikkhus assembled at this council. The elder bhikkhu Yasa took the initiative in organizing it. In the midst of the Vajjiputtaka bhikkhus, the elder Revata posed the questions and Sabbakāmin gave the answers; together they brought forth the Vinaya Piṭaka to adjudicate the ten unlawful practices and quell the dispute.

Afterward, Sabbakāmin said:

“Venerable ones, we should now recite and compile the Dharma and Vinaya.”

They selected bhikkhus thoroughly versed in the Three Baskets, down to those who had attained the threefold knowledge. When the selection was complete, the great assembly gathered at Vālukārāma in Vesālī and proceeded exactly as Mahākassapa had done at the First Council when compiling the Treasury of the Dharma. Every defilement within the Buddha’s teaching was removed. Questions were asked according to the Basket, according to the Nikāya, according to the sections, and according to the aggregates of Dharma (Pitakavasena, Nikāyavasena, Angavasena, Dhammakkhandhavasena). The entire Treasury of the Dharma and the Vinaya Basket were fully recited and compiled. Thus, in the eighth month, this great assembly completed the compilation.

There was a verse of praise:

Seven hundred elders in the world,

Were called the Council of Seven Hundred.

As has been related above,

Thus should you understand them.

At that time, Sabbakāmin, Sālha, Revata, Khujjasobhita, Yasa, and Sānasambhūta were all disciples of the Venerable Ānanda. The two elders Sumana and Vāsabhagāmin were disciples of Anuruddha and had personally encountered the Buddha. A verse says:

The great assembly met a second time,

And fully recited the great Dharma once more.

The Dharma was compiled anew;

The necessary work was accomplished.

Those bhikkhus whose taints were exhausted

Were called the Second Council.

Chapter on King Asoka: The Compilation of the Treasury of the Dharma.

The venerable elders reflected: “In the future, will such corruption arise again within the teaching of our Master?” They saw that, in a future age, corruptions contrary to the Dharma would indeed arise.

About one hundred years after this time, in the eighteenth year, King Asoka arose in Pāṭaliputta. He conquered all the lands of Jambudīpa (sakala-jambudīpa). Having profound faith in the Buddha’s teaching (Buddhasāsana), he made innumerable offerings.

At that time, when adherents of other sects and brahmins (titthiya) saw King Asoka’s faith in the Buddha’s teaching, they coveted the offerings and infiltrated the Buddha’s teaching, becoming ascetics while continuing as before to serve their own sects and using the doctrines of those sects to instruct others. This was a great corruption within the Buddha’s teaching, produced by the defilement of craving. The venerable elders then reflected: “Will we live to encounter that corruption in the future?” Having contemplated the matter, they knew that they would not live until that time, so they considered: “Who will be able to propagate the Buddha’s teaching in the future?”

They surveyed the entire Realm of Desire but found no one. They then surveyed the Brahmā world (Brahmaloka), where the venerable elders saw a deva whose remaining lifespan was short and who had previously meditated upon the characteristics of phenomena. The venerable elders thought: “We should go and request this deva to descend into the human world and take conception in the household of the brahmin Moggali. We shall then instruct him and cause him to go forth. After going forth, he will master the entire Buddha-Dharma, attain the threefold knowledge, defeat the adherents of other sects, resolve disputed doctrines, and restore and safeguard the Buddha’s teaching.”

Having reflected thus, these venerable elders went to see that Brahmā. His name was Tissa. On meeting Tissa, the venerable elders said: “One hundred years from now, in the eighteenth year, a great corruption will arise within the Tathāgata’s teaching. We have surveyed the entire world of the Realm of Desire but have found no one capable of safeguarding the Buddha’s teaching. Surveying the Brahmā world, we found only you. Excellent, good sir! If you descend into the human world, the teaching of the One Possessed of the Ten Powers (Dasabalassa sāsana) will be safeguarded by you.”

When Brahmā Tissa heard the venerable elders say that he would be able to eliminate the corruption arising within the Buddha’s teaching, he rejoiced greatly and said:

“Excellent! I consent.”

Having obtained that Brahmā’s pledge of consent, the venerable elders departed from the Brahmā world.

At that time there were the venerable elders Siggava and Caṇḍavajji. These two were bearers of the Three Baskets, had attained the analytical knowledges, and were taint-free arhats (Tipitakadhara pattapatisambhida khīṇāsava), foremost among the younger members of the Sangha. However, these two had not participated in the proceedings that brought the dispute to an end at the Second Council. The venerable elders said to them: “Because you did not participate at the proper time in bringing the dispute to an end, the Sangha now imposes this duty upon you as a penalty. In the future, a Brahmā named Tissa will be born into the household of the brahmin Moggali. Divide the duties between you: one shall go there, receive him, and ordain him; the other shall teach him the Buddha-Dharma.”

Afterward, those venerable arhats entered nirvana one after another according to the length or brevity of their lifespans.

There is a verse:

The second assembly of Seven Hundred,

In harmony, extinguished what was contrary to Dharma.

For the teaching in future times,

They caused it to endure for long.

Those masters whose craving was exhausted,

Who had attained the threefold knowledge,

And possessed the power of supernormal abilities,

Still could not escape impermanence.

I shall recount their names,

That they may be transmitted to later generations.

Thus, life is impermanent;

Know well how difficult it is to remain alive.

If one wishes to attain the Deathless,

One should be diligent and strive earnestly.

Regarding this second assembly of the Sangha, the Great Brahmā Tissa (Tissa Mahābrahman) descended from the Brahmā world and was born into the household of the brahmin Moggali (Moggalibrahmana). When Siggava saw that Tissa had taken conception in the household of the brahmin Moggali, he went there every day on alms round for seven years. Why? To create the conditions for guiding and converting him. Throughout all seven years, the venerable one received no food on alms round from that household, nor was he even given water. After seven years, the venerable one came again for alms and someone in the household said to him: “We have finished eating. Venerable sir, please go to another house.”

Siggava thought: “They have finally spoken to me; thus I have received something and may return.”

While returning home from elsewhere, the brahmin encountered Siggava and said:

“Good sir! Ascetic, have you just come from my house? Did you receive anything?”

He replied:

“I did.”

Upon reaching home, the brahmin asked his servants:

“Did you give the alms-seeking bhikkhu anything?”

They replied:

“We gave him nothing at all.”

He said:

“The bhikkhu has spoken falsely. If he comes here tomorrow, I shall question him clearly.”

Early the next morning, the brahmin sat waiting before the door. When the Venerable Siggava arrived, the brahmin asked:

“Venerable sir! Yesterday you said that you had received something, but you certainly received nothing. Why did you speak falsely? Is it permissible under the discipline of bhikkhus to speak falsely?”

The Venerable Siggava replied:

“I have come to your house for seven years without receiving anything at all. Yesterday, for the first time, I heard your servants speak and tell me to go to another house. Therefore, I said that I had received something.”

The brahmin thought to himself:

“This bhikkhu received only a few words, yet said that he had received something. Excellent! He is truly one who knows contentment. If he receives food and drink, he will surely be greatly pleased.”

The brahmin immediately went inside, took his own portion of food, and offered it to Siggava, saying:

“From now on, please come here to receive food.”

Thus, Siggava came every day to receive food. Seeing Siggava’s perfect dignity and deportment, the brahmin’s heart became joyful. Once joy had arisen in his heart, he further invited him:

“Venerable sir! From now on, please do not go to other houses for alms, but always come here to take your meal.”

Siggava silently accepted the invitation.

Every day, after taking his meal, the Venerable One taught the Buddha-Dharma and then departed. At that time, the brahmin’s son had just turned sixteen and had completed the study of the three Vedas according to the brahmanical tradition (Tinnam vedānam pāragū ahosi). Since this young brahmin had only recently descended from the Brahma heaven, he still cherished purity and set aside a couch exclusively for himself, allowing no one else to share it.

Before going to meet his teacher, he would prepare his own couch, clean it thoroughly, suspend it in the middle of the house, and only then leave. Later, the great Venerable Hòa-Ca-Bà came to the house and thought: “The time has come. I have been coming and going here for many years, yet I have never spoken with this young brahmin.

By what means might I guide him?”

Through his spiritual power, the Venerable One concealed all the couches in the house, leaving visible only the young brahmin’s couch (pallaṅka). When the brahmin saw the Venerable Hòa-Ca-Bà arrive, he searched everywhere for a seat but could find none. Seeing only his son’s couch, he brought it out and offered it to the Venerable One as a seat.

Upon returning home and seeing Hòa-Ca-Bà seated upon the couch he had reserved for himself, the young brahmin became extremely angry. He asked the servants:

“Who brought the couch I had reserved and gave it to the ascetic to sit upon?”

By the time Hòa-Ca-Bà had finished his meal, the young brahmin’s anger had subsided. The great Venerable One said to him:

“My son, what do you know?”

He replied:

“Venerable ascetic, what is there that I do not know?”

The Venerable One asked:

“Then who knows?”

The young brahmin asked Hòa-Ca-Bà:

“Does the ascetic know the lore of the Vedas?”

He asked this because he believed that this ascetic knew everything.

The great Venerable Hòa-Ca-Bà had mastered all three Vedas, the Nighaṇḍu (translated into Chinese as the Book of All Things), the Keṭubha, the Itihāsa, and the Akkharappabheda, and could distinguish every form of writing. There were doctrines about which the young brahmin still had doubts and which he had not yet understood. Why was this? Because his teacher had not understood them clearly. The young brahmin asked Hòa-Ca-Bà each of these difficult questions and received exhaustive answers.

Hòa-Ca-Bà said to the young brahmin:

“You have asked many questions. Now it is my turn to ask one; you must answer it.”

The young brahmin said:

“Excellent! Venerable ascetic, I shall analyze it and reply.”

Drawing a question from the Yamaka on Mind (Cittayamaka), Hòa-Ca-Bà asked:

“Whose mind, having arisen, does not cease? Whose mind, having ceased, does not arise? Whose mind, when it ceases, ceases? Whose mind, when it arises, arises?” (Yassa cittaṃ uppajjati na nirujjhati, tassa cittaṃ nirujjhissati n’uppajjissati, yassa vā pana cittaṃ nirujjhissati n’uppajjissati, tassa cittaṃ uppajjati na nirujjhati.)

At that moment, the young brahmin looked up at the sky and then lowered his gaze to the ground. Unable to understand it at all, he asked the ascetic:

“Venerable ascetic, what does this mean?”

He replied:

“This is the Buddha’s sacred lore (Buddhamanta).”

The young brahmin said:

“Great Venerable One, can you teach it to me?”

He replied:

“Yes.”

He asked:

“How may I learn it?”

He replied:

“If you go forth, you may learn it afterward.”

Greatly delighted, the young brahmin went to his father and said:

“This ascetic knows the Buddha’s sacred lore, and I wish to study it. But he will not teach me while I remain a white-robed householder; he says that I must first go forth and may learn it afterward.”

After reflecting, his father said:

“Excellent! If you go forth, return home quickly after you have learned the sacred lore.”

The young brahmin thought:

“I shall go and study the sacred lore under this ascetic, and after I have learned it, I shall return.”

As he was about to depart, his parents admonished him:

“You must apply yourself diligently to your studies. We permit you to go.”

He replied:

“There is no need for my parents to admonish me.”

The brahmin’s son then went to Hòa-Ca-Bà, and the Venerable One admitted him as a novice and taught him the thirty-two meditation subjects concerning the body for contemplation. Within a short time, he attained the path of stream-entry.

Hòa-Ca-Bà thought: “This young man has attained the path; he will no longer wish to return home. Just as a seed that has been scorched by roasting can never sprout again, so it is with this novice.”

The Venerable One further reflected: “If I teach him profound meditation practices, he will attain arhatship and delight in dwelling peacefully, and he will no longer be willing to study the Buddha-Dharma. From now on, I should send him to Venerable Chiên-Đà-Bạt-Xà (Candavajjitthe rassasantika) to study the Buddha-Dharma and thereby fulfill my intention.”

Hòa-Ca-Bà said:

“Excellent! Come here, novice (ehi tvaṃ sāmaṇera). Can you go to the great Venerable Chiên-Đà-Bạt-Xà to study the Buddha-Dharma? When you arrive, say to him: ‘Great Venerable One, my teacher has sent me here to study the Buddha-Dharma.’”

When the novice conveyed this message, Chiên-Đà-Bạt-Xà replied:

“Excellent, novice. You shall begin your studies tomorrow.”

Thereafter, Đế-Tu learned the entire Buddha-Dharma except for the Vinaya Piṭaka. After completing his studies, Đế-Tu received full ordination, and in less than a year he had mastered the Vinaya Piṭaka. When he had fully understood the Three Piṭakas, his preceptor and teacher (Ācariyupajjhāya) entrusted the entire Buddha-Dharma to him and, when their lifespans came to an end, entered nirvana.

Thereupon, Đế-Tu devoted himself to meditation, attained arhatship, and taught the Buddha-Dharma to guide all people.

At that time, King Tân-Đầu-Sa-La (Bindusāra) had one hundred and one sons. After King Tân-Đầu-Sa-La died, King A-Dục spent four years killing all his other brothers, sparing only one younger brother born of the same mother (ekamātikaṃ Tissakumāraṃ thapesi). After four years, King A-Dục proclaimed himself king. It had then been 218 years since the Buddha entered nirvana (Tathāgatassa parinibbānato dvinnaṃ vassasatānaṃ upari aṭṭhārasame, 218, vasse sakala-Jambudīpe ekarajjābhisekaṃ pāpuṇi). Thereafter, King A-Dục gained dominion over the whole of Jambudvīpa. All the other kings submitted to him. The majesty of his spiritual power extended through the sky and over the earth for one yojana.

Every day, spirits from Lake A-nậu-đạt (Anotattadaha) brought eight loads containing sixteen jars of water as offerings to the king. By then, King A-Dục had acquired faith in the Buddha-Dharma, so he offered eight jars of water to the Sangha of bhikkhus, two jars to one who had mastered the Three Piṭakas, and two jars to his queen, while retaining four jars for his own use. Every day, spirits from the Snow Mountains offered the king soft, fragrant, and beautiful tooth-sticks (dantakaṭṭha) called nāgalatā.

The king distributed these tooth-sticks to his queen, to the sixteen thousand ladies of the palace, and to the sixty thousand bhikkhus in the monasteries, providing enough for their daily use. Spirits from the Snow Mountains also offered medicinal fruits called āmalaka and harītaka (agadāmalaka, agadaharītaka). These fruits were golden in color and possessed a rare fragrance and flavor.

Other spirits offered ripe mangoes (ambapakka). Every day, spirits also offered five kinds of golden-colored garments and hand towels (hatthapuñchanapaṭṭaka), the honey-water of the noble ones, fragrant ointments, and jāti flowers. Nāga kings beneath the ocean offered renowned medicine for the eyes (añjana).

Along the shore of Lake A-nậu-đạt grew naturally fragrant rice whose husks were removed cleanly by mice, leaving pure grains. Every day, parrots carried ninety loads of this rice to offer to the king. Honeybees built their hives within the king’s palace and supplied him with honey.

Karavīka birds (karavikasakuṇa) flew to the king’s dwelling and sang melodious notes that delighted his heart. Such was the majesty of the king’s spiritual power.

One day, the king had golden chains made and sent men to bring the nāga king of the ocean to him. This nāga king had lived for an entire kalpa and had therefore seen the four Buddhas of the past. When the nāga king arrived, the king invited him to sit upon the lion throne, placed a white parasol above him, and made offerings of various kinds of incense and flowers. King Asoka removed the jeweled necklace he was wearing and placed it around the nāga king’s neck, had sixteen thousand female musicians surround him and make offerings, and said to the nāga king:

“I have heard that the Tathagata possessed extraordinary auspicious marks. I wish to behold them; may the nāga king manifest them for me.”

Hearing the king’s command, through his own supernatural power the nāga king of the ocean transformed his body into the form of the Tathagata (Sammāsambuddhassa rūpa), adorned with wondrous virtues, possessing the thirty-two auspicious marks and the eighty minor characteristics, like lotus and utpala flowers blooming beautifully upon the water. He was adorned with blue, yellow, red, and white rays of light shining to a distance of one fathom, like stars in the sky, like a rainbow, like circling flashes of lightning radiating outward, and like a golden mountain resplendent with the light of many kinds of jewels all around it.

No one ever tired of gazing upon him. Brahmās, devas, nāgas, yakshas, gandharvas, and others gazed intently upon him throughout seven days and nights. Upon beholding the bodily marks of the Tathagata, King Asoka was filled with great joy.

For the first three years after ascending the throne, he knew only to serve non-Buddhist sectarians (bāhirakapāsanda). It was not until the fourth year that the king developed faith in the Buddha-Dharma. The king served non-Buddhist sectarians because, during his reign, his father, King Bindusara, had believed in non-Buddhist teachings and made daily offerings to sixty thousand brahmins.

Following his father’s faith, the king, the queen, and everyone in the palace all worshiped non-Buddhist sectarians. One day, King Asoka arranged an offering for the brahmins. Seated in the palace hall, the king saw the brahmins looking from side to side without any decorum whatsoever.

Seeing this, the king thought: “I shall make a selection. Surely there must be some among them who possess proper decorum, and I shall make offerings to those men.”

Having reflected thus, the king said to his ministers:

“My ministers, whoever among you serves any shramanas or brahmins, invite them into the palace, and I shall make offerings to them.”

The ministers replied:

“Excellent.”

After returning home, the ministers invited the Niganthas (nighantha) and other non-Buddhist teachers whom they served into the royal palace. When they arrived, the ministers reported:

“These are our arhats.”

King Asoka then arranged seats of differing heights and quality, some beautiful and some plain, and told the non-Buddhist teachers to sit wherever suited their respective attainments. Hearing the king say this, the non-Buddhist teachers sat wherever they pleased. Some sat upon long benches, while others sat upon wooden planks. Seeing this, the king thought: “These non-Buddhist teachers certainly possess no proper discipline.”

Having thought thus, the king said:

“Non-Buddhist teachers such as these are truly unworthy of offerings.”

Therefore, after the meal, the king ordered them to depart immediately.

One day, from a window (sīhapañjara) of the royal palace, he saw a novice named Nigrodha walking past the palace with a dignified and composed bearing (iriyāpathasampanna). The king asked:

“Who is that novice?”

An attendant replied:

“That is the novice Nigrodha, son of Sumana, the eldest son of the former king (Bindusāraranno jeṭṭhaputtassa Sumanarājakumārassa putto).”

The Dharma Master Buddhaghosa said: I shall now relate those circumstances in their proper sequence. After King Bindusara fell ill and died, King Asoka returned from the kingdom of Ujjeni (ujjenirajja), which had been granted to him, immediately killed Crown Prince Sumana, and seized control of the kingdom himself. After killing Crown Prince Sumana, King Asoka took control of the entire palace. Sumana’s wife, who had been pregnant for ten months, changed her clothes and fled to a Chandala village (candālagāma) near the city. Near the village stood a great tree named Nigrodha. A deva dwelt there as the spirit of the tree. Seeing Sumana’s wife, the tree spirit said:

“Come here.”

Hearing the tree spirit call, the woman immediately went to him. Through his supernatural power, the tree spirit conjured a house and told her:

“Dwell in this house.”

Hearing this, she entered the house, and that very night she gave birth to a boy. His mother therefore named him Nigrodha. The headman of the Chandala village respectfully provided for her, behaving no differently from a servant in the presence of a master. The princess lived in the tree spirit’s house for seven years, by which time Nigrodha was seven years old.

At that time, an arhat bhikkhu named Mahāvaruṇa used his supernatural knowledge to observe Nigrodha. Seeing that the boy possessed the conditions to be guided to liberation, he thought: “The time has come; I shall ordain that boy as a novice.”

The Venerable One went to the princess and asked permission to ordain Nigrodha as a novice. After the princess consented, the Venerable One gave Nigrodha the novice ordination. Before all his shaven hair had fallen to the ground, the novice attained arhatship (khuragge yeva arahattaṃ pāpuṇi).

One day, after tidying his quarters, the novice dressed properly and went to attend upon his teacher. He then took up his robe and bowl (pattacīvaraṃ ādāya) and set out for his mother’s dwelling. Entering the city through the southern gate, he passed before the royal palace, intending to leave through the eastern gate.

At that time, the king was walking back and forth in meditation toward the east in the palace hall. Seeing the novice Nigrodha proceeding with a dignified bearing, his gaze lowered to the ground seven spans before him, the king’s mind became serene... This occurred as described above; what follows will now be related.

King Asoka then thought: “This novice’s dignified demeanor is proper and composed. He must surely have attained the supramundane Dharma (lokuttaradhamma).”

Upon seeing this novice, the king became exceedingly joyful and trusting, and loving-kindness arose in his heart. Why was this? In a past life, this novice had been King Asoka’s elder brother, and they had performed meritorious deeds together. There is a verse:

Because of conditions from a former life,
They rejoice in this present life,

Like an utpala flower (uppala)
Blooming luxuriantly in the water.

Once loving-kindness had arisen in him, King Asoka could not restrain himself and hurriedly sent three ministers to summon the novice. The ministers had been gone for a long time but did not return. The king then sent three other ministers, who said to the novice:

“Novice, please come quickly.”

The novice then came at a measured pace, maintaining a solemn and dignified bearing. Seeing the novice arrive, the king told him to look around and choose any seat he wished. Surveying everyone present and knowing clearly that there were no bhikkhus there, the novice intended to sit upon the high throne beneath the white parasol, so he gestured for the king to receive his bowl. Seeing the novice make this gesture, the king thought to himself: “This novice must be the master of this household.”

After handing his bowl to the king, the novice sat upon the king’s throne. The king offered the novice his own food. The novice accepted only enough food to satisfy his hunger. After the novice had finished his meal, the king asked:

“Novice, do you know all your teacher’s instructions?”

He replied:

“I know a small portion.”

The king said:

“Excellent. Please recite it for me.”

He replied:

“Excellent, Great King. I shall recite it.”

Reflecting, “I shall teach a verse of the Dhammapada as a blessing, according to the king’s capacity to understand,” the novice recited half a stanza:

Heedfulness is the path to nirvana;
Heedlessness is the path to birth and death.

(Appamādo amatapadaṃ, pamādo maccuno padaṃ — Dh. 21 —

Moral discipline is the path to the deathless;
Heedlessness is the road to death — Dhammapada Sutra, Chapter on Heedlessness.)

After hearing this, the king said to the novice:

“I have heard it; please continue and recite the rest.”

After the novice had given the blessing, the king said:

“Please allow me to offer eight portions of food each day.”

The novice replied:

“Excellent. I shall offer them in turn to my preceptor (upajjhāya).”

The king asked:

“Who is the novice’s teacher?”

He replied:

“The one who does not cause me to commit offenses and who, upon seeing an offense, admonishes me—that is my teacher.”

The king said:

“I offer another eight portions.”

The novice replied:

“Excellent! May they be offered to my acariya.”

The king asked:

“Who is your acariya?”

He replied:

“The one who instructs me so that I may understand the true Dharma is my acariya.”

The king said:

“Excellent! I offer another eight portions.”

The novice said:

“May these eight portions be offered to the Sangha of bhikkhus.”

The king asked:

“Who are the Sangha of bhikkhus?”

The novice replied:

“They are those upon whom my teacher, my acariya, and I depend in order to receive full ordination.”

Hearing this, the king became even more delighted and said to the novice:

“If that is so, I shall offer another eight portions.”

The novice replied:

“Excellent! I accept.”

Having accepted the invitation, on the following day the novice brought thirty-two monks to the royal palace. After they had eaten, the king asked the novice:

“Are there any other bhikkhus?”

He replied:

“There are.”

The king said:

“If so, please bring another thirty-two.”

In this manner, the number was successively increased until it reached sixty thousand. At that time, the sixty thousand followers of other sects lost their share of the offerings. The Venerable Nigrodha instructed the king, the queens in the palace, and all the ministers to undertake the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts. The faith of the king and everyone else increased twofold and never declined. For the sake of the Sangha, the king built a great monastery as their dwelling place and made daily offerings to sixty thousand monks. The king commanded the eighty-four thousand regional kings under his rule to build eighty-four thousand great monasteries and eighty-four thousand stupas throughout their lands. Having received the king’s command, all the countries joyfully carried it out.

One day, the king held a great almsgiving (mahādāna) at the Asoka Monastery (Asokārāma). After making the offerings, while seated amid sixty thousand bhikkhus, the king declared:

“The four requisites (catūhi paccayehi pavāretvā)—medicines, food, robes, and lodging—I offer to the Sangha according to its needs.”

Having spoken thus, the king asked:

“Venerable sirs, how many divisions does the Buddha’s Dharma comprise?”

The bhikkhus replied:

“There are nine divisions of the Dharma, divided into eighty-four thousand aggregates of Dharma.”

Hearing this, and possessing sincere devotion to the Dharma, the king thought to himself: “I should build eighty-four thousand monasteries as offerings to the eighty-four thousand aggregates of Dharma.”

That very day, the king set aside nine hundred and sixty million silver coins and summoned a great minister, saying:

“Send messengers to the eighty-four thousand lands under my rule, instructing each land to build one monastery.”

The king himself undertook the construction of the Asoka Monastery. Knowing that the king wished to build a great monastery, the Sangha appointed a bhikkhu named Indagutta, an arhat who had destroyed the defilements and possessed great supernormal powers, to supervise all the monastery’s affairs. Whenever Indagutta saw anything lacking in the monastery, he used his supernormal powers to bring it to perfection. Through the wealth offered by the king and the arhat’s supernormal powers, the monastery was completed after three years. When the monasteries in all the lands had been completed, their representatives came to report to the king. Arriving together on the same day, they met the prime minister and said:

“The monasteries have been completed.”

The prime minister entered and reported to the king:

“The eighty-four thousand monasteries in the eighty-four thousand lands have all been completed.”

After exclaiming, “Excellent!” the king ordered a great minister to beat the drum and announce that the monasteries and stupas had been completed, and that seven days later there would be a great assembly for almsgiving and offerings. All the people within and beyond the capital were to undertake the Eight Precepts (aṭṭha sīlaṅgāni) to purify body and mind; after seven days, everyone was to adorn themselves properly and come in obedience to the king’s command. Just as the devas surround Sakka, Lord of the Devas, so was King Asoka’s realm magnificently adorned. The people never wearied of attending the assembly and entered the monastery together to behold it.

At that time, the assembled Sangha comprised eight hundred million bhikkhus and nine hundred and sixty thousand bhikkhunis. Among this assembly were ten thousand arhats. The bhikkhus thought: “We should use our supernormal powers to enable the king to see the merit he has created. Having seen it, he will thereafter cause the Buddha’s Dharma to flourish exceedingly.”

Through their supernormal powers, the bhikkhus enabled the king, in a single moment, to see all the monasteries and stupas and all the merit generated by his almsgiving and offerings throughout every land in the four directions, extending to the ocean’s shores, within his dominion in Jambudvipa. Having seen this, the king was filled with joy and addressed the Sangha:

“Now I have performed this great almsgiving as an offering to the Tathagata. With my heart so filled with joy, is there anyone who has done as much as I?”

At that time, the Sangha appointed Moggaliputta Tissa to answer the king. Tissa replied:

“Even when the Buddha was still in the world, the offerings made by others did not equal yours, O King. No one could surpass you.”

Hearing Tissa’s words, the king was exceedingly delighted and thought: “In making great offerings within the Buddha’s Dharma, no one equals me. I should therefore uphold the Buddha’s Dharma as a loving son honors his father; of this there can no longer be any doubt.”

The king then asked the Sangha of bhikkhus:

“Have I now entered into the Buddha’s Dharma?”

Hearing the king’s question, Tissa saw beside him the prince Mahinda, whose supporting conditions were fully mature, and thought: “If this prince goes forth, the Buddha’s Dharma will flourish exceedingly.”

Having reflected thus, Tissa said to the king:

“Great King, even merit such as this does not yet constitute entering into the Buddha’s Dharma. Even if someone were to give away a mass of the seven precious substances piled from the earth as high as the Brahma realm, that person would still not thereby have entered into the Buddha’s Dharma. How much less could an offering such as yours enable you to enter?”

The king asked:

“How, then, may one gain a share in the Dharma?”

He replied:

“Whether poor or wealthy, one who allows one’s own child to go forth thereby enters into the Buddha’s Dharma.”

Hearing this, the king thought: “Although I have made such offerings, I have still not entered into the Buddha’s Dharma. I should therefore find a way to enter it.”

Looking to either side, he saw Mahinda and thought: “My younger brother Tissa has already gone forth, so Mahinda ought to be appointed crown prince. Yet which would be better—to appoint him crown prince or to allow him to go forth?”

The king said to Mahinda:

“Would you like to go forth?”

Seeing that his uncle Tissa had gone forth, Mahinda had already formed the wish to do likewise. Hearing the king ask him this, he was overjoyed and replied:

“Indeed, I wish to go forth. If I go forth, Your Majesty will gain a share in the Buddha’s Dharma.”

At that time, a princess named Sanghamittā, whose husband had earlier gone forth together with Tissa, was standing beside her brother. The king asked Sanghamittā:

“Would you like to go forth?”

She replied:

“Indeed, I would.”

The king said:

“If you go forth, it will be excellent.”

Knowing their intentions, the king was filled with joy. Turning toward the bhikkhus, he said:

“Venerable sirs, may the Sangha ordain my two children, so that I may enter into the Buddha’s Dharma.”

The Samantapāsādikā, Commentary on the Vinaya

— Fascicle One —