瑜伽師地論釋

Homage to the Greatly Awakened Honored One of Devas and Humans,^[4]

Whose merit and wisdom are both perfectly fulfilled.

To the unsurpassed, true, and wondrous Dharma in word and meaning,

And to the assembly of noble sages who study it and rightly know it.

I bow my head to the Unconquered Great Maitreya,

May all sentient beings together gain benefit and happiness.

Gathering the essential meanings from the sutras,

He briefly taught the Yogacara in five divisions.

I take refuge in the wondrous Dharma transmitted through the power of samadhi,

Whose virtues were brought forth by Asanga.

From the ocean of the Unconquered One and all the noble sages,

He drew forth the Dharma’s ultimate ambrosia.

Having himself fully savored its exquisitely voiced flavor,

He brought benefit and happiness to all realms of the world.

An immeasurable rain of flowers formed of letters pours down evenly,

Refreshing the wish-fulfilling tree of the Muni.

This supreme treatise is like a lotus flower,

Like a treasury of wondrous jewels, like the great ocean.

It fully reveals the extensive meanings of all the Vehicles,

And explains its words clearly, without omission.

Within this great Yogacara treatise,

According to my ability, I shall now explain a small portion,

So that the true Dharma may forever remain inexhaustible,

Bringing benefit and peace to all sentient beings.

I shall now expound this treatise.

Why is this treatise expounded?

This treatise is expounded for two reasons: First, so that the Tathagata’s unsurpassed teaching may long abide in the world. Second, for the equal benefit, peace, and happiness of sentient beings.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, because the Tathagata’s noble teaching, like ambrosial water, had become obscured and lost, it is now recalled, gathered together, and made increasingly clear. As for teachings that have not become obscured or lost, they are caused to flourish further through questions and answers and through definitive examination and selection. Second, for all beings throughout the realm of sentient beings: Those possessing a spiritual lineage—the seed of awakening—may each rely upon the stage appropriate to them, cultivate supramundane wholesome dharmas, attain the fruits of the paths of the Three Vehicles,^[5] and escape the cycle of birth and death.

Those without such a lineage may rely upon the human and deva vehicles, cultivate worldly virtues, attain the fruits of the human and deva paths, and escape the evil destinies.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, there are many who speak of “emptiness,” but not in accordance with sutras of definitive meaning. According to the measure of their assertions, they cling rigidly to the view that the negation of all dharmas is “emptiness.” They reject and oppose all teachings of existence. This treatise enables them, through realizing dharmas that possess characteristics, to abandon their conception of “emptiness” and understand the hidden intent of the sutras.

Second, there are also many who speak of “existence,” but not in accordance with sutras of definitive meaning. According to the measure of their assertions, they cling rigidly to “existence” and are repelled by and afraid of the teachings of emptiness. This treatise enables them, through realizing dharmas that are without characteristics, to abandon their conception of “existence” and understand the hidden intent of the sutras.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, in order to bring to maturity pudgalas^[6] of the bodhisattva lineage, so that, relying upon the teachings and meanings of the Mahayana, which encompass the words, meanings, practices, and fruits of all the Vehicles, they may give rise to wisdom skilled in means, eliminate all obstructions, cultivate all wholesome dharmas, and realize the Buddha’s path of bodhi; and so that, even to the farthest limit of the future, they may never cease benefiting themselves and others.

Second, in order to bring to maturity pudgalas of the lineage of the Two Vehicles^[7] and pudgalas without a spiritual lineage, so that they too, relying upon the teachings and meanings of the Mahayana, may give rise to wisdom skilled in means regarding the words, meanings, practices, and fruits of their respective Vehicles, eliminate the afflictive obstructions, subdue every kind of hindrance and bondage, cultivate their own share of wholesome dharmas, realize the path and fruit of their respective Vehicles, and escape the evil destinies within the three realms.^[8]

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, some people, because of habitual tendencies^[9] from previous lives, give rise to ignorance, doubt, inversion, attachment to false teachings and non-Buddhist doctrines, and narrow-mindedness, and thus neither believe in nor clearly understand the Mahayana. In order that they may definitively abandon such inversions, the characteristics of Mahayana dharmas are clearly distinguished, causing faith and understanding to arise in them.

Second, some people hear the sutras but find it difficult to understand their profound purport; their minds become confused, and they give rise to disbelief and disparagement. In order to benefit them, this treatise skillfully reveals and explains the teachings, causing faith and understanding to arise in them.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, in order to benefit diligent practitioners, it is necessary to gather the essential and extensive Dharma meanings found throughout the sutras and briefly distinguish, discuss, and explain them. Second, in order to benefit those skilled in teaching the Dharma, it is necessary to discuss each dharma extensively and reveal its boundless distinctions of meaning and principle.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, in order to disclose the true characteristics^[10] of all dharmas, questions and answers and definitive examination and selection are employed to establish the correct treatise. Second, in order to eliminate all deluded attachments, questions and answers and definitive examination and selection are employed to refute false treatises.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, in order to reveal that the nature of imagined attachment^[11] exists as a subjective conception but is nonexistent in principle, while the other-dependent nature^[12] and the perfectly accomplished nature^[13] exist in principle but are nonexistent as subjective conceptions, thereby enabling practitioners to abandon the attachments of superimposition and denigration, increase and decrease. Second, in order to reveal the distinction between the principles of the conventional world and the Dharma gateway of ultimate truth to be realized, thereby ensuring that practitioners’ understanding of the two truths^[14] is not inverted.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, in order to elucidate the two approaches to principle—the adaptive and the true—so that people may understand that the teachings of the Two Baskets and the Three Baskets^[15] do not contradict one another. Second, in order to elucidate the four approaches to principle—causes and conditions, consciousness-only,^[16] signlessness, and suchness—so that practitioners of contemplative practice may understand their distinctions.

There are also two further reasons for expounding this treatise: First, it demonstrates the distinctions among objects of cognition, enabling people to understand the differences in the intrinsic nature, characteristics, and stages of all dharmas. Second, it demonstrates the distinctions in cultivation, enabling people to understand the differences in the expedient and fundamental paths and fruits of the Three Vehicles.

From the many kinds of purposes presented above under the various reasons, it may be fully understood that the diverse teachings scattered throughout the sutras and treatises all constitute purposes for which this treatise was composed.

I shall now explain the “underlying cause” of this treatise.

From beginningless time until the present day, sentient beings have failed to know the true characteristics within the domains of all dharmas. They have harbored doubt, inversion, and one-sided attachments, given rise to afflictions, produced contaminated karma, revolved through the five destinies,^[17] and undergone the three great sufferings.^[18] When the Tathagata appeared in the world, he taught, according to what was appropriate and through skillful means, the true characteristics within the domains of wondrous dharmas.

He enabled all sentient beings to understand that all dharmas are thus and thus: because they are empty in such and such ways, they are not existent; because they exist in such and such ways, they are not empty. Thus they thoroughly understand that dharmas are neither empty nor existent. Having completely abandoned all doubt, inversion, and one-sided attachment, they give rise, according to their spiritual lineages, to the appropriate cultivation there and then.

As their cultivation gradually becomes complete, they permanently eliminate all obstructions according to what is appropriate, attain the three kinds of bodhi,^[19] and realize the peace and happiness of quiescent cessation.

After the Buddha entered nirvana, demonic disturbances arose in tumult, disputes among the schools flared up, and most became attached to views of existence. Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna, who had attained the Ground of Extreme Joy^[20], gathered together the Mahayana teachings on signlessness and emptiness and composed the Madhyamaka Treatise, investigating and elucidating the essential truths in order to eliminate the views of existence held by those attached to them. Great treatise masters such as Āryadeva^[21] composed the Hundred-Verse Treatise to expound the great meaning more broadly.

There were also sentient beings attached to views of emptiness. Bodhisattva Asaṅga^[22], who had attained the Samadhi of Dharma Light, ascended to the rank of the First Ground, and acquired great supernormal powers, attended upon Maitreya, the Greatly Compassionate and Venerable One, and requested him to expound this treatise. In this treatise, there is no principle that is not thoroughly penetrated, no matter that is not fully comprehended, no passage that is not explained, no meaning that is not clearly discussed, no doubt that is not dispelled, no attachment that is not completely shattered, no practice that is not cultivated, and no fruit that is not realized.

For the sake of bodhisattvas, it enables them to become skilled in the objects, practices, and fruits of all the Vehicles, diligently cultivate the great practices, realize great bodhi, and proclaim undistorted teachings for all sentient beings. Moreover, for the sake of those in the other Vehicles, it enables them to rely upon their own Dharma, cultivate the practices appropriate to their respective capacities, and realize the path and fruit of their own Vehicle.

Thus has the “causal basis” of this treatise been briefly explained.

Now the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise will be discussed.

What is the meaning of its name? All the dharmas belonging to the objects, practices, and fruits of every Vehicle are called Yoga, because they all possess the meaning of being conjoined and of skillful means.

The objects of Yoga are all objects free from distortion and mutual contradiction; they possess the qualities of accordant responsiveness and progression toward the ultimate, and conform to true principle and teaching. They are conjoined with practice and fruit.

Although the term Yoga and the objects of Yoga encompass everything, the sutras and treatises present many different explanations according to the capacities of beings and the characteristics of dharmas. Some say that the four kinds of reasoning concerning dharmas are called Yoga: the reasoning of function, observation, mutual dependence, and proof that things are so. These collectively encompass all correct reasoning.

Some say that the twenty-four formations dissociated from mind^[23] are Yoga, because their causes and effects correspond and do not contradict one another. Both of the foregoing explanations belong to the section on definitive investigation and are extensively explained in many places. Some say that defilement, purification, and absence of intrinsic nature are Yoga, because relinquishing what is contrary and concordantly embracing what is supreme constitute its character, as stated in the Great Brahmā Covenant Sutra.

The masters of the Yogācāra school contemplate that there is not the slightest dharma that can be made to arise or be made to cease. Nor is there the slightest dharma whose realization may be sought or whose direct contemplation may be desired. That is to say, with respect to the “formations” among all defiled dharmas, when contemplating their absence of intrinsic nature in Yoga, there is not the slightest dharma that can be made to arise or be made to cease.

And with respect to the “formations” among all purified dharmas, when contemplating their absence of intrinsic nature in Yoga, there is not the slightest dharma whose realization may be sought or whose direct contemplation may be desired. Some say that ultimately purified suchness is Yoga, because it is conjoined with all virtues within the ultimate truth, as stated in the Laṅkāvatāra Sutra. If one contemplates the true meaning, eliminates conceptual discrimination, and leaves defilements far behind, there is neither apprehending subject nor apprehended object, neither release nor bondage.

At that time, one will behold Yoga within samadhi and will no longer harbor anxiety, doubt, or uncertainty. The Sutra of the Great Meaning states that the teachings increasing from one dharma up to one hundred dharmas are all called Yoga, because although the Dharma gates are distinct, their meanings do not contradict one another. The Sutra of the Extensive Meaning states that the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, dependent origination, and truths^[24] are all called Yoga, because they encompass all capacities and accordant objects.

Thus, the sutras and treatises state that all objects are Yoga, because they fully comprise the four qualities^[25] that accord with the four dharmas.^[26]

The PRACTICE of Yoga means that all modes of practice accord with one another, conform to right principle and right teaching, and lead toward the right fruit; this is called Yoga. Although this yogic “practice” applies broadly to other practices, the sutras and treatises present many different explanations according to circumstances and the characteristics of the dharmas. For example, the Yogācārabhūmi Sūtra states that correctly cultivating the practices is Yoga, because it encompasses all corresponding modes of practice.

The Moon-Lamp Sūtra states that cultivating the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment^[27] is Yoga, because among all fruits and practices, these are regarded as the most excellent in their mutual accord. The Great Discourse on the Six Sense Bases Sūtra states that the path on which samatha and vipasyana^[28] operate in equilibrium is Yoga, because such serenity and insight govern every mode of practice. The Ocean of Wisdom Sūtra states that samadhi^[29] is Yoga, because an abiding mind gives rise to practice of great power.

The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Teaching states that four dharmas—faith, aspiration, skillful means, and diligence—are Yoga; attention or wisdom is described as skillful means. These four dharmas operate together to produce all practices. The Stage Accomplished through Hearing divides the path into nine paths^[30], which are called Yoga, because they accord with principle, eliminate afflictions, and possess distinctly excellent fruits and stages.

Whether worldly or supramundane, one diligently cultivates without interruption upon the path of liberation and further advancement, in a state of pliancy. The Stage Accomplished through Cultivation gathers all paths of counteraction within cultivation and calls them Yoga, because it sets forth the essentials and general principles of cultivation. Elsewhere, the association with the various stages that is encompassed by undeluded wisdom is called Yoga, because among the modes of practice associated with the dharmas of the various stages, undeluded wisdom is supreme.

Elsewhere again, skillful means, or simply means, is called Yoga, because attention and wisdom are foremost in initiating practice, or because the very first awakening is foremost. The Sūtra on the True Nature of Merit states that contemplation of dependent origination is Yoga, because the contemplative wisdom of dependent origination is essential for transcending birth and death. The Sūtra on Right Practice states that the eight factors of the Noble Path, such as right view, are Yoga, because they bring about the attainment of nirvana, and this practice is supreme.

The Vinaya Sūtra states that the cultivation of morality and so forth is Yoga, because the trainings in morality, concentration, and wisdom are supreme causes. The Sūtra on the Great Meaning states that cultivating all the differentiated stages of worldly and supramundane practice is Yoga, because the stages of right practice accord with one another. Thus, all these teachings generally describe the cultivation of the sravakas as Yoga, because within the cultivation and realization shared by the Three Vehicles, this is supreme.

The Sūtra on Wisdom Reaching the Other Shore states that the contemplation of emptiness and attention are Yoga, because they initiate great practice and are therefore supreme. As that sutra states, the bodhisattva’s great Yoga is “emptiness and attention.” Through this emptiness and attention, the bodhisattva does not fall to the stage of the sravaka or the stage of the pratyekabuddha, and can ultimately reach the purified lands of the Buddhas.

That sutra further speaks of Prajnaparamita as “Supreme Yoga,” because it guides the cultivation of the Mahayana and is excellent. As that sutra states, among all the Yogas belonging to bodhisattvas, the Yoga of the Perfection of Wisdom is highest and most excellent. The sutra further describes it extensively as “equal to the unequaled.”^[31] Why is this so?

It should thus be understood that Prajnaparamita is the unsurpassed Dharma of Yoga. Elsewhere, the nonconceptual concentration encompassed by the Perfection of Wisdom is called Yoga, because it can give rise to all excellent merits.

Elsewhere it is stated that the bodhisattva’s compassion and supreme wisdom operating in equilibrium are called Yoga, because they realize the great non-abiding nirvana. Such explanations concern the “unshared practices,”^[32] which are called Yoga because they realize the Buddha’s path of bodhi. Thus, every kind of “practice” discussed in the sutras and treatises is called Yoga. (The meanings of the four kinds have been fully explained above.)

Concerning the FRUIT of Yoga: All kinds of fruits that accord with one another, conform to right principle and right teaching, and correspond to the right causes are called Yoga. Although this fruit of Yoga applies broadly to all fruits, the sutras and treatises present many different explanations according to circumstances and the characteristics of the dharmas. The Sūtra on the Analysis of Meaning states that the powers, fearlessnesses, and unshared Buddha-dharmas are called Yoga, because they possess the capacity to subdue the maras, overcome all heterodox doctrines, and surpass the other Vehicles.

The Sūtra on Excellence states that the non-abiding nirvana realized by the Buddha is called Yoga, because throughout time, even to the end of the future, it remains without any abiding. The Sūtra on the Great Meaning states that the nonconceptual wisdom of the Tathagata stage, together with the mind of great compassion that transforms and delivers sentient beings, is Yoga, because it signifies the inexhaustible benefiting of oneself and others.

The Sūtra Expounding the Yogācārabhūmi states that all merits of the Buddha stage are called Yoga, because, like the dharma-dhatu, they are never exhausted. The Sūtra on the Analysis of the Merits of the Three Vehicles states that the virtues of the fruits of the Three Vehicles are called Yoga, because they accord with right principle. The Treatise in Praise of the Buddha states that the three bodies and the three virtues^[33] are all Yoga, because all virtues of fruition are never separated from one another.

The Treatise Compiling the Meanings states that all accumulated conditioned and unconditioned merits encompassed by the stages of fruition are Yoga, because the stages of fruition, from meditative attainment^[34] to the ultimate, are all harmoniously united.

The meaning of the statement in the sutras and treatises that all virtues of fruition are Yoga has been clearly explained above. Thus, the sacred teachings are also Yoga, because they accord with right principle and right practice and lead to the right fruit. This means that “correctly apprehending the contemplative practices of the Three Vehicles” (firmly grasping the true meaning within the contemplation and practice of the Three Vehicles) is Yoga.

By constantly progressing in cultivation, conforming to principle, and following the practices, one realizes the excellent fruit. The objects and fruits of this treatise operate flexibly and pervade everywhere. The words of the sages are as vast as the great ocean; how could they ever be fully expressed!

Fearing that the Yogācārabhūmi would be difficult to receive and retain, only a brief account has been given so that practitioners may cultivate and advance according to their capacities.

Practitioners of the Three Vehicles (those who practice the Dharma method of Yoga), proceeding through hearing, reflection, and successive cultivation, practice the Dharma method of Yoga and attain it either partially or completely; they then successively train and transform sentient beings and are called Yogācāra masters. Alternatively, the Tathagatas, having completely realized the Dharma method of Yoga, teach and transform their noble disciples with this Dharma method of Yoga according to the responsiveness and capacities of their listeners, enabling them to cultivate right practice in succession; they are called Yogācāra masters.

GROUND denotes a realm, a basis, and a place of practice; it means that which encompasses a domain. Because it is the realm of practice of Yogacara Masters, it is called a “Ground.” It is like the terrain of a dragon-horse: it travels only within that area and cannot go beyond it. Or, because Yogacara Masters rely upon this place to cultivate and increase wholesome qualities (pure dharmas), it is called a “ground,” like a field in which rice is planted.

Or, because that which pertains to the wisdom of Yogacara Masters arises and develops in dependence upon this place, it is called a “ground,” like a ground of precious jewels. Or, because Yogacara Masters enjoy the use of wholesome qualities within this place of practice, it is called a “ground,” like the ground of the king of cattle. Or, the Tathagatas are called Yogacara Masters because, abiding in yoga, they employ the wisdom of equality and practice equality throughout all realms free from conceptual proliferation, while likewise not abiding in nirvana.

Because they encompass that realm, it is called a “ground.” Or, because the seventeen grounds^[35] pertain to Yogacara Masters, as in such expressions as “the king’s domain,” they are called the Grounds of Yogacara Masters.

Questioning and answering in order to definitively discern the nature and characteristics of dharmas is called a TREATISE. This treatise was expounded so that practitioners might realize the Grounds of Yogacara Masters. Thus, this title was established for the treatise, as with the Abhidharma Treatise. Furthermore, because this treatise does not discuss the meaning of the Grounds of Yogacara Masters in an inverted manner, it received this title, just as a sutra that discusses the ten grounds is so named. Furthermore, because this treatise relies upon those grounds, it takes them as its designation, just as flowers planted in the earth must depend upon water. Therefore, this treatise is entitled the Treatise on the Grounds of Yogacara Masters.

We shall now discuss the SUBSTANCE of this treatise. In brief, it has five divisions: First, the Division of the Fundamental Grounds: both concisely and extensively, this division is arranged into seventeen grounds. Second, the Division of the Compendium of Determinations: this briefly gathers and definitively discerns the essential meanings hidden deeply within the seventeen grounds. Third, the Division of the Compendium of Exegesis: this briefly gathers the conventions for interpreting the sutras. Fourth, the Division of the Compendium of Synonyms: this briefly gathers the distinct names and meanings of the dharmas found in the sutras. Fifth, the Division of the Compendium of Matters: this briefly gathers the essential matters and meanings within the Tripitaka.

Since this treatise has these five divisions, why is it called only the Grounds of Yogacara Masters?

From the standpoint of the title established at the outset, there is certainly no error. Furthermore, among all dharmas, there is none that is not a Ground of Yogacara Masters, because the Grounds of Yogacara Masters take all dharmas as supporting conditions. This is merely an abbreviated designation.

Speaking of the number seventeen, or of the seventeen grounds, completely gathers all the textual expressions and meanings in an exhaustively concise manner. The latter four divisions all explain the essential textual expressions and meanings within the seventeen grounds; they do not depart from the Grounds of Yogacara Masters. Therefore, this treatise takes the seventeen grounds as its central purport.

Although it thoroughly elucidates the Vehicles, Objects, Practices, and Fruits, the questions and answers in this treatise, which definitively discern the nature and characteristics of all dharmas, are intended to be expounded for bodhisattvas, enabling them all to attain skillfulness, cultivate the fruit of Buddhahood, and bring immeasurable benefit and happiness. Thus, this treatise belongs to the Bodhisattva Treatise Pitaka, for it is intended to enable bodhisattvas to attain supreme knowledge!

The Treatise states: Why does the Grounds of Yogacara Masters teach seventeen grounds?^[36]

Explanation: The opening question, “Why does the Grounds of Yogacara Masters teach seventeen grounds?” is a general inquiry into the central purport of this treatise.

The questioner, having first heard the sutras speak of the Grounds of Yogacara Masters but not yet clearly understood their meaning, therefore posed this question. The Grounds of Yogacara Masters frequently discussed in the sutras are precisely the grounds cultivated by Yogacara Masters. The Moon-Lamp Sutra also speaks of cultivating the Grounds of Yogacara Masters.

They are mentioned in many places, not merely in one. This has already been discussed extensively above! Or perhaps the author of the treatise first gathered the requests made to him, inferred that the substance of the treatise comprised five divisions, and retained all of this in mind.

Now, wishing to explain and distinguish it for his students, he posed the question himself to reveal the cause for its arising; hence the question, “Why does the Grounds of Yogacara Masters teach seventeen grounds?” Otherwise, if there had been no “brief statement” beforehand, how could one so readily ask “why”?

Furthermore, broadly speaking, a questioner may have five reasons for asking: First, one asks because one does not understand. Second, one asks because one has doubts. Third, one asks in order to test.

Fourth, one asks out of contemptuous provocation. Fifth, one asks in order to benefit sentient beings. The present case belongs to the fifth reason: this treatise was composed to benefit all kinds of sentient beings.

To speak of the seventeen grounds is to say that the central purport of the Grounds of Yogacara Masters is, in brief, encompassed by seventeen grounds. If presented more extensively, the stages would be limitless, and the distinct divisions within each ground would likewise be limitless in meaning. Thus, with each transition to a new topic, there is a general question and a general answer.

The Treatise states: What are the seventeen grounds?

UDDANA^[37]: He himself gave a summary and left this verse:

“The five consciousnesses associated, and mind;

With investigation and analysis—the three grounds;

Samadhi and that which is not;

The grounds with mind and without mind;

Those established through hearing, reflection, and cultivation;

Thus the Three Vehicles are complete;

With a basis and without a basis—

These are the seventeen grounds.”

Explanation: For what reason is it further asked, “What are the seventeen grounds?” Although the total number has been heard, the name of each ground is not yet clearly understood, and so the question must be asked again. “UDDANA” means that he first summarized the answer himself in verse. The content of the verse concisely gathers the names of the grounds and leaves them for students;

therefore, it is called an “Uddana.” The phrase “the five consciousnesses associated” means “the Ground Associated with the Fivefold Consciousness-Body.” The word “mind” means the “Ground of Mind.” The phrase “with investigation and analysis—the three grounds” refers to the Ground with Investigation and Analysis, the Ground without Investigation but with Analysis, and the Ground without Investigation or Analysis.

Investigation and analysis alone account for three grounds. The phrase “samadhi” means that all states of samadhi are called the Ground of Samahita. The words “that which is not” mean that which is not samadhi and is also not the Ground of Samahita.

This is a single characteristic, yet the names of the grounds are distinct; their doctrine cannot be fully expressed in words. Thus, these are two names whose meanings may be broader or narrower. Samadhi is a state that includes both concentration and non-concentration, and it abides only where mind is present.

Samahita is a state that includes both occasions when mind is present and occasions when mind is absent, and it is restricted solely to concentration. (This matter will be explained more extensively below.) The phrase “Thus the Three Vehicles are complete” means that through the Grounds Accomplished through Hearing, Reflection, and Cultivation—or through all the preceding grounds—the Three Vehicles are fully encompassed.

As for “with a remaining basis” and “without a remaining basis,” each distinct term will be explained extensively below.

The Treatise states: First, the Ground Associated with the Fivefold Consciousness-Body. Second, the Ground of Mind. Third, the Ground with Investigation and Analysis.

Fourth, the Ground without Investigation but with Analysis. Fifth, the Ground without Investigation or Analysis. Sixth, the Ground of Samahita.

Seventh, the Ground of Non-Samahita. Eighth, the Ground with Mind. Ninth, the Ground without Mind.

Tenth, the Ground Accomplished through Hearing. Eleventh, the Ground Accomplished through Reflection. Twelfth, the Ground Accomplished through Cultivation.

Thirteenth, the Ground of the Sravaka. Fourteenth, the Ground of the Pratyekabuddha. Fifteenth, the Ground of the Bodhisattva.

Sixteenth, the Ground with a Remaining Basis. Seventeenth, the Ground without a Remaining Basis. These are called the Grounds of Yogacara Masters.

Explanation: We shall now extensively set forth the names of the grounds in response to the preceding question. The phrase “Ground Corresponding to the Bodies of the Five Consciousnesses” means the five faculties—eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body—and the five consciousnesses—eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, and body-consciousness. They do not jointly rely upon a single basis; rather, each, such as the eye, is not relied upon by the other consciousnesses.

They are “proximate bodily supports” (supports based upon immediately present things). The eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body faculties may be sharp or dull, while consciousness may be clear or obscure. They are also “simultaneous supports.” They all coexist simultaneously, unlike the mental faculty and so forth.

Therefore, the five consciousnesses derive their individual names from the five faculties, just as a rice sprout, the sound of a drum, and so forth have their own distinctions; hence they are called the five consciousnesses. This is because their bases are faculties. The faculties possess form and offer resistance.

Yet these consciousnesses can assuredly never be separated from the body that is their basis. Because the body must undergo and receive experience, it is called a “body.” BODY is spoken of with reference to the meaning of an aggregate or entity, as in the body of six consciousnesses (the body as the basis of the six consciousnesses) and the body of six volitions (the body as the basis of the six acts of volition). This Ground is established on the basis of the bodies of the five consciousnesses and is therefore called “corresponding.” As stated in the Vinaya, a king corresponds to discourse concerning a king, and a bandit corresponds to discourse concerning a bandit.

Such discourse arises in dependence upon the king or the bandit. So it is here as well.

Although many dharmas are distinguished within this Ground, the five consciousnesses are predominant and are therefore mentioned separately. The mental group corresponding to the bodies of the five consciousnesses is called “corresponding.” Although many dharmas are clearly explained within this Ground, they are distinguished according to the predominance of mind and mental factors. “Corresponding” also means subsumed.

This is because this Ground discusses the dharmas subsumed under the bodies of the five consciousnesses, namely, their intrinsic nature, bases, and objects. Assisting in the accomplishment of activity is another meaning of the word “corresponding,” according to whatever is appropriate in each case. It also carries the meaning of thorough penetration.

This is only a brief explanation.

We shall now discuss the Ground of Mind: the sixth, seventh, and eighth consciousnesses all rely upon the MENTAL FACULTY. The words “body of consciousnesses corresponding” are omitted, and only the word “mind” is used. From the standpoint of ultimate meaning, there are eight consciousnesses, but from the standpoint of teachings adapted to capacities, there are only six.

The sixth, seventh, and eighth consciousnesses are all subsumed under the sixth faculty. Their designation is based upon their support, which is nonmaterial. Since they do not require a “body,” but are sustained by the “mind,” the word “body” is no longer mentioned.

“Corresponding” is as explained above. Although the sixth, seventh, and eighth consciousnesses all possess the meanings of mind, mentation, and consciousness, mental dharmas and the mental ayatana are subsumed under mental consciousness. Yet the term “mind” is used by itself because mind deliberates and calculates, and is thus subsumed under the “mental faculty.” The eighth consciousness is the consciousness that retains the seeds, and therefore the meaning of “mind” is especially prominent in it.

The sixth consciousness cognizes objects universally, and therefore the meaning of “consciousness” is especially prominent in it. Consequently, the expressions Ground of Mind, Ground of Consciousness, body, and corresponding are not used. This is only a brief explanation.

The meaning of the word “Ground” has already been explained above.

Why are the five consciousnesses combined and established as a single Ground?

According to the first explanation, although these consciousnesses differ, they are nevertheless established as one. According to the second explanation, the five consciousnesses do not involve extensive discrimination of their objects and activities; because their functions are few, they are combined into a single Ground. According to the first explanation, within the Ground of Mind there is a general conceptual explanation of those five consciousnesses, and therefore it is separately established as one Ground.

According to the second explanation, the five consciousnesses all rely upon material faculties and all take material objects as their objects; therefore, they are combined and established as one. The other consciousnesses rely upon what is immaterial, and their objects are indeterminate; therefore, they are separately established as one Ground. In successive order, their intrinsic natures may rely upon coarse or subtle conditions; hence they are discussed earlier or later.

Furthermore, the five consciousnesses are all subsumed under “objects of direct perception,” and therefore they are combined and established as one. According to the first explanation, the other consciousnesses are indeterminate: they may be subsumed under “direct perception,” “inference,” or “invalid cognition”^[38]; therefore, they are separately established as one. According to the second explanation, the intrinsic natures of these two Grounds, together with their bases, objects, and assistance in the accomplishment of activity, jointly constitute their essence and subsume all dharmas.

We should understand that, herein, no dharma is apart from consciousness. Dharmas arise in dependence upon consciousness. Consciousness is their essence. Consciousness is supreme. First, in dependence upon the eight consciousnesses, two Grounds are established. The eight consciousnesses—their intrinsic natures, bases, objects, and assistance in the accomplishment of activity—will be extensively explained later.

The phrase, “With investigation and examination... the three grounds,” means: “investigation” is seeking, and “examination” is scrutinizing. Alternatively, it is the mental factor of volition or the mental factor of wisdom that, in relation to an object, gives rise to the mental activity of pursuing and seeking it. The coarse aspect is investigation.

That is, these two dharmas give rise, in relation to an object, to the mental activity of seeking and scrutinizing. The subtle aspect is examination. These two dharmas do not correspond with each other within a single instant, because, although they belong to the same category, their qualities of coarseness and subtlety differ slightly in their earlier and later phases.

Now, based on these two dharmas—investigation and examination—the three Grounds are established. These three Grounds are established according to the successive correspondence of these two dharmas.

On the ground of the Desire Realm and in the meditative absorption of the first dhyana, coarse mind and mental factors continue in succession, and investigation and examination correspond with one another; therefore, this is called the “Ground with Investigation and Examination.” During the intermediate meditative absorption, coarse mind and mental factors continue in succession; the concentrated mind is without investigation and corresponds only with examination.

Therefore, this is called the “Ground without Investigation but with Examination.” During the second meditative absorption and throughout the grounds above it, minds and mental factors continue in succession and are definitely associated with neither investigation nor examination. Therefore, this is called the “Ground without Investigation or Examination.” If, on the ground of the Desire Realm or during the meditative absorption of the first dhyana, subtle mind and mental factors are not associated with either investigation or examination, and if they are not associated in activity with material dharmas, while examination is likewise not associated with unconditioned dharmas, all these are also called the “Ground without Investigation or Examination.” Therefore,

a later section of the treatise says: “The Ground with Investigation and Examination and the Ground without Investigation but with Examination” pertain exclusively to the “Ground with Mind.” Mindless sleep, mindless unconsciousness, the attainment of non-perception, birth among non-percipient beings, the attainment of cessation, and the realm of nirvana without remainder all have the meaning of the “Ground without Mind.”

These three grounds are established on the basis of the stages of freedom from desire regarding these two dharmas. That is, on the ground of the Desire Realm and during the meditative absorption of the first dhyana, conditioned designations have not yet become free from desire for investigation and examination; therefore, this is called the “Ground with Investigation and Examination.” During the intermediate meditative absorption, among conditioned designations, the mind has become free from desire for investigation but has not yet become free from desire for examination;

therefore, this is called the “Ground without Investigation but with Examination.” During the second meditative absorption and throughout the grounds above it, conditioned designations have become free from desire for both investigation and examination; therefore, this is called the “Ground without Investigation or Examination.” If, on a lower ground, one has already become free from desire for both, it may also be called “without investigation or examination.” Therefore, a later section of the treatise says that herein, because of freedom from desire for investigation and examination, it is called the “Ground without Investigation or Examination.” It is not merely because they do not arise in manifest activity when not prompted.

Why is this? Because, through instruction, guidance, or distinctive attention, a person who has not yet become free from desire in the Desire Realm may also, at certain times, have mental activity without investigation or examination, as when a person emerges from the attainment of the first dhyana.

According to the true meaning, these three grounds are established from the standpoint of the realms and grounds. That is, on the ground of the Desire Realm and during the meditative absorption belonging to the first dhyana, both contaminated and uncontaminated dharmas may possess investigation and examination; this is called the first ground. During the intermediate meditative absorption, both contaminated and uncontaminated dharmas are without investigation but possess examination; this is called the second ground.

During the second meditative absorption and throughout the grounds above it, both contaminated and uncontaminated dharmas possess neither investigation nor examination; this is called the third ground. Therefore, a later section of the treatise says: “In the Desire Realm and within the meditative absorption belonging to the first dhyana, whether one is in concentration or has been born into the realm of the first dhyana, it is called the ‘Ground with Investigation and Examination.’ During the intermediate meditative absorption, whether one is in concentration or has been born into the realm of the first dhyana, it is called the ‘Ground without Investigation but with Examination.’ From the second meditative absorption upward,

the Form Realm and the Formless Realm are entirely called the ‘Ground without Investigation or Examination.’” The uncontaminated, conditioned concentration of the first meditative absorption is also called the “Ground with Investigation and Examination.” Based on investigation and examination, dharmas take suchness as their object and enter that concentration, without conceptual discrimination manifesting in activity.

The remaining dharmas are as explained above.

If the three grounds were established from the standpoints of “association” and “freedom from desire,” they would neither completely encompass all actual dharmas nor avoid great confusion. Although the grounds with investigation and examination are said to exist only within the “Ground with Mind,” the characteristics of the grounds are now discussed through a single approach. In this approach, only the second meditative absorption and the levels above it are said to belong to the Ground without Investigation or Examination.

The attainment of non-perception, birth among non-percipient beings, and the attainment of cessation are called the “Ground without Mind.” All other states are called the “Ground with Mind.” In the four approaches that follow, there are other establishments, which will be explained later. Although it is said that herein, because of freedom from desire for investigation and examination, it is called the “Ground without Investigation or Examination,” this refers only to the grounds of the second meditative absorption.

Those grounds have definitely become free from desire for investigation and examination; it does not refer to persons who have become free from desire for investigation and examination. Dharmas belonging to lower grounds may also be called “without investigation or examination.” If that were so, what of persons who have not yet become free from desire for investigation and examination on the lower grounds? If dharmas belonging to higher grounds were also said to possess investigation and examination, such an establishment would result in great confusion.

Therefore, these three grounds are established solely according to the lower and higher levels of the ground of the Desire Realm!

Concerning the Ground of Samahita: This is the ground of superior concentration, far removed from torpor, restlessness, and so forth. It is “equipoise-producing,” actively leading concentration into equilibrium. It may be called “leading to equipoise,” or simply “equipoise.” Because it arises from that which is led, it has the meaning of the “Ground of Equipoise-Producing Concentration.” It encompasses the various “concentrations with mind.” It brings forth virtues impartially. It does not extend to the “mindless” concentrations.

The verse above contains the phrase, “together with samadhi.” Samadhi is a mental factor among the mental factors associated with distinct objects. The two kinds of “mindless” concentration cannot impartially bring forth virtues; therefore, they do not belong to the Ground of Equipoise-Producing Concentration. How is this so?

In brief, the Ground of Equipoise-Producing Concentration is of four kinds: 1) Meditative absorption. 2) Liberation. 3) Concentration^[39]. 4) Attainment^[40]. Meditative absorption refers to the four meditative absorptions^[41]. Liberation refers to the eight liberations^[42].

Concentration refers to the concentration of emptiness, the concentration of wishlessness, and the concentration of signlessness. Attainment refers to the five attainments of direct seeing^[43], the eight attainments of the bases of mastery^[44], the ten attainments of the totalities^[45], the four formless attainments, the attainment of non-perception, and the attainment of cessation.

Here one should not mistakenly suppose that the two kinds of mindless concentration are merely “fruits of meditative equipoise.” They bear only that name; in reality, this is not the meaning of “meditative equipoise.” This designation applies to both states with mind and states without mind. Wherever the substance of concentration is present, if the mind is concentrated, it evenly induces various virtues and evenly regulates the faculties and the great elements; it is far removed from dullness, restlessness, and states in which the precepts have not been purified through repentance.

Because these are induced through balanced means, it is called Meditative Equipoise. In a mindless concentration, although it cannot induce superior virtues, it evenly regulates the faculties and the great elements... This is balanced concentration induced by that state and is therefore also called “Meditative Equipoise.” How is this so?

The verse above contains the phrase “together with samadhi.” One should not misunderstand this. The wording of the verse is merely abbreviated. It says “together with those,” but in fact Meditative Equipoise is “not necessarily conjoined,” because the subsequent passage also states that Meditative Equipoise extends to mindless states.

According to the true meaning, the Ground of Meditative Equipoise is both universal and restricted. It includes both states with mind and states without mind and is therefore called “universal.” The concentration of non-perception and the concentration of cessation are included in the substance of the Ground of Meditative Equipoise; it is found only in the superior grounds, whether contaminated or uncontaminated, and not among the various distracted states of mind in the desire realm, and is therefore called “restricted.”

Next, it is said that “dhyana” belongs to the Ground of Meditative Equipoise and is concentration pertaining to the form realm, rather than concentration—the mind’s one-pointedness—in the desire realm. This is because such Meditative Equipoise induces only states associated with freedom from remorse, joy, and bliss. The desire realm cannot be like this; only the higher realms can.

Concentration occurring while the mind is distracted is not Meditative Equipoise, because it remains connected with the desire realm. On the basis of this contrast, a fourfold analysis is established.^[46] Something may be associated with Mental Stability but not belong to the Ground of Meditative Equipoise. That is, while still in the desire realm and in a state of distracted mind, it is associated with samadhi, mind, and mental factors...

Or something may belong to the Ground of Meditative Equipoise but not be associated with Mental Stability.

In a state of concentration, samadhi is the essential substance. In the concentration of non-perception and the concentration of cessation, the constituent dharmas may be associated with both Mental Stability and the Ground of Meditative Equipoise. In the dhyanas and concentrations, as well as in states with mind in the form realm, mind and mental factors—apart from samadhi—may also be associated with both.

Or there may be dharmas that are neither. That is, apart from the constituent dharmas in the states described above. Furthermore, the designations samadhi, samapatti, and samahita differ in breadth of application.

Among the categories relating to mind, samadhi means Mental Stability. This one dharma universally encompasses all dharmas. In states with mind, the mind is one-pointed; this characteristic applies both to concentrated and distracted states.

Yet in the sutras and treatises, from the standpoint of its supreme forms, only emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness are spoken of as samadhi. Samapatti applies to all states of concentration, whether with mind or without mind. It is the essential substance of concentration in concentrated states.

Yet in the sutras and treatises, from the standpoint of its supreme forms, only the concentrations corresponding to the five direct realizations and so forth are called Attainments. The Ground of Meditative Equipoise applies to all virtues of concentrated states, whether with mind or without mind. Therefore, this Ground encompasses all the virtues of states of concentration.

Because it has such a comprehensive meaning, a separate Ground is established under the name “the Ground Not in Meditative Equipoise.” The meaning of the translation given above is already easy to understand and requires no extensive explanation. Thus, these two Grounds comprehensively encompass all constituent dharmas in concentrated and unconcentrated states.

Concerning the Grounds With Mind and Without Mind: broadly speaking, they are established through five approaches, each involving different distinctions. First is the approach of general exposition according to the grounds. The Ground Associated with the Fivefold Body of Consciousness, the Ground of Mental Activity, the Ground with Initial and Sustained Application, and the Ground without Initial but with Sustained Application are all exclusively “Grounds With Mind.” Within the Ground without Initial or Sustained Application, the concentration of non-perception, birth among the non-percipient beings, and the concentration of cessation are “Grounds Without Mind.” Under this approach,

mindless sleep and mindless unconsciousness are also called “with mind,” because they belong to the seventh and eighth consciousnesses.

Only the concentration of non-perception and so forth belong among the factors not associated with mind. Because their activities run counter to mind, they are called “Grounds Without Mind.” Second is the approach of whether the mind is disordered or not disordered. The four inversions^[47] disorder the mind and are therefore called “Grounds Without Mind,” because the mind loses its original nature.

Third is the approach of whether the mind arises or does not arise. If the conditions are complete and this mind can arise, it is called a “Ground With Mind.” If the conditions are incomplete and that mind cannot arise, it is called a “Ground Without Mind.” Under this approach, whichever mind arises is called a “Ground With Mind,” while whichever mind does not arise is called a “Ground Without Mind.” Fourth is the approach of establishment according to states.

Apart from six states, all are called “Grounds With Mind.” The states of mindless sleep, mindless unconsciousness, the concentration of non-perception, birth among the non-percipient beings, the concentration of cessation, and nirvana without remainder are called “Grounds Without Mind.” Fifth is the approach according to the true meaning. In nirvana without remainder, all minds have ceased, and it is therefore called a “Ground Without Mind.” Other states are only nominally called mindless because the active consciousnesses are absent.

Since the eighth consciousness has not yet completely ceased, they are called “Grounds With Mind.” Thus, because these two Grounds are distinguished through different approaches, their inclusion and exclusion are not fixed.

Concerning the Ground Accomplished through Hearing: from what is heard there arises understanding of the words and their meanings. Its substance consists of wisdom and the mind and mental factors associated with wisdom.

Concerning the Ground Accomplished through Reflection: from reflection there arises understanding of the characteristics of dharmas. Its substance consists of wisdom and the mind and mental factors associated with wisdom.

Concerning the Ground Accomplished through Cultivation: from cultivation there arises understanding of the characteristics of dharmas. Its substance consists of wisdom and the mind and mental factors associated with wisdom.

HEARING means listening: from the faculty of hearing there arises auditory consciousness, which listens to the words of the teachings. REFLECTION means consideration: by considering the categories of dharmas, wisdom arises. It considers, examines, and selects among dharmas.

CULTIVATION means practice: wisdom arises from superior concentration. Cultivation means correction, in the sense of counteracting afflictions. From these three arise the three kinds of wisdom,^[48] and these together with their associated dharmas constitute the substance of the three Grounds.

The broader meaning of the three kinds of wisdom has been distinguished above. Thus, these three Grounds take as their intrinsic nature the three classes of wisdom together with mind, mental factors, and the fruits attained. Therefore, a later section of the treatise states: “The Ground Accomplished through Cultivation is also the Ground with Remainder and the Ground without Remainder.”

The Ground of the Shravaka: In the Buddha’s sacred teaching, “hearing” is foremost. Having heard the voice of the Buddha’s teaching from teachers and spiritual friends, practitioners gradually cultivate and realize it, forever transcending the world. Because they undertake a lesser practice and realize a lesser fruit, they are called shravakas, “hearers.” Thus, the shravaka lineage, the arising of the aspiration, cultivation, and realization of the fruit are collectively called the Ground of the Shravaka.

The Ground of the Pratyekabuddha: Such practitioners always delight in solitude and do not wish to dwell in crowded places. Having fully cultivated the practices of preparation,^[49] without instruction from teachers or spiritual friends, they naturally awaken by themselves and forever transcend the world. Because they undertake a middling practice and realize a middling fruit, they are called pratyekabuddhas, “solitary awakened ones.” Some contemplate conditioned causation and thereby realize the noble fruit; they are therefore called those awakened through conditions. Thus, the pratyekabuddha lineage, the arising of the aspiration, cultivation, and attainment of the fruit of the path are collectively called the Ground of the Pratyekabuddha.

Concerning the Bodhisattva Ground: One aspires to great awakening and has compassion for sentient beings. Or one seeks bodhi with firm resolve, cultivating and realizing it only after a long period of time, thereby forever transcending the world. Because one practices vast vows and conduct, it is called the Bodhisattva Ground. Thus, the bodhisattva lineage, the arising of the aspiration and cultivation, and the attainment of the fruit are collectively called the Bodhisattva Ground. The great meaning of the Three Vehicles will be discussed extensively later.

Concerning the Ground with Residual Support: This is the ground of nirvana with residual support. “Support” means that upon which the contaminated states depend. In brief, there are eight kinds of support: First, the support of conceptual designation, meaning that, based upon the five appropriated skandhas (form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness), names, kinds, and nominal identities are provisionally established.

Second, the support of sustaining relationships, meaning reliance upon seven sustaining relations: parents, wife and children, male and female servants, messengers, fellow workers, friends, and relatives. Third, the support that maintains life, meaning reliance upon the four kinds of nutriment for subsistence (edible food, contact, volition, and consciousness). Fourth, the support of cyclic continuity, namely, abiding in the four kinds of consciousness and the arising of the twelve links of dependent origination.

Fifth, the support of obstruction, namely the celestial maras. Sixth, the support of suffering and affliction, namely the afflictions within the desire realm. Seventh, the support of joy and delight, namely the joys experienced in meditative concentration.

Eighth, the final-limit support, meaning that although an arhat still has a continuum of skandhas, at present only one kind—the “final-limit support”—remains, excluding six of the sustaining supports mentioned above (retaining one portion), cyclic continuity, and obstruction.

Within this ground there are four kinds of quiescence: First, the quiescence of suffering, meaning that future suffering will ultimately never arise again. Second, the quiescence of the afflictions, meaning that the afflictions will ultimately never arise again. Third, the quiescence of karma, meaning that one does not commit evil deeds but cultivates wholesome deeds. Fourth, the quiescence of equanimity, meaning that, possessing right comprehension and right mindfulness and abiding in the practice of equanimity, one neither rejoices nor grieves in relation to the six faculties and six sense objects. An arhat abides on the ground of no-more-learning, possesses the four kinds of quiescence, and still has a small remainder of support; therefore, it is called the Ground with Residual Support.

This ground belongs to the Two Vehicles. Within the body of one beyond learning, the contaminated and uncontaminated dharmas, taken together, are subsumed within the intrinsic nature of the Tathagata. Although there is no truly contaminated residual support of body and mind, there is a transformation resembling contaminated support; therefore, from the standpoint of the manifested form, it may also be called the “Ground with Residual Support.”

The Ground Without Residual Support: This is nirvana without residual support. All contaminated residual supports are relinquished, and all conditioned uncontaminated states of the Two Vehicles are relinquished. Although the Tathagata possesses conditioned uncontaminated states, because he has no contaminated residual support whatsoever, this is also called the “Ground Without Residual Support.” Within this Ground, only purified suchness manifests its exceedingly profound qualities.

It is free from all discrimination and has ended all conceptual proliferation. It cannot be described in terms of skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, humans, devas, and so forth, as “identical,” as “separate,” as “existent,” or as “nonexistent.” All names and characteristics attributed to it are merely provisional designations. The nature of this Ground consists principally of “the ultimate analytical cessation, suchness, and the unconditioned,” together with the conditioned uncontaminated qualities of the Tathagata.

The qualities of the Tathagata are exceedingly profound, free from characteristics, and ineffable. Their ineffability is also included within the ground of the five consciousnesses. Their true principle is likewise included within the meaning that pertains to them.

The conditioned qualities of the Tathagata are included within the Ground with Residual Support, while the unconditioned qualities are included within the Ground Without Residual Support. Therefore, a later section of the treatise states: “The Ground Without Residual Support is a portion of five grounds: the Ground Without Mind, the Ground Accomplished through Cultivation, the Ground of the sravaka, the Ground of the pratyekabuddha, and the Ground of the bodhisattva.”

Notes:

^[1] The Commentary on the Yogacarabhumi Treatise: This is treatise no. 1580 in the Taisho Revised Tripitaka. Yoga means “correspondence.” Correspondence has five meanings: 1) Correspondence with objects: not contradicting the intrinsic nature of dharmas. 2) Correspondence with practice: accord with the joint practice of concentration and wisdom. 3) Correspondence with principle: the established and non-established aspects of the truths of the conventional and ultimate levels. 4) Correspondence with the fruit: realization of the fruit of unsurpassed bodhi. 5) Correspondence with illness and medicine: complete realization of the fruit of the path, in accord with benefiting and rescuing beings, responding to the capacities of sentient beings,

and prescribing medicine according to their illnesses.

Here, Yoga primarily means correspondence with the Dharma, that is, correspondence with principle.

The Yogacarabhumi Treatise: (Yogacaryabhumi-sastra). This treatise consists of 100 fascicles, was taught by Bodhisattva Maitreya, and was translated into Chinese by Xuanzang. Practitioners of the Three Vehicles practice the method of Yoga and are therefore called Yogacara masters. The seventeen domains that serve as the bases and fields of practice for Yogacara masters are called the “Grounds of the Yogacara Masters.”

The Commentary on the Yogacarabhumi Treatise is a treatise written by Bodhisattva Jinaputra for the purpose of briefly explaining the names and meanings of the seventeen domains, or grounds, in the Yogacarabhumi.

^[2] Jinaputra (Thìn na phất đa la; Jinaputra): He was born in India around the end of the sixth century CE. He was a disciple of Dharmapala and one of the ten great masters of the Consciousness-Only school. Fascicle 11 of the Records of the Western Regions states: “The kingdom of Parvata is more than five thousand li in circumference. Beside a great city stands a great monastery in which more than one hundred monks reside for the rains retreat. They all study and practice according to the teachings of the Mahayana. Bodhisattva Jinaputra composed the Commentary on the Yogacarabhumi Treatise here.”

^[3] Dharma Master Xuanzang: His family name was Chen, his secular given name was Wei, and he was a native of Yanshi during the Tang dynasty. At the age of thirteen, he entered monastic life with his elder brother, named Changjie, at Pure Land Monastery in Luoyang. He heard the Nirvana Sutra from Master Huijing and studied the Compendium of the Mahayana under Dharma Master Yan.

In the first year of the Wude era, he and his elder brother went to Chang’an and then to Chengdu, where he studied the Compendium Treatise and Abhidharma under Masters Daoji and Baotian and heard Dharma Master Zhen lecture on the Treatise on Dharma Wisdom. After five years, he received full ordination and studied the Vinaya. He traveled to Jingzhou, Xiangzhou, Zhaozhou, and Chang’an to study treatises.

He attended lectures on the Compendium of the Mahayana given by the two eminent masters Fachang and Sengbian, who were renowned in the capital at that time. Yet he still did not feel that the teachings had become clear to him, and he resolved to journey westward in search of the Dharma. In the third year of the Zhenguan era of the Tang dynasty, he departed to study the Dharma in India.

After enduring many hardships and dangers, he reached India in the seventh year of the Zhenguan era. Gifted with intelligence and firmly resolved to study the Sutras, Vinaya, and treatises under venerable masters in many places, he fulfilled his aspiration and became renowned in scholarly debates. In the nineteenth year of the Zhenguan era, he returned to the Tang capital, bringing 657 Sanskrit works, which he presented to the imperial court.

Emperor Taizong established a translation bureau for him at Hongfu Monastery, which was later transferred to Ci’en Monastery. He translated 75 works in 1,335 fascicles. He entered nirvana in the fifth month, at the age of sixty-five.

^[4] This verse of twenty-four lines is regarded as the preface to the treatise. First, homage is paid to the Buddha, the greatly awakened Blessed One of humans and devas, perfect in merit and wisdom. The Dharma is endowed with true, subtle, and unsurpassed wording and meaning.

The Sangha consists of the noble sages, both those still in training and those beyond training, who possess right understanding. Next, homage is paid to the author of the treatise, Maitreya, whose name is translated into Chinese as “the Compassionate One,” and who is also named Ajita, translated into Chinese as “Invincible.” Wishing to bring benefit and happiness to sentient beings, he gathered the essential meanings of the sutras and expounded the five sections of the Yogācāra treatise.

Homage is paid to Bodhisattva Asaṅga, who, through the power of samadhi, ascended to Tuṣita Heaven, heard Bodhisattva Maitreya teach the Yogācāra treatise, and brought it back to disseminate throughout the world. Homage is paid to all the noble ones who were steeped in the ocean of Dharma of Bodhisattva Ajita and who poured down this supreme rain of ambrosial Dharma upon all sentient beings. Those who were imbued with the Dharma rain of Yogācāra themselves enjoyed its wondrous Dharma sounds and also brought benefit to the world.

This Dharma rain scatters wondrous phrases and words, like flowers spreading their fragrance impartially, especially refreshing the factors of cultivation born from the womb of the root-tree of the Muni. This means that, in the three assemblies beneath Maitreya’s Dragon Flower Tree, all those who attain realization will be practitioners of the teachings of Śākyamuni Buddha. At this point, the author praises this Yogācāra treatise as a lotus flower, a treasury, and a vast ocean in which the extensive wording and meanings of the Vehicles are presented and explained without omission.

Assessing his own abilities, the author asks only to explain a small portion of this Yogācāra treatise, in the hope that the true Dharma may long endure and bring benefit, peace, and happiness to all sentient beings.

^[5] The Three Vehicles: The three vehicles that convey the Buddha’s teachings in accordance with practitioners’ capacities for cultivation and realization, namely, the vehicles of the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas.

^[6] Pudgala: Formerly translated into Chinese as “person” or “sentient being,” it is now translated as “one who grasps successive destinies,” meaning the factor that continually receives the results of birth, death, and cyclic existence within the realms of devas, humans, asuras, hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals.

^[7] The Two Vehicles: The śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha vehicles.

^[8] The three realms: The Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm.

^[9] Habitual tendencies: Delusions arising from latent influences that have long been accumulated through repeated conditioning.

^[10] True aspect: The genuine aspect, free from falsity and change, namely, the fundamental nature of all phenomena. Dharma-nature, suchness, and true aspect are different names, but all refer to the same fundamental nature. True aspect also has other names, such as: the one reality, the one suchness, the one aspect, signlessness, Dharma-body, realization of Dharma, the abiding state of Dharma, nirvana, the unconditioned, ultimate truth, true nature, true emptiness, real nature, the truth of reality, the ultimate limit of reality, and so forth.

^[11] The nature of imagined attachment: Ordinary beings mistakenly conceptualize things and falsely regard them as real, just as one sees a length of rope in the darkness and imagines it to be a snake, and so forth.

^[12] The nature of dependent arising: All phenomena arise in dependence upon other causes and conditions. Seeds in the ālaya consciousness are the primary cause, and, with the addition of other supporting conditions, formations come into being. The substance of a rope consists of hemp fibers, which become a rope through additional processes.

^[13] The nature of perfected reality: This refers to the true and perfectly accomplished nature of things, namely, the essential nature of conditioned phenomena. For example, the true nature of a rope is hemp.

^[14] The Two Truths: Two ways of apprehending the reality of things, respectively belonging to ordinary people and those possessing noble wisdom: conventional truth and ultimate truth. Ordinary people regard the phenomenal characteristics of things as real; this is called “conventional truth.” Those possessing noble wisdom realize the true principle that those phenomenal characteristics are not real; this is called “ultimate truth.”

^[15] The Two Collections: 1) The Śrāvaka Collection: It discusses the teachings, principles, practices, and fruits of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. 2) The Bodhisattva Collection: It discusses the teachings, principles, practices, and fruits of bodhisattvas.

The Tripiṭaka: The three treasuries of Buddhist teachings: The Sutra Piṭaka (Sūtrapiṭaka): the Buddha’s teachings. The Vinaya Piṭaka (Vinayapiṭaka): admonitions that eliminate the faults of the three kinds of karma—body, speech, and mind. The Abhidharma Piṭaka (Abhidharmapiṭaka): contemplation of the truth of things through superior wisdom; alternatively, the explanation and analysis of phenomena through superior wisdom. The Sutra Piṭaka is directed toward the training in samadhi. The Vinaya Piṭaka is directed toward the training in moral discipline. The Abhidharma Piṭaka is directed toward the training in wisdom.

^[16] Consciousness-only (Vijñānamātravāda): All phenomena are merely manifestations transformed by consciousness. Here, consciousness refers to the eight consciousnesses: eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, mental consciousness, manas consciousness, and ālaya consciousness.

^[17] The five destinies: The five realms to which beings must proceed according to the gravity or lightness of the causes and effects they have created: hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, and devas.

^[18] The three great sufferings: Having created evil causes, one must undergo extreme suffering in the three realms of hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals. Alternatively, these are the three things that obstruct the right path and harm the wholesome mind: afflictions, karmic obstructions, and resultant retribution.

^[19] Sambodhi: The fruit of complete and perfect awakening.

^[20] Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna, formerly translated as Long Thọ or Long Thắng, was a disciple of the Venerable Kapimala and one of the renowned masters of Mahayana doctrine. According to the Sutra of the Great Adornment Samadhi, in a past age Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna attained Buddhahood with the name Tathagata Wondrous Cloud Sovereign King, and he now abides at the stage of the First Bhūmi, known as the Ground of Joy or the Ground of Utmost Joy.

^[21] Noble Āryadeva: He composed the Hundred Treatise. Bodhisattva Deva was one of the great masters of the treatises. His contemporaries revered him as a noble sage, and he was therefore called Noble Āryadeva.

^[22] Bodhisattva Asaṅga: He was born in Gandhāra, India, approximately one thousand years after the Buddha’s parinirvana. He entered monastic life in the Mahīśāsaka school and later came to have faith in the Mahayana. He was a patriarch of the Dharma Characteristics School. One night, he entered samadhi and ascended to Tuṣita Heaven, where he heard Maitreya expound the Yogācāra Treatise, the Ornament Treatise, the Mahayana Treatise, and the Treatise Distinguishing the Middle and the Extremes. He then returned and taught the Dharma to the assembly.

^[23] Formations dissociated from mind: In the Consciousness-only teachings there are mind, mental factors, and material phenomena. The activities of the phenomena within these three categories do not correspond with one another; they are therefore called “formations dissociated from mind.” There are twenty-four kinds of formations dissociated from mind; consult the Consciousness-only teachings for clarification.

^[24] Skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth: Namely, the five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, eighteen dhatus, twelve links of dependent origination, conditioned arising, dependent origination, and the Four Noble Truths—suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path.

^[25] The four natures: The Sutra of the Buddha’s Past Practices states that bodhisattvas possess four natures of conduct: 1) Conduct arising from intrinsic nature: From the beginning, bodhisattvas have been fully endowed with the virtues of goodness, filial devotion, faith, reverence, and the ten wholesome deeds. 2) Conduct arising from the nature of aspiration: Bodhisattvas arouse the resolve and vow to attain the path and become Buddhas. 3) Conduct arising from the nature of accord: Bodhisattvas practice in accordance with the six paramitas. 4) Conduct arising from the nature of transformation: Through the work of cultivation, they transform from ordinary beings into noble ones.

^[26] Four dharmas: Within the Dharma Treasure there are four kinds: the teaching Dharma, the Dharma of principle, the Dharma of practice, and the Dharma of fruition. The Mahayana Sutra on Recording the Dharma states that bodhisattvas have four practices: 1) Not abandoning the bodhicitta. 2) Not abandoning spiritual friends. 3) Not abandoning patient perseverance regarding desires and pleasures. 4) Not abandoning the tranquil place of aranya.

^[27] The 37 factors of enlightenment: the 4 foundations of mindfulness, the 4 right efforts, the 4 bases of spiritual power, the 5 faculties, the 5 powers, the 7 factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path.

^[28] Vipassana (Samatha): This refers to the two approaches to meditation: Samatha is calming, and Vipassana is contemplation.

^[29] Samadhi (Samàdhi): Concentration, right absorption.

^[30] The nine paths: According to the Great Dictionary of Buddhist Studies, the nine paths refer to the nine abodes of sentient beings:

1) The abode of humans and devas in the Desire Realm. 2) The abode of the Brahma Assembly devas. 3) The abode of the Abundant Radiance devas. 4) The abode of the Universal Purity devas. 5) The abode of the Non-Perception devas. 6) The abode of the devas of the Sphere of Infinite Space. 7) The abode of the devas of the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness. 8) The abode of the devas of the Sphere of Nothingness. 9) The abode of the devas of the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.

^[31] Unequaled among equals (Asamasama): An honorific title for the Buddha’s path and the Buddha. Because the Buddha’s path is unsurpassed and nothing can compare with it, it is called “unequaled.” Only a Buddha can equal a Buddha—that is, only enlightened ones can be their equals—and therefore it is called “equal.”

^[32] Non-common practice: The practices of the various teachings are not the same, but ultimately they equally realize the fruition of bodhi.

^[33] The three bodies and three virtues: The three bodies are the Dharma body, the reward body, and the transformation body. The three virtues are the Dharma body, prajna, and liberation.

^[34] Attainment of equilibrium: Another name for meditative concentration. In concentration, when body and mind are balanced and peacefully harmonized, this is called “equilibrium.” Because concentration reaches the state of equilibrium, it is called “attainment.”

^[35] The 17 grounds: The Yogacarabhumi Treatise explains 17 objects, or Dharma approaches, of contemplation, called the 17 grounds: 1) The Ground Associated with the Bodies of the Five Consciousnesses. 2) The Ground of Mind. 3) The Ground with Investigation and Discernment. 4) The Ground without Investigation but with Discernment. 5) The Ground without Investigation or Discernment. 5) The Ground of Samàhita (balanced guidance: the balanced power of concentration leading to virtues). 7) The Ground of Non-Samàhita. 8) The Ground with Mind. 9) The Ground without Mind. 10) The Ground Accomplished through Hearing. 11) The Ground Accomplished through Reflection. 12) The Ground Accomplished through Cultivation. 13) The Ground of the Sravaka. 14) The Ground of the Pratyekabuddha. 15) The Ground of

the Bodhisattva. 16) The Ground with Residual Support. 17) The Ground without Residual Support.

^[36] The ten grounds: 1) The Ground of Joy. 2) The Ground Free from Defilement. 3) The Luminous Ground. 4) The Ground of Blazing Wisdom. 5) The Ground Difficult to Conquer. 6) The Ground of Manifest Presence. 7) The Far-Going Ground. 8) The Immovable Ground. 9) The Ground of Excellent Wisdom. 10) The Ground of the Dharma Cloud. These are the ten grounds of the Mahayana. These ten stages are all called “grounds” because they encompass conditioned and unconditioned virtues as their intrinsic nature, serve as the most steadfast support for cultivation, and enable growth; therefore, they are called “grounds.”

^[37] Ondanam, also transliterated in some places as Udàna: In Chinese it is translated as “self-spoken”: no one asks, yet one speaks of one’s own accord.

^[38] The three means of cognition in Consciousness-Only studies: 1) Direct cognition: apprehending a presently manifest object, as when seeing an object in a mirror. 2) Inferential cognition: knowing through comparative discrimination, as when seeing smoke and knowing that there is fire. 3) Non-valid cognition: the mind is confused and disordered, mistakenly discriminating things; it is neither direct cognition nor inferential cognition.

^[39] Equanimous retention (Samàdhi): Another name for meditative concentration. The mind abides upon a single object and maintains equilibrium.

^[40] Equanimous attainment (Samàpatti): Body and mind are balanced and peacefully harmonized, leading to a state of equality.

^[41] The four dhyanas: That is, the four meditative absorptions.

^[42] The eight liberations: 1) While internally possessing perceptions of attachment to form, one contemplates external forms as impure and attains liberation. 2) Although the mind internally has no perception of attachment to form, one still contemplates external forms as impure in order to make this realization more steadfast and attains liberation. 3) Abandoning the perception of impurity, one concentrates on contemplating pure forms and attains liberation. 4) Contemplating the Sphere of Infinite Space, one attains liberation. 5) Contemplating the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, one attains liberation. 6) Contemplating the Sphere of Nothingness, one attains liberation. 7) Contemplating the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception,

one attains liberation. 8) Entering the concentration of the cessation of feeling and perception, one attains liberation.

^[43] The five manifested views: the view of a self, extreme views, wrong views, attachment to views, and attachment to prohibitions and precepts. Adding greed, anger, delusion, conceit, ignorance, and doubt makes the ten views.

^[44] The eight bases of mastery: One gives rise to superior knowledge and vision in order to relinquish craving within meditative concentration. 1) When the path has not yet developed, perceptions of attachment to form arise internally, while externally one contemplates only a few forms. 2) As the path gradually matures, one perceives forms internally and contemplates many external forms without obstruction. 3) As the path gradually becomes excellent and sublime, one does not perceive forms internally and contemplates only a few external forms. 4) When the path has become excellent and sublime, one does not perceive forms internally and contemplates many external forms without obstruction. 5) One contemplates blue forms,

transforming them freely without giving rise to attachment to dharmas. 7) One contemplates red forms, transforming them freely... 8) One contemplates white forms, transforming them freely...

^[45] The ten totalities: Taking the entirety of the myriad phenomena as a single object of contemplation. This method has ten kinds of contemplation: earth, water, fire, wind, blue, yellow, red, white, space, and consciousness.

^[46] Analysis by the tetralemma: 1) Existent but not empty: existent and not empty. 2) Empty but not existent: empty and not existent. 3) Both existent and empty: both existent and empty. 4) Neither existent nor empty: neither existent nor empty.

^[47] The four inversions: Four kinds of inverted false views, divided into two categories: 1) Within samsara: what is impermanent, devoid of happiness, devoid of self, and impure is grasped as permanent, blissful, self, and pure. 2) Within nirvana: what is permanent, blissful, self, and pure is instead regarded as impermanent, devoid of happiness, devoid of self, and impure.

^[48] The three kinds of wisdom: Namely, wisdom arising from hearing, wisdom arising from reflection, and wisdom arising from cultivation.

^[49] The four stages of preparatory practice: After cultivating the Ten Dedications of Merit, one resolves to further cultivate the four contemplations of investigation and the four contemplations in accordance with reality, thereby realizing the stages of the four wholesome roots: warmth, summit, patience, and the highest worldly Dharma. The four contemplations of investigation concern four aspects of all dharmas: name, meaning, intrinsic nature, and distinction.

“Name” refers to the names of things, such as form, feeling, and so forth. “Meaning” refers to the essential nature of form, feeling, and so forth that is explained in reliance upon those names. “Intrinsic nature” is the intrinsic essence of form, feeling, and so forth.

“Distinction” refers to the various categories and distinctions within their essences. The practitioner contemplates these four dharmas as manifestations transformed by one’s own mind, like illusions and inherently false, and must seek and examine whether they provisionally exist but are not real; this is called the “four contemplations of investigation.” Taking these four contemplations as causes, one gives rise to the decisive wisdom of confirmation and acceptance.

One not only understands in accordance with reality that the apprehended objects—the names, meanings, intrinsic natures, and distinctions of things—are manifestations transformed by one’s own mind, provisionally existing but unreal, but also clearly knows that the apprehending subject, which takes these four dharmas as its objects, likewise provisionally exists but is unreal. These are the “four contemplations in accordance with reality.” The four contemplations of investigation and the four contemplations in accordance with reality are what the contemplation of dharmas brings forth.

As for the meditative concentrations that bring them forth, they are: 1) The concentration in which illumination is attained. 2) The concentration in which illumination increases. 3) The concentration conforming to confirmation. 4) The uninterrupted concentration. Through these, virtues are added to what is realized through the four dharmas, namely, the four wholesome roots: warmth, summit, patience, and the highest worldly Dharma.