阿毘達磨俱舍論

CHAPTER 1: ANALYSIS OF THE DHATUS

Part I

[He has destroyed every form of delusion,

And rescued sentient beings from the mire of samsara.

I reverently bow to the Teacher endowed with such qualities, the Teacher of truth,

And shall compose this Treatise on the Treasury of Abhidharma.]

Treatise:

In composing this treatise, the author wished to set forth the noble qualities by which his Teacher far surpasses all assemblies of noble ones. He therefore first uttered words of praise and then reverently bowed down.

“He” refers to the Buddha, the Blessed One. Because he is able to destroy delusion, it is said that “delusion has been extinguished.”

“Every kind of delusion concerning all things has been extinguished” means the destruction of every form of delusion concerning all things. Because the various kinds of ignorance ordinarily conceal the true meaning and obstruct vision of things as they truly are, they are called “delusion.” The Buddha, the Blessed One, alone has forever counteracted every kind of delusion concerning all things, rendering them incapable of arising again; hence it is said that they have been “extinguished.” Although pratyekabuddhas and shravakas have also extinguished forms of delusion by abandoning defiled ignorance (kḷṣṭasaṃmoha), they are nevertheless not said to have extinguished “every kind.” Why is this?

Because they have not abandoned undefiled ignorance and do not know the distinctive qualities of a Buddha, objects extremely remote in space and time, or the infinitely manifold distinctions among things.

Having praised the perfection of the Blessed One’s qualities of benefiting himself, the author next praises the perfection of his qualities of benefiting others.

“He draws sentient beings out of the mire of samsara”: samsara is the place in which all sentient beings sink and from which it is extremely difficult to escape; it is therefore compared to a mire. Out of compassion for sentient beings who are submerged in that mire with no one to rescue them, the Blessed One extends the hand of the true Dharma to deliver them.

Following the praise of the Buddha’s qualities comes the reverential bow.

“I reverently bow to such a Teacher of truth”: bowing down from head to foot is called “reverent homage.” Because the Blessed One is endowed with the aforementioned qualities of benefiting himself and others, he is described as “such.” Because he instructs and transmits the Dharma as it truly is, without the slightest error, he is called the “Teacher of truth.” The expression “Teacher of truth” also reveals the Buddha, the Blessed One’s quality of benefiting others: it is through this true and correct teaching that the Blessed One rescues sentient beings from the mire of samsara, and not through supernatural powers or the bestowal of favors.

Having reverently bowed to the Teacher of truth, what does the author intend to do?

“I shall expound the Treatise on the Treasury of Abhidharma”: that which cultivates and instructs disciples is called a “treatise.” What treatise is this? It is the Treatise on the Treasury of Abhidharma (Abhidharmakośa). Why is it called the Treasury of Abhidharma?

[Pure wisdom together with its accompanying dharmas is called Abhidharma.

The kinds of wisdom and the treatises by which pure wisdom may be attained are also called Abhidharma.]

Treatise:

“Wisdom” (prajñā) is the discernment of dharmas. “Pure” (amala) means uncontaminated (anāsrava). The dharmas accompanying pure wisdom are called its “retinue” (privāra), namely, the five uncontaminated skandhas that coexist with pure wisdom. All of these are called “Abhidharma,” and this is Abhidharma in the ultimate sense, that is, Abhidharma understood according to its most final meaning.

According to the conventional worldly meaning, however, Abhidharma refers to the kinds of wisdom and treatises capable of leading to the attainment of Abhidharma in the ultimate sense as described above. Here, “wisdom” refers to the contaminated (sāsrava) kinds of wisdom acquired innately (upapattipratilambhikā), or through hearing the Dharma, reflection, cultivation, or meditative concentration (śarutacintābhāvanā-māyi).

“Treatises” refers to expositions of the Dharma capable of causing pure wisdom to arise. Because these kinds of wisdom and these treatises assist in attaining Abhidharma in the ultimate sense, they too are called Abhidharma.

Explanation of the name Abhidharma:

Whatever bears (dhārana) its own distinctive characteristic (svalakṣaṇa) is called a dharma.

“Dharma” may refer to an eminent Dharma (abhi-dharma); in this case, Dharma is nirvana.

“Dharma” may also refer to the characteristics of dharmas; in this case, Dharma encompasses all Four Noble Truths, including both their distinctive and common characteristics.

Because Abhidharma is capable of proceeding toward nirvana or of examining the Four Noble Truths, it is called Abhidharma.

The term “Abhidharma” has now been explained. Why is this treatise called the Treasury of Abhidharma?

[Because it contains the essential meaning of the Abhidharma and relies upon the Abhidharma,

This treatise is called the Abhidharmakośa.]

Treatise: Because this treatise contains the essential meaning of the Abhidharma Treatise—one of the three collections of sutra, vinaya, and abhidharma—it is called a “treasury,” in the sense of a container. Alternatively, because this treatise relies upon the Abhidharma, arises from the Abhidharma Treatise, and is contained within the Abhidharma Treatise, it is called a “treasury,” in the sense of that which is contained. Therefore, this treatise is called the Treasury of Abhidharma.

For what reason is Abhidharma taught? Who first taught Abhidharma? We shall now reverently compose this treatise in order to explain these matters.

[Apart from the discernment of dharmas, there is certainly no other excellent means

Capable of eliminating the afflictions.

The afflictions cause the world to drift upon the ocean of suffering of the modes of existence;

Therefore, the Buddha’s teaching on Abhidharma should be transmitted.]

Treatise: Apart from the discernment of dharmas, there is no excellent means for eliminating the afflictions (kleśa), which continually cause sentient beings to drift upon the great ocean of samsara. For this reason, the Buddha’s teaching on Abhidharma described above is transmitted so that sentient beings may attain the discernment of dharmas.

If deprived of the Buddha’s teaching on Abhidharma, we would be unable to distinguish the characteristics of dharmas in accordance with reason. The Buddha, the Blessed One, however, taught Abhidharma on various occasions, and great shravakas such as the venerable Kātyāyaniputra and others compiled it clearly, just as the venerable Dharmatrāta compiled the verses in the Chapter on Impermanence (Udānavarga), and so forth. These are the proofs presented by the Vaibhāṣika masters.

Which dharmas must be discerned so that the Buddha’s teaching on Abhidharma may then be transmitted?

[They are the contaminated and uncontaminated dharmas.

Apart from the Truth of the Path, all other conditioned dharmas

Serve as the basis upon which the contaminants increase;

Therefore, they are called contaminated.

The uncontaminated are the Truth of the Path

And the three kinds of unconditioned dharmas:

Space and the two cessations.

Of these, space is by nature unobstructed;

Cessation through discernment is separation from the bonds,

And as the bonds differ, cessation through discernment also differs;

Finally, that which prevents other dharmas from arising

Is precisely cessation not through discernment.]

Treatise: All dharmas are divided into two kinds: contaminated and uncontaminated. What are contaminated dharmas? They are all conditioned dharmas (saṃskṛta) except the Truth of the Path. Why? Because the contaminants can increase by relying upon conditioned dharmas; but although contaminants may arise in relation to the Truth of the Path, they do not increase, and therefore the Truth of the Path is not contaminated. The meaning of increase through association will be explained in detail in the chapter on the Latent Tendencies (Anuśayanirdeśa).

Contaminated dharmas have now been explained; what, then, are uncontaminated dharmas?

The uncontaminated dharmas are the Truth of the Path and the three kinds of unconditioned dharmas (asaṃskṛta). What are these three? They are space (ākāśa) and the two cessations. What are the two cessations? They are cessation through discernment (pratisaṃkhyānirodha) and cessation independent of discernment (apratisaṃkhyānirodha).

These three unconditioned dharmas—space, cessation through discernment, and cessation independent of discernment—together with the Truth of the Path are called uncontaminated dharmas. Why? Because the defilements cannot increase by adhering to these dharmas.

In this brief exposition of the three unconditioned dharmas, space has only the characteristic of non-obstruction. Cessation through discernment is liberation from bondage to contaminated dharmas, whereby the nirvana of liberation is realized.

“Discernment” means discriminative discernment, that is, the various kinds of wisdom, because they are capable of distinguishing the Four Noble Truths. Since this cessation is attained through the power of wisdom (pratisaṃkhyāprāpyanirodha), it is called cessation through discernment, that is, cessation attained through the power of discernment. It is like a cart drawn by an ox being called an “ox cart”; such expressions arise through the omission of the intervening words.

Is there only one cessation through discernment for all contaminated dharmas? No.

Why is it said that cessation through discernment differs according to the various bonds? This means that there are as many forms of release from bondage as there are entities of bondage (saṃyugadravya). If this were not so, then when the defilements eliminated through seeing the principle of the Truth of Suffering were extinguished, all the defilements that can be eliminated only through other capacities—such as seeing the principles of the Truth of Origin, the Truth of Cessation, and so forth—would also be extinguished at the same time. If that were so, cultivating the other antidotes to the defilements would become useless.

In what sense is this cessation said not to belong to dharmas “of the same class” (asabhāga)? It is in the sense that this cessation itself has no homogeneous cause producing a result (sabhāgahetu), nor is this cessation a homogeneous cause producing a result. It does not mean that this cessation is unique or that there are no other cessations of the same kind. This concludes the explanation of cessation through discernment.

Because it permanently prevents future arising, cessation independent of discernment is attained. This means that it can permanently prevent future dharmas from arising. Since the attainment of this cessation differs from the preceding kind, it is called cessation independent of discernment.

This cessation is attained not through the discriminative activity of wisdom, but merely because future dharmas lack the conditions for arising. For example, while the eye faculty and the mental faculty are attending to a particular visible form (rūpa), other visible forms, as well as sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, and so forth, pass from the present into the past. Consequently, the five consciousnesses of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body that remain in the future and would have been capable of taking those objects as their conditions can ultimately never arise, because these five consciousnesses cannot take as their objects those objects that have passed into the past.

Thus, because the conditions for arising are incomplete (pratyayavaikalyāt), this cessation independent of discernment is attained.

The attainment of cessation with respect to dharmas should be analyzed in four cases.

1. Only cessation through discernment is attained with respect to contaminated dharmas that are past, present, or certain to arise.

2. Only cessation independent of discernment is attained with respect to uncontaminated, conditioned dharmas that are certain not to arise.

3. Both cessation through discernment and cessation independent of discernment are attained with respect to contaminated dharmas that are certain not to arise.

4. Neither cessation through discernment nor cessation independent of discernment can be attained with respect to uncontaminated dharmas that are past, present, or certain to arise.

It was stated above that, apart from the Truth of the Path, all other conditioned dharmas are contaminated. Why are they called conditioned?

[Conditioned dharmas

Are the five skandhas—form and so forth;

They are the course of time,

The basis of speech,

They possess an escape, and the other such designations.]

Treatise: The five skandhas—form and so forth—refer to the aggregate of form (rūpaskandha), the aggregate of feeling (vedanāskandha), the aggregate of perception (saṃjñāskandha), the aggregate of formations (saṃskāraskandha), and the aggregate of consciousness (vijñānaskandha). These five skandhas fully comprise all conditioned dharmas. Etymologically, “conditioned” means “made (kṛta) through the conjunction and combination (sametya, saṃbhūya) of conditions”; therefore, no dharma is produced by a single condition alone.

Although the term “conditioned” means “having been made,” it may still correctly be applied to a dharma of the future or present, as well as one of the past, because once something is a dharma, it does not change its nature when passing from one temporal stage to another. This is like calling milk “milk in the udder,” or calling burning firewood a “tree.”

Conditioned dharmas are also called the course (adhvan) of time—that is, the stages of past, present, and future—because such dharmas possess the characteristics of having gone, going, and being yet to go. It is like saying that a road has led to the city, is leading to the city, and will lead to the city. Alternatively, conditioned dharmas are called a course because they are gradually consumed (adyante) by impermanence, just as a road is gradually shortened as it is traversed over time by a traveler on foot.

Conditioned dharmas are also called the basis (vastu) of speech (kathā). The basis of speech is a name or word (nāman). Should we, however, understand the definition presented in the foregoing verse literally and conclude that conditioned dharmas are themselves words? We should not. Calling them the basis of speech implies both the word and the meaning signified by that word. To understand “the basis of speech” as words alone would contradict the Prakaraṇapāda, which states: “The bases of speech are all included within the eighteen dhatus (dhātu).”

Conditioned dharmas are also said to possess an escape (niḥsāra). Escape means permanent release, namely nirvana. Because conditioned dharmas must be relinquished, we attribute to them the characteristic of “possessing an escape.”

Conditioned dharmas are also called “possessing causes” (savastuka), because the Vaibhāṣika masters hold that vastu here means cause (hetu).

These are the various designations of conditioned dharmas. Regarding the conditioned dharmas under discussion here, the verse continues:

[The contaminated are called aggregates of clinging,

And are also called conflict,

Suffering, Origin, the world,

The locus of views, the three realms of existence, and so forth.]

Treatise: By what dharmas are the contaminated constituted? They are the aggregates of clinging (upādānaskandha), or simply the aggregates (skandha). In the case of uncontaminated dharmas, however, there are only aggregates, not aggregates of clinging. Clinging means the defilements (kleśa). Because the aggregates arise from the defilements, they are called aggregates of clinging, just as one speaks of a “grass fire” or a “chaff fire.” Or because the aggregates are subject to the defilements, they are called aggregates of clinging, just as “the ministers are subject to the king.” Or because the aggregates give rise to the defilements, they are called aggregates of clinging, just as one speaks of a “tree that produces flowers” or a “tree that produces fruit.”

Defiled dharmas are also called “conflict” (saraṇa api), because the afflictions are conflict (raṇa): they constantly disturb wholesome dharmas, harm oneself and others, and cling to defiled dharmas and increase. Defiled dharmas are also called suffering (duḥkha) because they run contrary to the noble mind.

Defiled dharmas are also called origination because suffering originates from these dharmas.

Defiled dharmas are also called the world because they are subject to destruction.

Defiled dharmas are also called the abode of views (tiṣṭhati), because the five kinds of wrong view abide therein, cling to them, and increase.

Defiled dharmas are also called the three existences because they have causes, have supports, and are encompassed within the three existences.

Thus, according to their different meanings, defiled dharmas are known by many different names.

It was stated above that the five skandhas—form and so forth—are conditioned dharmas. What, then, is the form skandha?

[The form skandha consists of the five faculties,

The five objects, and non-information.]

Treatise: The five faculties (indriya) are the faculties of the eye (cakṣus), ear (śrotra), nose (ghrāna), tongue (jihva), and body (kāya).

The five objects (viṣaya) are the object-fields of the five faculties, namely color or shape (rūpa), sound, odor, taste, and tangible objects (spraṣṭavya).

Non-information (avijñapti) is the kind of form that is not manifest.

The form skandha is named solely on the basis of the foregoing enumeration. Here, the characteristics of the five faculties should first be explained.

[The subtle, pure forms that serve as supports for those consciousnesses

Are called the five faculties: the eye and so forth.]

Treatise: “Those” refers to the five objects—color, sound, and so forth—mentioned above; “consciousnesses” refers to the consciousness of color (cakṣurvijñāna), and so forth. The five kinds of subtle, pure form that serve, in sequence, as the supports of the five consciousnesses are called the eye faculty, ear faculty, nose faculty, tongue faculty, and body faculty.

The Blessed One said: “Bhikshus, the eye is an internal ayatana; it is subtle matter produced by the great elements…”

Alternatively, the word “those” refers to the five faculties of the eye, ear, and so forth mentioned above; “consciousnesses” means the consciousnesses of the eye, ear, and so forth; and the five portions of subtle matter that serve as the supports of these consciousnesses are the five faculties of the eye, ear, and so forth. This accords with the Prakaraṇapāda Treatise, which states: “What is the eye faculty? It is the subtle matter that serves as the support of eye consciousness, and so forth.”

The five faculties have now been explained. Next are the five objects:

[Visible form is of two or twenty kinds;

Sound is of only eight kinds;

Taste is of six kinds, odor of four kinds,

And tangible objects of eleven kinds.]

Treatise: That which can be seen (the visible-form ayatana, rūpāyatana) is divided into two or twenty kinds.

The two kinds are color (manifest form, varṇa) and shape (configured form, saṃsthāna). Color is of four kinds: blue, red, yellow, and white; all other colors are merely secondary colors derived from these four. Shape is of eight kinds: long, short, square, round, high, low, even, and uneven.

The twenty kinds are the four colors—blue, red, yellow, and white; the eight shapes—long, short, square, round, high, low, even, and uneven; and eight other colors—the colors of clouds, smoke, dust, mist, shadow, sunlight, radiance, and darkness. Some masters add one further kind: the color of the expanse of space (nabhas), which appears like a wall of sapphire. This makes twenty-one kinds.

Here, “even” (śāta) means a shape whose parts are proportionate; if they are not proportionate, it is called “uneven” (viśāta). “Mist” (mahikā) refers to vapors rising from the earth and water. “Sunlight” (ātāpa) is the light of the sun. “Radiance” (āloka) is the light of the moon, stars, fire, dry grass, and jewels. “Shadow” arises when light is obstructed, but visible forms can still be seen within it; when they cannot be seen, it is called “darkness.” The remaining kinds are readily understood and need no explanation.

What is seen may be color but not shape. These are blue, red, yellow, white, shadow, sunlight, radiance, and darkness.

It may sometimes be shape but not color. This is a portion of long, short, and so forth that constitutes bodily action as an expression (kāyavijñapti).

It may sometimes be both color and shape; these are the other visible objects.

Some masters hold that only sunlight and radiance possess color but no shape, because blue, red, and the other colors manifest in long, short, and other shapes.

The masters of the Sūtra school (Sautrāntika), however, ask: “How can one and the same thing ‘possess’ (vidyate) both color and shape, since according to the doctrine of the Vibhāṣā, color and shape are each separate real entities (dravya)?”

(Reply:) Because both color and shape are cognized (prajñāna) in one and the same object. Here the word “possess” (vid) implies being cognized, not existing.

But the Sautrāntikas further object: “If that is so, you must admit that bodily movements are likewise both color and shape.”

This concludes the explanation of what can be seen. Next is the explanation of what can be heard.

Sound is of eight kinds. The first four are: (1) that whose cause is the great elements (mahābhūta) actually constituting part of the faculties; (2) that whose cause is other great elements; (3) that which pertains exclusively to sentient beings; and (4) that which does not pertain exclusively to sentient beings. Each of these four kinds may be pleasing or displeasing to hear, thus making eight kinds.

Sounds whose cause is the great elements mentioned first include sounds produced by the hand and by speech.

Sounds whose cause is not the great elements mentioned above—that is, whose causes are other kinds of great elements—include sounds produced by wind, forests, water, and so forth.

Sounds pertaining exclusively to sentient beings are those produced through the act of vocalization.

Sounds that do not pertain exclusively to sentient beings are all other sounds.

Some masters hold that certain sounds belong to both of the latter two kinds, such as sounds produced by a hand and a drum. The Vibhāṣā masters, however, do not admit that a single atom (aṇu) of color can have two groups of the four great elements as its causes.

This concludes the explanation of what can be heard. Next is the explanation of what can be tasted and smelled.

Taste is of six kinds: sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter, and bland.

Odor is of four kinds: fragrant, foul, excessively fragrant or excessively foul, and not excessively fragrant or not excessively foul.

According to the Prakaraṇapāda Treatise, there are only three kinds of odor: fragrant, foul, and equally fragrant and foul, or neither fragrant nor foul (sama).

Tangible entities (spraṣṭavyadravya) are of eleven kinds: the four great elements and the qualities of smoothness, roughness, heaviness, lightness, cold, hunger, and thirst.

The four great elements will be explained later.

Smoothness is softness; roughness is hardness; heaviness refers to what can be weighed; lightness is the opposite; cold is that which produces a desire for warmth; hunger is that which produces a desire to eat; and thirst is that which produces a desire to drink. Thus, by the words “hunger” and “thirst,” we intend to indicate those tangible objects capable of producing hunger and thirst; that is, the names of the effects are applied to their causes. It is just as a verse states: “The arising of Buddhas is happiness; the exposition of the true Dharma is happiness; happy is the harmony of the Sangha; happy is the united striving in practice.” (Dhammapada, 194; Udānavarga, xxx, 23)

In the form realm (Rūpadhātu), there are no contacts associated with hunger or thirst, but the other kinds of contact are still present. Garments there, if weighed separately, cannot be measured, but if gathered together, they can still be weighed.

According to the Vibhāṣā, there are no instances there of cold contact that causes harm, but there are instances of cold contact that brings benefit.

The foregoing concludes the discussion of the kinds belonging to the visible-object ayatana.

(The doctrine of the Vibhāṣā) Sometimes visual consciousness arises from only one entity (dravya), from a group of entities belonging to the form skandha, and in that case the characteristic of that entity is individually discerned. At other times, however, it arises from many entities, and then there is no such individual discernment. It is like seeing from afar, all at once, the many different colors and shapes of an army or a heap of jewels. This also applies to the other kinds of consciousness belonging to the ear, nose, and so forth.

Some masters, however, maintain that bodily consciousness arises from no more than five entities: the four great elements and one of the other kinds of contact, such as smoothness, roughness, and so forth.

Another theory holds that bodily consciousness arises from all eleven kinds of contact at the same time.

(Objection) If each of the five consciousnesses mentioned above apprehends only a universal (sāmānya)—for example, if visual consciousness apprehends only blue, red, and so forth—then it follows that these consciousnesses perceive only common characteristics (sāmānyalakṣaṇa), and not individual characteristics (svalakṣaṇa), contrary to what is stated in the sutra.

(Explanation of the Vibhāṣā) When the sutra speaks of an “individual characteristic,” it does not mean the individual characteristic of an entity (dravya), but the individual characteristic of an ayatana.

When the two faculties of the body and tongue simultaneously reach their respective objects, the consciousness of which faculty arises first?

Whichever object is stronger, the consciousness corresponding to it arises first. If the two objects are equal in strength, gustatory consciousness arises first, because the desire to eat and drink is more predominant.

The faculties, their objects, and the nature of the cognition of objects have been discussed above; the characteristics of nonmanifest form will now be explained.

[Whether the mind is distracted or absent, and so forth,

There is still a dharma that follows, either pure or impure,

Produced by the great elements;

Therefore, it is called nonmanifest.]

Treatise: A distracted mind (vikṣipta) refers to a kind of mind different from the mind presently active. Absence of mind (acittaka) refers to the states of entering the attainment of nonperception (asaṃjñisamāpatti) and the attainment of cessation (nirodhasamāpatti). The words “and so forth” refer to states in which the mind is undistracted and present. Because it remains similar and continues without interruption, it is called a continuous accompaniment (anubandha). The wholesome (śubha, kuśala) and unwholesome (aśubha, akuśala) are called pure and impure. To distinguish this from the similar and continuous occurrence of acquisition, it is further stated that it is produced by the great elements.

The Vibhāṣā says that “produced” here means “cause,” because the five kinds of cause produce arising and so forth. To explain that production is causation, the word “therefore” is used. Although nonmanifest form, like manifest action (vijñapti), likewise has form and karma as its nature, it is called nonmanifest because it does not disclose the form of the action in a way that can be perceived. The word “said” implies that this is the exposition of the Vibhāṣā, which briefly explains that wholesome and unwholesome forms arising from manifest action and meditative concentration are called nonmanifest.

It has been said that nonmanifest form is produced by the great elements. What, then, are the great elements?

[The great elements are the four elements:

Earth, water, fire, and wind.

Their functions are supporting and so forth,

And their characteristics are solidity, moisture, heat, and motion.]

Treatise: Earth, water, wind, and fire preserve their own individual characteristics and the forms produced by them (derived form, upādāyarūpa, bhautika); therefore, they are called elements (dhātu). These four elements are called the great elements (mahābhūta) because they serve as the basis for all other kinds of form and are thus inherently pervasive; or because the great elements of earth, water, and so forth are amassed in great quantities within earth, water, and so forth; or because they perform all kinds of great functions.

What functions do these four great elements perform? In the order given above, they support (dhāraṇa), cohere (saṃgraha), mature (pakti), and expand (vyūhana).

The earth element has the function of supporting, the water element of cohering, the fire element of maturing, and the wind element of expanding. “Expanding” means causing extension (prasarpaṇa) and growth (vṛddhi).

What are the characteristics of these four great elements? In the order given above, their characteristics are solidity, moisture, heat, and motion. The earth element is solid, the water element is moist, the fire element is hot, and the wind element is mobile.

Through this characteristic of motion, the great elements and the forms they produce are guided in a continuous arising toward other places, just as in the case of the light of a lamp. The Prakaraṇapāda and the Garbhāvakrāntisūtra say: “What is the wind element? It is lightness (laghutva).” The Prakaraṇapāda further says: “This lightness is a derived form.” Therefore, a dharma whose nature is motion (īraṇātmaka) is the wind element.

Here, its essential nature is explained in terms of its function of motion (īraṇātmakarman), and thus it is called “lightness.”

What are the distinctions between the great elements of earth and so forth?

The stanza replies:

[Earth is color and shape,

Conventionally designated according to worldly usage.

Water and fire are likewise;

Wind is the wind element and is also color and shape.]

Treatise: Earth is color and shape, and its substance is the visible-object ayatana. It is so named in accordance with the way the world conceives it, because when people point out earth to one another, they do so on the basis of its color and shape. The same applies to water and fire.

Wind is the wind element itself, because the world names it on the basis of motion; or, as in the case of earth and so forth, it is called wind in accordance with worldly usage. Wind is color and shape; therefore, the stanza says “likewise.”

When people speak of a “black wind,” a “whirling wind,” and so forth, they are designating wind on the basis of color and shape.

Why are these dharmas, from the visible to the invisible, called form? Why do they together constitute the form skandha? Because they are subject to alteration. As the Blessed One said: “Bhikṣus, you should know that because it is subject to alteration (rūpyate), it is called the form aggregate of clinging. And why is it subject to alteration? Because of contact by the hand, and so forth.”

Alteration also means being afflicted (bādhyate), as a stanza in the Arthavargīya (Aṭṭhakavagga) says: “Those who delight in seeking sensual pleasures are often filled with hopes. If their desires are not fulfilled, they are afflicted like one pierced by an arrow.”

How is form afflicted by sensual pleasures? It undergoes change and deterioration (vipariṇāma, vikriyā).

Some maintain that it is called form solely because it has the characteristic of resistance (pratighāta).

(Objection) If that were so, atoms should not be called form, because they are not subject to alteration.

(Reply) This objection is invalid. There is no case in which only a single atom exists in isolation; atoms must be aggregated (saṃghātastha, saṃcita) for susceptibility to alteration to have meaning.

(Objection) Material dharmas of the past and future also cannot be called matter (because in these two cases the atoms have dispersed).

(Reply) Material dharmas of the past were once subject to alteration, and material dharmas of the future will be subject to alteration, because they are all of the class of material dharmas; just as wood intended for burning is called firewood.

(Objection) Non-informative matter also cannot be called matter.

(First reply) Informative matter is subject to alteration, and non-informative matter depends upon informative matter; therefore, non-informative matter is still called matter. It is just as when a tree moves, the tree’s shadow also moves with it.

(Objection) This explanation is incorrect, because non-informative matter is not subject to alteration. Moreover, when informative matter ceases, non-informative matter should also cease with it, just as when a tree ceases to exist, its shadow must also cease.

(Second reply) The support (of non-informative karma) consists of the great elements, which are subject to alteration; therefore, non-informative karma is still called matter.

(Objection) If it is explained in this way, the five consciousnesses—eye-consciousness and so forth—should also be called matter, because their supports are subject to alteration.

(Reply) This objection is unreasonable. When non-informative matter proceeds in dependence upon the great elements, it is like the shadow of a tree depending upon the tree or light depending upon a jewel. But when eye-consciousness and so forth depend upon the eye, this is not the same, because the eye and so forth serve only as supporting conditions.

(The treatise master’s first explanation) To say that the shadow of a tree depends upon the tree and that light depends upon a jewel is inconsistent with the doctrine of the Vaibhāṣikas. According to the Vaibhāṣikas, the atoms belonging to the visible color of a tree’s shadow and so forth all depend upon the four great elements. Even supposing that the shadow of a tree and light truly depended upon the tree and the jewel, this dependence would still not be the same as in the case of non-informative matter, because the Vaibhāṣikas maintain that although the great elements serving as its support cease, non-informative matter does not cease with them. Therefore, the reply given above has not answered the objection.

(The treatise master’s second explanation) The supports of the five consciousnesses—eye-consciousness and so forth—are not fixed, because (1) they may be subject to alteration, as in the case of the eye faculty and so forth (that is, when they belong to material dharmas); and (2) they may not be subject to alteration, as in the case of the mental faculty (that is, when they are not material dharmas). The case of non-informative matter, however, is not the same (because the support of non-informative matter consists exclusively of material dharmas); therefore, one cannot conclude that eye-consciousness and so forth are also material dharmas. Thus, the preceding objection is inapplicable. The correct principle is that it is called matter because it is subject to alteration.

[Therein, the faculties and objects

Are the ten ayatanas and ten dhatus.]

Treatise: In the preceding discussion of the characteristics of the matter skandha, it was established that the faculties and objects constitute ten ayatanas and ten dhatus. As ayatanas, the ten are the eye ayatana, visible-form ayatana, and so forth, through to the body ayatana and tangible-object ayatana. As dhatus, the ten are the eye dhatu, visible-form dhatu, and so forth, through to the body dhatu and tangible-object dhatu.

The matter skandha and the establishment of the ayatanas and dhatus have been explained above. The three skandhas of feeling and so forth, together with their ayatanas and dhatus, will now be explained.

[Feeling receives according to contact;

The essence of perception is the apprehension of characteristics;

Apart from the four skandhas mentioned, the remaining skandha is called the formations skandha.

These three skandhas—feeling and so forth—

Together with non-informative matter and the unconditioned dharmas,

Are called the Dharma ayatana and Dharma dhatu.]

Treatise: The feeling skandha consists of three modes of feeling or experience (anubhāva, anubhūti, anubhoga): pleasant, painful, and neither painful nor pleasant. These three modes of experience are further divided into six kinds: from the feeling arising through contact of the eye faculty and so forth with visible forms and so forth, through to the feeling arising through contact of the mental faculty with dharmas.

Perception is the apprehension of distinct characteristics (svabhāva), such as habitually conceiving something as yellow, blue, long, short, male, female, friend, enemy, and so forth. The perception skandha may also be divided into six kinds according to the different faculties, just as in the case of the feeling skandha.

All remaining conditioned dharmas that do not belong to the three previously discussed skandhas of matter, feeling, and perception, or to the consciousness skandha, which will be discussed below, are called the formations skandha. In a sutra, the Blessed One said, “The formations skandha is precisely the six kinds of volition,” because volition is preeminent (Saṃyutta, iii, 60; Vibhanga, p. 144; Sumangalavilāsinī, p. 64). Formation means fashioning, while volition (cetanā) is the essence of karma and is of great importance in fashioning; therefore, it is preeminent. Thus the Buddha said: “That which is capable of fashioning conditioned, contaminated dharmas is called the formations clinging-skandha.” (Saṃyutta, iii, 87; Saṃyutta, etc., 449; Madhyamakavṛtti, 343, 311; Mahāvastu, i. 26, 391)

If this were not so, the mental factors (caita), apart from the mental factor of volition, and all the dissociated dharmas (viprayukta), because they would belong to no skandha at all, could not belong to the truths of suffering and its origin and could neither be fully known nor abandoned. For the Blessed One said: “If there is a single dharma that has not been fully known and attained, I declare that no limit can be set to suffering.” (Saṃyutta, vi. 33) And: “If there is a single dharma that has not been abandoned and extinguished, I likewise declare this.” (Saṃyutta 8, 22)

Thus, it must necessarily be accepted that, apart from the four skandhas of matter, feeling, perception, and consciousness, all mental factors and dissociated dharmas belong to the formations skandha.

The three skandhas of feeling, perception, and formations, together with non-informative matter and the three unconditioned dharmas—all seven of these dharmas—are established as the Dharma ayatana and Dharma dhatu.

The three skandhas of feeling and so forth, together with their ayatana and dhatu, have been explained above. The consciousness skandha and the ayatana and dhatus established from this skandha will now be discussed.

[Consciousness is discriminative cognition;

It is called the mental ayatana

And the seven dhatus. It should be known that

The six consciousnesses become the mind.]

Treatise: Consciousness (vijñāna) is the discriminative cognition of objects, the apprehension of the characteristics of objects. The consciousness skandha consists of six different kinds of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, and mental consciousness. With respect to the consciousness skandha, its ayatana is the mental faculty (mental ayatana, māna-āyatana). With respect to the dhatus, there are seven: the eye-consciousness dhatu, ear-consciousness dhatu, nose-consciousness dhatu, tongue-consciousness dhatu, body-consciousness dhatu, mental-consciousness dhatu (manovijñānadhātu), and mind dhatu (manodhātu). The mind dhatu is formed through the transformation of the preceding six consciousnesses.

Thus, among the five skandhas discussed, there are altogether twelve ayatanas and eighteen dhatus: excluding non-informative matter, the other constituents of the matter skandha establish ten ayatanas and ten dhatus. The feeling skandha, perception skandha, formations skandha, non-informative matter, and the three unconditioned dharmas establish the Dharma ayatana and Dharma dhatu. The consciousness skandha establishes the mental ayatana and seven dhatus: the six consciousnesses and the mind dhatu.

(Question) The consciousness skandha consists of only six consciousnesses. Why, apart from these consciousnesses, is the mind dhatu additionally established?

(Answer) The mind dhatu is not a dharma distinct from the six consciousnesses:

[The very six consciousnesses,

Having ceased immediately before, become the mind.]

Treatise: All six consciousnesses that have just ceased are called mind (māna). It is just as a person is both a son and a father, and as a fruit is both a fruit and a seed.

(Question) If the six consciousnesses include the mind, or if the mind includes the six consciousnesses, then there should be only seventeen dhatus (because the mind, already present among the six consciousnesses, cannot be counted again); or only twelve dhatus (because the six consciousnesses, already present in the mind, cannot be counted again). Why, then, are eighteen dhatus established?

The verse replies:

[Because it is established as the basis of the sixth consciousness,

Therefore, know that there are eighteen dhatus.]

Treatise: The five consciousnesses—eye-consciousness and so forth—have the five material faculties—eye faculty and so forth—as their bases; but the sixth consciousness, mind-consciousness, has no separate basis. Therefore, the dharma employed as the basis of mind-consciousness is called the mind dhatu (or mind ayatana, or mind faculty, and it is precisely one of the six consciousnesses). Thus there are six bases (faculties), six that depend upon them (consciousnesses), and six objects, constituting the eighteen dhatus.

(Question) If so, the final mind of one beyond training (an arhat) cannot be the mind dhatu, because after this mind ceases, no subsequent consciousness will arise.

(Answer) This is not so. This final mind can still be regarded as mind and as a basis. The subsequent consciousness does not arise only because the necessary conditions are absent.

The skandhas include conditioned dharmas; the skandhas of clinging include only all contaminated dharmas. The ayatanas and dhatus include all dharmas.

Such is their respective inclusion; but what is their comprehensive inclusion?

[The inclusion of all dharmas

Is by one skandha, one ayatana, and one dhatu.

Yet they include only dharmas of the same intrinsic nature, and not other dharmas,

Because their intrinsic natures differ.]

Treatise: All dharmas are included within one material ayatana, the mind ayatana, and the Dharma dhatu (saṃgraḥ). But according to the ultimate meaning taught in the sutras and treatises, only dharmas possessing the same intrinsic nature include one another; they do not include dharmas of a different nature. For example, the eye faculty is included in the form skandha because its intrinsic nature is form; it is included in the eye ayatana and the eye dhatu because it is itself the eye ayatana and eye dhatu; and it is included in the truth of suffering and the truth of its origin because it is itself suffering and origin. But the eye faculty is not included in other skandhas, ayatanas, or dhatus because its nature differs from that of dharmas that are not itself.

According to the relative meaning taught in the sutras and treatises, there are also cases in which dharmas of different intrinsic natures are included. For example, the Four Means of Embracing—giving, loving speech, beneficial conduct, and cooperation—can embrace communities of followers and so forth.

(Question) Each of the three ayatanas of eye, ear, and nose has two faculties; why are twenty-one ayatanas not established?

The verse replies:

[Because their type, object, and consciousness are the same,

Although there are two, the dhatu in essence is only one.]

Treatise: Because they are of the same type—that is, both faculties are eye faculties; because they have the same object—that is, both faculties take visible form as their object; and because they have the same consciousness—that is, both faculties are bases of eye-consciousness—although there are two eye faculties, they constitute only one eye dhatu. The ear faculty and nose faculty are established in the same way.

The verse replies:

[In order to make the body well-adorned,

The eye and so forth each arise in two places.]

Treatise: For the comeliness of the bodily appearance that serves as their basis, although the dhatu in essence is only one, it arises in two places. If the eye and ear faculties each arose in only one place, and the nose faculty had only one nostril, the bodily appearance would not be well-adorned.

(Objection) This explanation is incorrect. If things had always been that way, who would say they were ugly? Moreover, although cats, eagles, and so forth have eye and ear faculties arising in two places, how are they thereby well-adorned?

(Challenge) If so, why do all three faculties arise in two places?

(Explanation) It is so that consciousness may discern clearly. It is presently observed in the world that when one closes one eye and so forth, the discernment of visible forms and so forth is not distinct. Therefore, each of these three faculties arises in two places.

The inclusion of the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus has been explained above. Their meanings will now be explained.

[Aggregation, gateways of arising, and lineages

Are the meanings of skandha, ayatana, and dhatu.]

Treatise: Skandha means the harmonious aggregation (ama) of conditioned dharmas. The sutra (Saṃyutta, 25, 2) states: All material dharmas, whether past, future, or present; whether internal or external; whether coarse or subtle; whether inferior or superior; whether far or near—when gathered together, they are called the form skandha. Through this aggregation, the meaning of skandha is established.

(According to the Vibhāṣā) Material dharmas that have ceased because of impermanence belong to the past; material dharmas that have not yet arisen belong to the future; and material dharmas that have arisen but not yet ceased belong to the present.

Material dharmas belonging to one’s own body are called internal (ādhyātmika); all other material dharmas are called external. Alternatively, this may be explained in terms of the locus serving as their basis. (For example, because the eye faculty constitutes a part of the bodily continuum [saṃtāna], it is internal.)

Material dharmas possessing resistance are coarse; those without resistance are subtle. Alternatively, coarse and subtle are only relative, not absolute.

(Objection) If they are merely relative, coarse and subtle cannot be established, because the same material dharma may be coarse or subtle according to whether it is compared with another dharma that is subtler or coarser.

(Explanation) This objection is incorrect because the objects of comparison differ. If one material dharma is coarse in relation to another material dharma, it is not subtle in relation to that very same dharma. It is like the comparison between father and son, the truth of suffering and the truth of its origin, and so forth.

Defiled material dharmas are called inferior; undefiled material dharmas are called superior.

Material dharmas of the past and future are called far; those of the present are called near.

The other skandhas are likewise. There is only one point of difference concerning the consciousness skandha: consciousness that depends upon the five faculties is called coarse, while consciousness that depends upon the mind faculty is called subtle. Alternatively, this may be explained according to the planes of the world (bhūmi). A consciousness is coarse or subtle according to whether its basis belongs to a lower plane or a higher plane.

According to the Venerable Dharmatrāta, material form apprehended by the five faculties is coarse form, while all other form is subtle form. Form that is disagreeable is inferior form, while form that is agreeable is superior form. Form in a place that cannot be seen is called far; form that can be seen is called near. On this matter, the Vibhāṣā explanation is unreasonable, because forms belonging to the past and so forth have already been indicated by their respective names. The feeling skandha and so forth are likewise: far or near depends upon whether their basis can be seen, while coarse or subtle depends upon whether the faculties are bodily or mental.

Ayatana means a gateway through which minds and mental factors (cittacaita) arise. Etymologists maintain that it is called an ayatana because it is capable of producing minds and mental factors.

Dhatu means the lineage (gotra) of dharmas. Just as a mountain, because it contains many kinds of deposits—iron, gold, silver, and so forth—is said to possess “many dhatus,” so within a human body or a single continuum there are eighteen different kinds of dharmas, and they are therefore called the “eighteen dhatus.”

Here, lineage means a source (S. ākara, mine).

(Question) Of what, then, are the eye and so forth the sources?

(Answer) They are the sources of their own respective lineages, because the eye and so forth act as homogeneous causes (producing as their fruits the eye and so forth at subsequent stages).

(Objection) If so, the unconditioned dharmas, which are eternal, should not be called dhatus.

(Explanation) They are still called dhatus because the unconditioned dharmas are the sources from which minds and mental factors arise.

One theory holds that dhatu means “category” (jāti). Because the eighteen categories of dharmas each have a distinct intrinsic nature, they are called the eighteen dhatus.

(Objection of the Sautrantikas) If skandha means an aggregation, then it should be a conceptual existence (prajñaptisat), because it is formed through the aggregation of many real dharmas, like a heap of wheat or a person (pudgala).

(Explanation of the Vaibhashikas) The above objection is unreasonable, because an atom (paramāṇu) is itself a skandha.

(Objection of the author) If so, it should not be said that aggregation is the meaning of skandha, because a single real dharma, such as an atom, cannot constitute an aggregation.

(According to another theory (Vibhāśā, 79. 5),) skandha means “the capacity to bear.” Thus, in ordinary usage, the shoulder is called a skandha, being a place upon which things are gathered. Another theory holds that skandha means a portion or a division (praccheda, avadhi). Therefore Vasumitra said: “If you return the three skandhas, I shall give it to you.”

(Objection of the author) These two explanations do not accord with the sutra. The sutra quoted above says that aggregation is precisely the meaning of skandha: “All material dharmas, whether past, etc.”

(Reply of the Vaibhashikas) If the above sutra says that each individual material dharma, whether past, etc., is called a skandha, then all real dharmas, whether past, etc., must also be called skandhas. (Thus a skandha is constituted by a real existent (dravyasat) and cannot be regarded as a conceptual existence.)

(Explanation of the author) This interpretation is highly unreasonable, because the sutra says: “All material dharmas… when gathered together, are called the form skandha.” Therefore a skandha is necessarily called a conceptual existence.

(Objection of the Sautrantikas) If so, it should also be admitted that all the form ayatanas—the five faculties and five objects—are conceptual existences, because the atoms belonging to the eye faculty, etc., must be gathered together before they can constitute gateways of arising.

(Explanation of the author) This objection is unreasonable. Every atom within these aggregates of form already possesses the function of serving as a gateway of arising, that is, as a cause for the arising of consciousness. If this were not so, then when a faculty and its object mutually assisted in producing consciousness, etc., there would be no distinctions among them, and consequently there could not be twelve separate ayatanas.

Furthermore, the Vibhāśā states that when the Abhidharma masters (Abhidhārmikas) contemplate a skandha as merely a conceptual aggregation, they all hold that an atom is a part of a dhatu, an ayatana, and a skandha; but when they do not contemplate it in this way, they hold that an atom is a dhatu, an ayatana, and a skandha. Thus a part is used to represent the whole, just as when one burns part of a robe, one still says, “The robe is being burned.”

Why did the Blessed One teach three divisions—skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus—with respect to objects of cognition?

The verse answers:

[Because beings are of three kinds in delusion, faculties, and inclinations,

He taught the three divisions of skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus.]

Treatise: Because the beings to be instructed are of three different kinds, the Blessed One taught the three divisions of skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus.

Delusion (moha, saṃmoha) is further divided into three kinds: the delusion that all mental factors (caita) are the self, the delusion that material dharmas (rūpa) are the self, and the delusion that both mental factors and material dharmas are the self.

The faculty—the faculty of wisdom (prajñāndriya)—is also divided into three kinds: sharp faculties, middling faculties, and dull faculties.

Inclination (ruci, adhimokṣa) is likewise of three kinds: brief, requiring only a concise explanation; intermediate, requiring only a moderate explanation; and extensive, requiring a very detailed explanation.

In accordance with the above order, the Buddha taught the skandhas to beings of the first kind—those who take mental factors to be the self, possess sharp faculties, or require only a concise explanation. He taught the ayatanas to beings of the second kind and the dhatus to those of the third kind.

Why did the Blessed One say that all mental factors belong to the formations skandha, yet separately distinguish feeling and perception as two distinct skandhas?

[Because they are the roots of contention and the causes of samsara,

And because of the cause of sequence,

Among the dharmas of mental factors

Feeling and perception were separately established as skandhas.]

Treatise: The roots of the afflictions—the roots of contention (vivādamūla)—are of two kinds: attachment to sensual pleasure and attachment to views (dṛṣṭi). Feeling and perception are respectively the principal causes of these two kinds of attachment. Because of feeling, there is attachment to sensual pleasure; and because of inverted perception, there is attachment to views.

Furthermore, feeling and perception are also the principal causes of samsara: because inverted perceptions arise, there is transmigration through samsara.

Because of these two reasons, together with a third reason called the cause of sequence, which will be discussed below, feeling and perception are separately established as two skandhas.

Why are unconditioned dharmas included among the ayatanas but not among the skandhas?

[The skandhas do not include the unconditioned,

Because their meanings do not accord.]

Treatise: The three unconditioned dharmas are not included among the skandhas of form, feeling, and so forth, because their meanings do not correspond to form, etc.; their substance is not form, feeling, etc. Nor can they be established as a sixth kind of skandha, because their meaning does not correspond to that of skandha. Aggregation is the meaning of skandha, as explained above, whereas the unconditioned dharmas are not like the dharmas of form, etc.

That is, there are no distinct unconditioned dharmas belonging to the past, etc., which can be gathered together to constitute what might be called an “unconditioned skandha” (asaṃskṛtaskandha). Furthermore, the term “skandha subject to appropriation” designates the causes of the dharmas, while “skandha” designates the causes of both defiled and pure dharmas. The unconditioned possesses neither of these two meanings.

Since their meanings do not correspond, the unconditioned dharmas are not established as a skandha.

One theory (Vibhāśā) holds: “Just as a broken vase is no longer a vase, the unconditioned dharmas, which are the cessation or arrest of the skandhas, cannot themselves be skandhas.” However, if the foregoing argument were applied to the two cases of ayatana and dhatu, it would lead to error, because unconditioned dharmas would then be neither ayatanas nor dhatus.

The cases in which skandhas can and cannot be established have now been explained. Next, the order in which the skandhas are enumerated will be discussed.

[According to such characteristics as grossness, defilement, containment, and so forth,

And according to their belonging to different realms, their order is established.]

Treatise: Because form offers resistance, it is established as the grossest of the skandhas.

Among the formless (arūpin) skandhas, feeling alone has the most gross and manifest function. Thus people commonly say, “My hand,” and so forth, “is painful.”

Of the next two, perception is grosser and more manifest, because different perceptions of male, female, and so forth are very easily cognized.

The formations skandha is grosser than the consciousness skandha, because formations such as greed, hatred, and so forth are more easily cognized.

Consciousness is the most subtle skandha, because it apprehends the entire range of an object’s characteristics and is therefore very difficult to discern.

Thus the order of the skandhas is established according to the characteristic of grossness and manifestness.

Or, throughout the process of samsara from beginningless time until now, because of attachment to pleasant feeling, men and women have continually become infatuated with one another’s physical forms. This attachment, in turn, arises from inverted perceptions; these inverted perceptions arise from afflictions; and afflictions arise in dependence upon consciousness and, together with the preceding three kinds of skandhas, defile consciousness. Thus, the order of the skandhas has been established on the basis of the nature of defilement.

Or, the form skandha is like a vessel. The feeling skandha is like food and drink. The perception skandha is like seasoning. The formations skandha is like a cook. The consciousness skandha is the one who eats and drinks. Thus, the order of the skandhas has been established on the basis of such things as vessels and so forth.

Or, the order has been established on the basis of the different realms: In the Desire Realm there are the objects of sensual desire, and therefore the characteristics of form are readily discerned. In the Form Realm, that is, the four dhyānas, joy and the other feelings are especially powerful, and therefore the characteristics of feeling are readily discerned. In the first three levels of the Formless Realm, there is apprehension of space and so forth, and therefore the characteristics of perception are readily discerned. At the highest level of the Formless Realm—the Summit of Existence (bhavāgra)—volition is the most powerful dharma, and therefore formations are readily discerned.

Finally, all the foregoing skandhas are stations of consciousness (vijñānasthiti). The expression “stations of consciousness” also implies the worldly analogy of a field and seed: the first four skandhas are the field, and the fifth skandha is the seed. Therefore, the five skandhas are established in the foregoing order, without the fault of insufficiency or excess.

It is also precisely because of the foregoing kinds of causal sequence that, apart from the formations skandha, feeling and perception can be established as two separate skandhas. That is, among the formations, feeling and perception are separately established as skandhas because they are conspicuous in character, give rise to defilement, resemble food and seasoning, and are the most powerful dharmas in two of the realms.

With regard to the ayatanas and dhatus, one should first discuss the order of the six faculties; from this, the order of the objects and consciousnesses corresponding to these faculties can then be known.

[The first five objects exist only in the present;

Among them, the first four are only derived form.

According to function, distance, speed,

Or position, the first four faculties are ordered.]

Treatise: Among the six faculties, the first five—the eye faculty and so forth—apprehend only present objects; therefore, they are discussed first.

The objects of the mental faculty are not fixed: they may be (1) present, (2) past, (3) future, (4) of all three times, or outside all times altogether, as in the case of the unconditioned.

The words “the four objects are only derived” mean that, among the five objects, the first four are only derived form; therefore, they are presented first.

The object of the body faculty (kāyendriya) is not fixed. Sometimes it consists of the great elements, sometimes of derived form, and sometimes of both kinds.

The word “remaining” refers to the first four faculties. Here their order has been established on the basis of their apprehending function and the speed of their activity. The eye and ear faculties apprehend objects at a distance and are therefore discussed first. Of these two, the eye faculty apprehends objects at a greater distance than the ear faculty—as one may see mountains and rivers from afar but cannot hear their sounds. The eye faculty also apprehends its objects more quickly than the ear faculty—as one first sees a person striking a bell or drum and only afterward hears the sound.

The nose and tongue faculties do not function at a distance, but the nose is discussed first because it apprehends its objects more quickly. For example, when one stands before delicious food, the nose first smells its aroma, and only afterward does the tongue taste its flavor.

Or, their order is established according to the relative height of their positions on the body. The eye faculty occupies the highest position; below it are the ear, nose, and tongue faculties. The body faculty is lowest because most of the body faculty lies below the tongue. The mental faculty is not a material dharma and, when it arises, does not depend upon the other faculties for its arising; therefore, it is discussed last.

Why, among the ten ayatanas belonging to the form skandha, is only one called the form ayatana? Why, although the substance of all twelve ayatanas consists of dharmas, is only one called the dharma ayatana?

[Because of differentiation, supremacy,

The inclusion of many dharmas, and the supreme dharma,

One ayatana is called the form ayatana,

And one ayatana is called the dharma ayatana.]

Treatise: “Differentiation” means that, so that cognition of objects may possess the diverse characteristics of those objects, ten ayatanas have been established on the basis of the distinctions within the form skandha, rather than being combined into one. If the eye, ear, and so forth had no distinctions of name and characteristic, while their substance was nevertheless form, then all of them should be called the form ayatana.

However, because nine ayatanas—the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, sound, odor, taste, and tangible—have been distinguished by the separate names eye ayatana, ear ayatana, nose ayatana, tongue ayatana, body ayatana, sound ayatana, odor ayatana, taste ayatana, and tangible ayatana, the general designation “form ayatana” is used specifically for the remaining kind of ayatana: the object of the eye faculty.

Furthermore, this ayatana is supreme in character. It is a material dharma possessing resistance (bādhanalakṣaṇarūpaṇa), capable of being altered or damaged through contact by the hand and so forth. It is visible (deśanidarśanarūpaṇa), because its location can be indicated as being here or there. Thus, in ordinary usage, the world applies the word “form” to this ayatana and not to the other ayatanas, such as the eye and ear.

Likewise, because of differentiation, the designation “dharma ayatana” is applied specifically to one ayatana rather than to all twelve, just as in the preceding case of the form ayatana. Furthermore, because the dharma ayatana includes many dharmas, such as feeling, perception, and so forth, it deserves this general designation. It also includes the most supreme dharma, nirvana; therefore, this ayatana alone is called the dharma ayatana.

A certain master (Dharmatrāta) says that visible color and shape are called the form ayatana because they include twenty kinds of conspicuous form, such as blue and so forth, and because they are objects of three kinds of vision: the physical eye, the divine eye, and the wisdom eye.

(Question) The sutras speak of many other kinds of skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus. Are these included within the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus discussed above?

(Answer) All of them are included within the three categories of skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus discussed above.

First, the inclusion of other kinds of skandhas will be explained.

[The Buddha taught Dharma skandhas

Numbering as many as eighty thousand.

The substance of this teaching is speech or name,

And thus belongs to the form skandha or the formations skandha.)

Treatise: According to the masters who hold that the Buddha’s teaching may be regarded as speech (vāc), these skandhas belong to the form skandha. According to the masters who hold that the Buddha’s teaching may be regarded as names (nāman), these skandhas belong to the formations skandha.

(Question) What is the extent of each of these Dharma skandhas?

The verse replies:

[Some masters say that the Dharma skandhas

Are of the extent stated in that treatise;

Or, according to the teaching concerning the skandhas and so forth,

(There are Dharma skandhas) as antidotes to the modes of conduct.]

Treatise: Some masters hold that each Dharma skandha (dharmaskandha) is equal in extent to the Dharmaskandhapāda Treatise; that is, each Dharma skandha comprises as many as six thousand verses, the same number as in the Dharmaskandhapāda Treatise of the Abhidharma.

Some masters further maintain that, according to the different teachings concerning the skandhas and so forth, there are as many as eighty thousand Dharma aggregates. That is, each section of the teaching concerning the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, dependent origination, truths, nutriments, dhyanas, immeasurables, formless attainments, liberations, spheres of mastery, totality-spheres, factors of awakening, supernormal powers, freedom from contention, knowledge resulting from aspiration, unobstructed understandings, and so forth, is called one Dharma aggregate.

Indeed, sentient beings to be taught possess as many as eighty thousand different modes of conduct, such as greed, hatred, and so forth. To counteract these eighty thousand different modes of conduct, the Blessed One taught eighty thousand different Dharma aggregates. All these Dharma aggregates are included within two of the five skandhas: the form skandha and the formations skandha.

In other cases, the other kinds of skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus, according to the particular characteristics of each kind, are likewise included within the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus described above.

[The other kinds of skandhas and so forth,

According to their corresponding characteristics,

Are also included within the kinds described above.

Their particular characteristics should be carefully examined.]

Treatise: The other kinds of skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus mentioned in other sutras, according to their particular characteristics, are likewise included among the dharmas described above—that is, the five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, and eighteen dhatus—just as are the kinds of skandhas and so forth being discussed in this treatise. Their respective particular characteristics should be carefully considered and examined.

Other sutras (Saṃyutta, i, 99; Digha, iii, 279; Dharmasaṃgraha, 23) also speak of five pure skandhas: morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi), wisdom (prajñā), liberation (vimukti), and knowledge and vision of liberation (vimuktijñānadarśana). Of these, the morality skandha belongs to the form skandha; the remaining four belong to the formations skandha.

The sutras also speak of ten totality-spheres (kṛtsnāyatana), and so forth. Of these, the first eight, because their nature is non-greed, belong to the dharma-ayatana. If the accompanying supportive dharmas are also included, their nature comprises the five skandhas, and they therefore belong to the mind-ayatana and the dharma-ayatana. The inclusion of the eight spheres of mastery (abhibhvāyatana) is the same.

The final two totality-spheres—the Sphere of Infinite Space and the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness—together with the four formless spheres (ārūpyāyatana), beginning with the Sphere of Infinite Space, have the four skandhas as their nature, the form skandha having been excluded, and therefore also belong to the mind-ayatana and the dharma-ayatana.

The five bases of liberation (vimuktyāyatana), because wisdom is their basis, belong to the dharma-ayatana. If the supportive dharmas are also included, they belong to the sound-ayatana, mind-ayatana, and dharma-ayatana.

There are also two spheres: the heavenly sphere of non-percipient sentient beings (Asaṃjñisattva), which belongs to only twelve ayatanas because it lacks odor and taste; and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception (Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatanopaga), which belongs to the mind-ayatana and dharma-ayatana because it has the four skandhas as its nature.

The sixty-two different dhatus mentioned in the Bahudhātuka Sutra, according to their corresponding characteristics, are all included within the eighteen dhatus.

(Question) A sutra (Garbhāvakrāntisūtra; Dhātuvibhangasutra) speaks of six dhatus. Four of these are the earth, water, fire, and wind dhatus. The remaining two are space and consciousness, but the sutra does not clearly explain their characteristics. Is empty space, then, precisely the space dhatu, and are all consciousnesses the consciousness dhatu?

(Answer) It is not so.

(Question) Why?

The stanza answers:

[The space dhatu means cavities.

According to tradition, it is light and darkness.

The consciousness dhatu is defiled consciousness,

The support of sentient life.]

Treatise: The hollow spaces of windows and so forth are the external (bāhya) space dhatu (ākāśādhātu); the cavities of the mouth, nose, and so forth are the internal (ādhyāmika) space dhatu.

(Question) How is this space dhatu known?

(Answer) According to tradition, the space dhatu is precisely light and darkness. The space dhatu cannot be perceived apart from light and darkness; therefore, it is said that light and darkness constitute its intrinsic nature. It should be understood that this intrinsic nature is none other than day and night.

(According to the Vibhāṣā) The space dhatu is called form adjacent to agha (aghasāmantaka rūpa). According to tradition, agha means accumulated form (samcita rūpa), which has the characteristic of being highly obstructive. The space dhatu is precisely the form that is adjacent (sāmantaka) to this agha-form.

Another explanation holds that agha means non-obstruction. The space dhatu is called agha because another kind of form does not obstruct its location; at the same time, because it lies close to another kind of form, it is called “adjacent” (sāmantaka) to agha.

Defiled consciousnesses are called the consciousness dhatu.

(Question) Why are undefiled consciousnesses not the consciousness dhatu?

(Answer) Because it is accepted that the six dhatus are the support of life, and because these dhatus continually sustain life from the mind at the moment of rebirth-linking (pratisaṃdhicitta) until the mind at the moment of impending death (maraṇacitta). Undefiled dharmas, however, cannot do so. Of the six dhatus above, the first four belong to the tangible-ayatana, the fifth belongs to the form-ayatana, and the sixth belongs to the seven mind dhatus.

According to the sutra cited above, the remaining dhatus, in accordance with their corresponding characteristics, are all included within the eighteen dhatus.