優婆塞戒經

Good man! If a person is unwilling to give because he begrudges his body, life, and possessions, he is called miserly. Such people cling tightly to a mind unwilling to give and know no compassion.

Under the pretext of preserving their wealth, they seek worthy fields of merit; yet when they encounter them, they instead look for their faults. They think to themselves, “This wealth was acquired with great hardship. If I give it to others, I shall suffer.” Or they maintain that there is no cause and effect, no act of giving, and no recipient.

Others, cherishing and begrudging their wives, children, and relatives, scrape together wealth in pursuit of fame and believe that possessions are enduring. Such people are called stingy and defiled. This defilement sullies the minds of sentient beings.

For this reason, they would not dare give away even another person’s property, much less their own.

The wise practice giving not because they wish to be repaid, not because they expect service, not to defend miserly and greedy people, not so that everyone will know of their good reputation, not out of fear, not to curry favor with others, not to contend over superiority and inferiority, not from fear that their possessions will be lost, not because they wish to increase their wealth, not because the things are of no use to them, not because of family custom, and not because they wish others to become close to them.

The wise practice giving out of compassion for sentient beings, wishing to bring everyone peace and happiness, wishing others to learn the practice of giving, wishing to practice the deeds performed by the noble ones, wishing to eradicate the afflictions, and wishing to cut off the outflows and realize nirvana.

Good man! When a bodhisattva practices giving, he remains far removed from four evil dharmas: ⁽¹⁾ violating the precepts, ⁽²⁾ doubt, ⁽³⁾ wrong views, and ⁽⁴⁾ miserliness. There are also five dharmas: ⁽¹⁾ when giving, he does not distinguish between the virtuous and the nonvirtuous; ⁽²⁾ when giving, he does not speak of good or evil; ⁽³⁾ when giving, he does not discriminate according to lineage; ⁽⁴⁾ when giving, he does not despise the petitioner; and ⁽⁵⁾ when giving, he does not revile or abuse anyone. There are also three things that prevent a giver from obtaining an excellent karmic reward: ⁽¹⁾ at first intending to give much but later giving little; ⁽²⁾ giving damaged or inferior articles; and ⁽³⁾ feeling regret after giving.

Good man! There are also eight things that prevent a giver from obtaining an excellent karmic reward: ⁽¹⁾ after giving, finding fault with the recipient; ⁽²⁾ having an inequitable mind when giving; ⁽³⁾ after giving, demanding that the recipient serve him; ⁽⁴⁾ after giving, habitually praising himself; ⁽⁵⁾ first saying that he has nothing and only afterward giving; ⁽⁶⁾ after giving, reviling and abusing the recipient; ⁽⁷⁾ after giving, demanding twice as much in return; and ⁽⁸⁾ after giving, giving rise to doubt. Those who give in this manner will certainly be unable to draw near to the Buddhas, the worthy ones, and the sages.

Giving others articles complete in form, fragrance, flavor, and tangible quality is called pure giving. If the articles given were acquired in accordance with the Dharma, it is called pure giving. If one clearly understands that possessions are impermanent and cannot be preserved for long, and therefore gives them away, it is called pure giving.

If one gives in order to eradicate the afflictions, it is called pure giving. If one gives in order to purify one’s own mind, it is called pure giving. If one can contemplate who the giver is, who the recipient is, what is given, and through what causes and conditions the giving occurs; that the act of giving is itself the twelve ayatanas; and that the recipient, the giver, and the gift are all the twelve ayatanas—if the giver can contemplate in this manner, it is called pure giving.

When giving, one should rejoice in worthy fields of merit, thinking, “Just as these worthy fields of merit aspire to merit and virtue, so too must I aspire to merit and virtue without ceasing.” When giving to one’s wife, children, relatives, and servants, one should give rise to compassion. One gives to the poor and destitute in order to eliminate their suffering and distress. When giving, one does not seek worldly rewards; one gives to eradicate arrogance; one gives with a gentle and harmonious mind; one gives in order to transcend the three realms; one gives in quest of unsurpassed liberation; one gives because one has deeply contemplated the many faults of the course of birth and death; and one gives without concern for whether the recipient is a field of merit.

Know that the blessings and rewards of anyone capable of giving in this manner will never leave that person, just as a calf remains close beside its mother.

If one gives with a mind that seeks karmic reward, this is no different from bartering in the marketplace. It is like plowing, sowing, and farming to sustain one’s body and life: different kinds of seeds yield different plants and fruits. The giver is likewise: according to the gift and the recipient, different blessings and rewards are obtained. If, after receiving the gift, the recipient’s longevity, physical beauty, strength, happiness, and eloquence increase, the giver will also obtain these five kinds of karmic reward!

If one gives to an animal, one gains a hundredfold merit. If one gives to a person who violates the precepts, one gains a thousandfold merit. If one gives to a person who observes the precepts, one gains a hundred-thousandfold merit. If one gives to a non-Buddhist ascetic who has become free from sensual desire, one gains a millionfold merit. If one gives to one progressing toward stream-entry, one gains a hundred billionfold merit. If one gives to a stream-enterer, one gains immeasurable merit. If one gives to one progressing toward once-returning, one gains immeasurable merit. Thus, even up to giving to the Buddha, one gains immeasurable merit.

Good man! I now distinguish for you the various kinds of fields of merit, saying that giving yields a hundredfold merit, up to immeasurable merit. If one can give rise with utmost sincerity to a vast mind of compassion and give to an animal, or single-mindedly and reverently make offerings to the Buddhas, the blessings and rewards of these two acts are equal and without difference.

To say that one gains a hundredfold merit means this: if one gives longevity, physical beauty, strength, happiness, and eloquence to a petitioner, the giver will afterward obtain longevity, physical beauty, strength, happiness, and eloquence, each a hundredfold greater. The same applies up to the immeasurable. Therefore, in the sutras I have said: “I give to you, Sariputra, and you, Sariputra, also give to me; yet I gain more merit than you do.”

Some say, “If the recipient uses the gift to commit evil, the giver will incur an offense.” This is not so. Why? When the giver practices giving, the intention is to relieve the suffering and distress of the supplicant, not to create an offense.

Therefore, the giver must receive a blessed reward. If the recipient uses the gift to commit evil, that person creates the offense personally; it has nothing to do with the giver. If one gives precious things in charity, one will afterward obtain a dignified and splendid countenance, be loved by everyone, enjoy a good reputation that spreads afar, have every wish fulfilled, and be born into a noble lineage.

This cannot be called an evil reward; why, then, say that the donor incurs an offense? After giving, the giver rejoices without regret, associates closely with good people, enjoys wealth, honor, and freedom, is born into an aristocratic family, obtains the pleasures of humans and devas and even the unsurpassed bliss, and becomes free from every bondage of the afflictions. Only one who gives can obtain blessed rewards such as these.

Why claim that such a person receives an evil karmic result? If a donor can personally make the gift with their own hands, they will be born into an eminent family, encounter good spiritual friends, possess abundant wealth, have a large retinue, and be free to use their wealth personally or give it away. All sentient beings will joyfully long to see them and, upon seeing them, will respectfully honor and praise them.

Since the giver obtains such excellent rewards, how can it be said that the giver receives an evil reward? If the donor gives wealth acquired through pure means, then through those causes and conditions, their riches, treasuries, and granaries will overflow; they will be born into an eminent family and have immeasurably many relatives and attendants. Their body will be free of illness and suffering, and their mind free of fear, anxiety, and sorrow.

None of their possessions will be harmed by government authorities, thieves, fire, or flood. Even if some wealth is lost, they will not grieve. Throughout immeasurable lifetimes, their body and mind will be peaceful and joyful.

Why, then, claim that they receive an evil karmic result? Before giving, if one develops faith in the merit of generosity; while giving, if one’s heart is joyful; and after giving, if one’s mind is peaceful and happy, then while seeking the resources to give, while safeguarding them in readiness for giving, and while distributing them, one will feel no distress. If one gives clothing, one will obtain a dignified and splendid countenance; if one gives food, one will obtain invincible strength; if one gives lamps and torches, one will obtain bright, radiant eyes; if one gives vehicles, one will obtain a strong and healthy body; and if one gives dwellings, one will obtain an abundance of necessities.

Since the giver obtains such wholesome rewards, why claim that the giver receives an evil karmic result?

Furthermore, after a person has made an offering to the Buddha, whether or not the Buddha makes use of it, the karmic reward of that giving is already determined.

Giving to others and giving to the Sangha produce two kinds of merit: ⁽¹⁾ merit arising from the recipient’s use of the gift and ⁽²⁾ merit arising from the recipient’s virtue. Why? When the donor gives, the donor personally eliminates their own stinginess; when the recipient makes use of the gift, the recipient further eliminates the donor’s stinginess.

Therefore, a sutra states, “From the recipient’s use of the gift arises the donor’s blessed reward.” Furthermore, with respect to the use of the gift, if the recipient is a householder who then gives it to someone else, the original donor obtains the same amount of merit as before. But if the recipient is a monastic who, after receiving the gift, gives it to another monastic, the original donor’s blessed reward continues to increase.

If, when giving, one does not seek worldly rewards and does not give for reasons that increase the afflictions, then that giving will yield the unsurpassed pure reward—namely, nirvana.

If a person makes this vow each day: “First I shall give food to another person, and only afterward shall I eat. If I violate this vow, I shall offer goods to the Buddha in recompense,” and feels shame and remorse upon violating it, then, if the person does not violate the vow, this becomes a cause and condition for the arising of wondrous wisdom. Giving in this manner is the most excellent form of generosity. Such a giver is called a donor of the highest rank.

If one complies with the wishes of those who ask, then throughout immeasurable future lifetimes, all the donor’s wishes will be fulfilled. If the intention, the gift, and the field of merit are all pure, the donor will obtain immeasurable wholesome rewards. If one thoughtfully and cheerfully provides clothing and food for one’s spouse, children, and servants, that donor will obtain immeasurable merit and virtue in the future.

If one sees many mice in the fields, gardens, or storehouses, or birds eating and damaging the grain, one should arouse a compassionate mind and think, “These birds and mice remain alive because of me.” Having reflected thus, one should rejoice and no longer entertain any thought of harming them. Know that such a person obtains immeasurable merit.

If, for one’s own use, one has clothing made or procures necklaces of precious gems, ornaments, or various implements, and after obtaining them feels joyful, yet before having occasion to use them gives them to someone else, then afterward all that person seeks will be fulfilled according to their wishes.

If anyone claims, “One can obtain wholesome rewards apart from giving,” that is impossible. For generosity to be accomplished without material goods, without a recipient, or without relinquishing a stingy mind is impossible.

Suppose a person gives before another has asked; gives even while personally in need; gives much when little is requested; gives something excellent when something inferior is requested; teaches others how to make a request; or personally goes to the supplicant’s location to give. Know that in future lives such a person will obtain many treasuries, and even ordinary objects will become precious treasures.

If one gives merely to mock the recipient, gives to one who is not a field of merit, or gives without believing in cause and effect, this is not called giving.

If a person gives exclusively to great fields of merit and does not delight in giving to ordinary people, know that in a future life, when that person receives the karmic reward, they will not delight in giving.

If a person regrets having given, or seizes another person’s possessions and gives them away, then in a future life, although that person obtains wealth, it will constantly diminish and cannot be retained.

If one causes suffering to one’s relatives in order to take goods and give them away, then in a future life, although one obtains a great reward, one will constantly suffer from illness.

If one does not know to make offerings to one’s parents, torments one’s spouse and children, and causes one’s servants hardship in order to take possessions and give them away, one is called an evil person who practices giving in name only; this is not meaningful generosity. Such a giver is devoid of compassion and ungrateful. In a future life, although that person obtains money, wealth, and precious treasures, these will constantly diminish, be dispersed, and be lost, so that the person cannot make use of them; moreover, the person’s body will suffer from many illnesses.

If a person gives wealth in accordance with the Dharma, that person will obtain immeasurable merit in a future life and will possess wealth to use. If one gives wealth in a manner contrary to the Dharma, then in a future life, although one obtains a karmic reward, one will receive it only by depending upon another person. If that other person dies, one will again become poor and destitute.

Good man! There are two kinds of giving: the giving of material wealth and the giving of Dharma. The giving of material wealth is inferior, while the giving of Dharma is superior.

What is the giving of Dharma? If a bhikshu, bhikshuni, upasaka, or upasika is able to teach others to perfect faith, observance of the precepts, generosity, extensive learning, and wisdom; or provides others with paper and ink to copy the Tathagata’s scriptures; or personally copies them and then gives them to others to read and recite—this is called the giving of Dharma. Those who give the Dharma will possess beautiful countenances throughout immeasurable future lives.

Why is this? When sentient beings hear the Dharma, they eliminate anger; through this cause and condition, the giver will possess an incomparably beautiful countenance throughout immeasurable lives. Furthermore, when sentient beings hear the Dharma, they give rise to loving-kindness and refrain from killing; through this cause and condition, the giver will enjoy longevity throughout immeasurable future lives.

Furthermore, when sentient beings hear the Dharma, they cease stealing from others; through this cause and condition, the donor will possess abundant wealth throughout immeasurable future lives. Furthermore, when sentient beings hear the Dharma, they give rise to delight in generosity; through this cause and condition, the donor will enjoy robust health throughout immeasurable future lives. Furthermore, when sentient beings hear the Dharma, they eliminate heedlessness; through this cause and condition, the donor will enjoy bodily well-being throughout immeasurable future lives.

Furthermore, when sentient beings hear the Dharma, they eliminate delusion; through this cause and condition, the donor will possess lucid faith throughout immeasurable future lives. The same applies to observance of the precepts, generosity, extensive learning, and wisdom. Therefore, the giving of Dharma surpasses the giving of material wealth.

Some may think: “I cultivate wholesome Dharma, while my father commits evil deeds. Because I, his child, cultivate goodness, my father will not fall into the three evil destinies.” This is incorrect. Why? Because each person’s karma of body, speech, and mind is distinct.

If, after death, the father falls into the realm of hungry ghosts and his child cultivates merit on his behalf, the father will receive a share. But if the father is born in a heavenly realm, he will no longer think of things from the human world. Why? Because the heavenly realms already possess surpassingly precious treasures. If the father falls into hell, his body will undergo suffering and he will have no leisure to think of things from the human world; therefore, he will receive no share. The same applies if he falls into the animal realm or is born in the human realm.

If it is asked through what causes and conditions hungry ghosts are able to receive such merit, one should understand that, because the deceased was by nature greedy and miserly, he fell into the realm of hungry ghosts. After becoming a hungry ghost, his mind continually regrets his former misdeeds and longs in hope of receiving something; therefore, he can obtain the meritorious reward dedicated to him.

Suppose the person for whom merit is cultivated has been reborn in another realm, while all his relatives have been born as hungry ghosts. All those relatives will then receive the meritorious reward dedicated by the person cultivating merit. Therefore, the wise should diligently cultivate merit and virtue for hungry ghosts!

If clothing, food, dwellings, bedding, and other necessities are given to poor mendicants such as shramanas, brahmins, and others, and the merit is dedicated with the aspiration that hungry ghosts receive meritorious rewards, then, through the power of the causes and conditions of this giving and dedication, those who have fallen into the realm of hungry ghosts will gain great power. Whatever amount the donor gives, they will enjoy a corresponding measure of meritorious reward. Why? Because such is the realm into which they have been reborn.

The foods of hungry ghosts are not all the same: some consume pus, some feces, and others foul blood, vomit, or spittle. If they receive the offering described above, all their foods will be transformed, becoming beautiful in color, fragrant in aroma, and delicious in flavor.

If the leftover water used to rinse bowls is given to beings able to consume it, but others obstruct them so that those beings ultimately cannot partake of it, the giver nevertheless gains meritorious reward. Why? Because the giver acted with compassion.

When offerings are made to ghosts and spirits, who receives them? This depends upon the location of the shrine. If it is near a forest, the tree spirit receives them. The same applies to shrines near rivers, streams, wells, mountain forests, earthen mounds, and so forth. The person making the offering also gains merit and virtue. Why? Because the offering causes the recipient to give rise to joy. The merit of making such offerings can safeguard one’s life and property.

If one claims that killing beings for sacrificial offerings brings merit, this is incorrect! Why? Never has anyone seen a person plant the seed of the eranda tree and produce a sandalwood tree, nor has anyone gained merit and virtue by taking the lives of sentient beings.

If one wishes to make offerings, one should use incense, flowers, milk, curds, ghee, and medicines. There are three times for seeking merit on behalf of the deceased: the second month in spring, the fifth month in summer, and the ninth month in autumn.

If dwellings, bedding, medicines, gardens, forests, ponds, wells, cattle, goats, elephants, horses, and various implements are given to others, and the giver later dies, then the giver’s merit will continue to grow according to how long or briefly the donated objects remain in use. Merit and virtue follow that person as a shadow follows the body.

Some may think: “After the giver dies, the merit and virtue of the giving cease.” This is incorrect. Why? There are only two occasions when the merit and virtue of giving cease: when the donated object is destroyed or when the recipient no longer uses it. They do not cease when the giver dies.

If a monastic imitates householders by arranging banquets and making merry on festival days, this is called imitation of worldly ways and is not genuine, even though that person may believe in both worldly and supramundane Dharma.

If one is always pleased to give away household possessions, whether good or poor in quality, this is called giving everything.

If one gives one’s body, wife and children, and precious possessions to others, this is called inconceivable giving.

If one gives to the following eleven kinds of people: ⁽¹⁾ evil people, ⁽²⁾ those who break the precepts, ⁽³⁾ enemies, ⁽⁴⁾ those who do not recognize kindness or gratitude, ⁽⁵⁾ those who do not believe in cause and effect, ⁽⁶⁾ those who coercively make demands, ⁽⁷⁾ those possessing great power, ⁽⁸⁾ those who are violent and abusive, ⁽⁹⁾ those who become angry after receiving a gift, ⁽¹⁰⁾ those who feign virtue, and ⁽¹¹⁾ the wealthy, powerful, and noble—this is called inconceivable giving.

Good man! All giving has three fundamental bases: ⁽¹⁾ giving to the poor out of compassion, ⁽²⁾ giving to enemies without seeking repayment of kindness, and ⁽³⁾ giving to those endowed with merit and virtue with a joyful and reverent mind.

Good man! If a wealthy person makes offerings to the Three Jewels throughout immeasurable lives, although he gains immeasurable merit and virtue, this does not equal exhorting others to perform wholesome deeds together with him.

If someone considers the object to be given too meager or inferior, becomes ashamed, and therefore refuses to give it, that person is increasing his own poverty in future lives.

When two people perform an act of giving together, if the material gifts, the fields of merit, and their intentions in giving are equal, the two will receive equal karmic results without any difference.

If the material gifts and intentions in giving are the same, the person who gives to the more excellent field of merit will receive the more excellent meritorious reward.

If the fields of merit and intentions in giving are both inferior, the person who gives the more excellent material gift will receive the more excellent karmic result.

If both the fields of merit and the material gifts are inferior, the person whose intention in giving is more excellent will receive the more excellent karmic result.

If both the field of merit and the material gift are excellent, but a person’s intention in giving is inferior, the resulting recompense will not equal that of the other person.

Good man! When a wise person gives, he does not seek recompense. Why is this? He knows with certainty that when a cause is created, it will assuredly bear fruit. Those who have no loving-kindness, do not understand gratitude and moral obligation, take no delight in the merits of the noble ones, cling to their possessions, bodies, and lives, and are consumed by strong greed—such people are incapable of giving.

A wise person observes all sentient beings. If someone, when seeking wealth, does not begrudge his body or life, and after obtaining possessions can give them to others, one should know that he is capable of sacrificing his body and life. A miserly person cannot give away his possessions; one should know that he also clings to his body and life. If someone can relinquish his body and life to obtain possessions to give away, one should know that he is a great donor.

If a person obtains wealth but clings to it and refuses to give, one should know that he is planting the seeds of poverty for a future life. Therefore, in the sutras I have said: “Among the inhabitants of the four continents, the people of Jambudvipa are preeminent in three respects: ⁽¹⁾ courage and vigor, ⁽²⁾ mindfulness, and ⁽³⁾ pure conduct.” To cultivate causes without seeing their results; to risk one’s body and life in seeking wealth in order to give it away; to destroy the miserly mind and give away one’s possessions; to feel no regret after giving; and moreover to distinguish fields of merit from those that are not fields of merit—this is called courage and vigor.

Good man! Regret arising after giving is caused by three things: ⁽¹⁾ attachment to possessions, ⁽²⁾ following wrong views, and ⁽³⁾ seeing the faults of the recipient. There are also three further causes: ⁽¹⁾ fear of being reproached by others, ⁽²⁾ fear of suffering when one’s possessions are exhausted, and ⁽³⁾ seeing others become poor and distressed after giving.

Good man! A wise person never gives rise to regret over an act of giving. There are also three things that prevent regret from arising: ⁽¹⁾ clearly understanding and believing in cause and effect, ⁽²⁾ drawing near to good spiritual friends, and ⁽³⁾ not clinging to possessions. Belief in cause and effect also has two aspects: ⁽¹⁾ profound faith and ⁽²⁾ wisdom. Not clinging to possessions also has two aspects: ⁽¹⁾ contemplating impermanence and ⁽²⁾ understanding that they are not under one’s control.

Good man! If a donor can contemplate and practice giving in this way, one should know that he can fully practice the paramita of giving. Therefore, I previously said: “There is giving that is not a paramita; there is paramita that is not giving; there is giving that is also paramita; and there is that which is neither giving nor paramita.”

Good man! Wise people are of three kinds: ⁽¹⁾ those who can relinquish external possessions, ⁽²⁾ those who can give their bodies, and ⁽³⁾ those who, after giving their bodies, lives, and possessions, also teach and transform sentient beings.

How do they teach and transform them? Upon seeing a poor and suffering person, they should first ask: “Can you take refuge in the Three Jewels? Can you undertake the fasting precepts?” If the person answers that he can, they should first confer upon him the Three Refuges and the fasting precepts, and then give him material goods.

If he answers that he cannot, they should say to him: “If you cannot do so, can you repeat after me that all phenomena are impermanent, that there is no self, and that nirvana is peaceful?” If he answers that he can, they should teach him to recite these words and then give to him. If he replies that he can say only two of these teachings but cannot say that all phenomena are without self, they should say to him: “If you cannot say that all phenomena are without self, can you say that all phenomena have no intrinsic nature?” If he answers that he can, they should teach him to say this and then give to him.

One who can first teach and transform others and then practice giving is called a great donor.

Good man! If one can teach and transform sentient beings in this way, even to the point of making no distinction between loved ones and enemies, that person is called a great donor.

Good man! When a wise person possesses goods that can be given, he should cultivate the practice of giving as described above. If he has no material goods, he should instruct those who possess them to cultivate the practice of giving. If those donors already know this Dharma and require no instruction, he should personally go and assist them in performing acts of giving.

If a poor person has no material possessions, he should study medicinal formulas and various healing arts, seek commonly used medicines, and give them to those in need. He should wholeheartedly examine, nurse, and treat the sick. He should encourage the wealthy to prepare various medicines, such as pills, powders, decoctions, and so forth.

After thoroughly learning methods of treating illness, he should travel everywhere to examine the sick, taking their pulses according to the appropriate method and carefully ascertaining their conditions, and then treating them according to their particular illnesses. While administering treatment, he should skillfully employ expedient means. Even when encountering unsanitary conditions, he should not give rise to disgust.

He should not only clearly understand whether the illness is worsening or improving but should also know which medicines and foods will aggravate or alleviate it. If a patient asks to eat foods or take medicines that would aggravate the illness, he should explain the matter skillfully and should not simply forbid them. If he prohibits them outright, this may increase their suffering.

If he knows with certainty that a patient will die, he should not tell the patient directly but should teach him to take refuge in the Three Jewels, recollect the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, and diligently make offerings. He should tell him that the suffering of illness results from unwholesome causes and conditions in a previous life and that, because he is now undergoing this painful recompense, he should repent. If, after hearing this, the patient becomes angry and curses or insults him, he should remain silent and not answer back, nor should he abandon the patient.

Although he nurses and treats the patient, he must take care never to reproach him for being ungrateful. After the patient recovers, he should continue to visit him, lest exertion afterward cause the illness to recur.

If he sees that the patient has recovered his former health, he should give rise to joy and seek no repayment of kindness. If the patient dies, he should attend to the funeral arrangements and teach the Dharma to comfort the patient’s acquaintances and relatives.

He should not give others food or medicine that is harmful to health. If, after recovering, the patient gladly offers him something in gratitude, he should accept it and then give it to other poor and suffering people.

If one can examine, nurse, and treat the sick in this way, one should know that this person is a great donor who genuinely seeks the path to unsurpassed bodhi.

Good man! When a wise person seeks unsurpassed bodhi, even if his wealth is abundant, he should still study methods of treating illness, establish infirmaries, and fully provide patients with necessities, food, medicine, and so forth.

When roads are uneven or narrow, he should repair them so that they are level and broad, removing thorns, stones, excrement, filth, and impurities. In dangerous places where planks, ladders, poles, or ropes are needed, he should provide them all.

Along roads in desolate places, one should dig wells, plant fruit trees, and improve streams and channels. Where there are no trees, plant trees. At roadside places where burden-bearers rest, make seats for them.

Build rest stations and fully equip them with necessary articles such as jars, basins, lamps and torches, beds, and mats. Where foul streams flow across the road, build bridges over them. At ferry crossings and river landings, build bridges and provide boats and rafts.

For those unable to cross rivers or streams by themselves, personally go and ferry them across. As for the elderly, children, the sick, and the infirm, take them by the hand and help them cross rivers and streams. Beside the road, build stupas and plant flowers and fruit trees.

Upon seeing frightened people fleeing, help conceal them; afterward, offer wealth and use skillful words to persuade their pursuers to spare their lives.

If you see someone approaching a dangerous place, immediately go to meet and escort that person safely through it. If you see someone homeless and wandering in destitution, give according to what is appropriate and comfort that person with gentle words. When travelers from afar are weary, help them bathe, massage their hands and feet, and provide beds and seats. If there are no beds or seats, spread grass to make them a resting place.

In hot weather, give fans and cool clothing; in cold weather, give fire and warm clothing. Either give these things yourself or instruct others to give them.

Admonish merchants to deal fairly with one another and not to deceive each other out of greed for a small profit.

When you see travelers, show them which roads should be taken and which should not. Roads that should be taken are those with water and grass and without bandits; roads that should not be taken are those fraught with many dangers.

When you see that someone’s shoes, sandals, clothing, or alms bowl are old, torn, or damaged, help mend, wash, dye, and repair them.

If there is an infestation of rats, snakes, lice, fleas, or venomous creatures, they should all be removed.

Give back-scratchers, nail clippers, and ear picks; mend and wash the Sangha’s belongings, such as sitting mats, robes, and so forth. In latrines, keep clean water, soap or clean ash and earth, and so forth readily available.

If you yourself make robes or alms bowls, you should first offer them to the Buddha, then offer them to your parents, teachers, and preceptors for their use, and only afterward use them yourself. If robes, bowls, and so forth have previously been offered to the Buddha, they may be redeemed with flowers and incense and then given to others for their use.

Food and drink should first be offered to sramanas and brahmins, and only afterward should one eat.

When you see someone arriving from afar, gently inquire after that person and provide clean water for bathing. Then give oil for rubbing the feet, incense, flowers, toothpicks, soap, clean ash and earth, fragrant oil, scented water, honey, tỳ bát la xá lặc, and undergarments. After the person has rubbed on oil and bathed, again give various kinds of incense and flowers, medicinal pills, medicinal powders, food, and fruit juices, according to what is needed.

Also give razors for shaving hair and beards, water-straining bags, needles, thread, patched robes, paper, brushes, ink, and so forth. If you cannot give regularly, then you should give on days when you observe the Eight Precepts.

If you see a blind person, personally approach, take that person by the hand, and guide them; or give them a staff and direct them along the road. If you see someone suffering from the loss of property and the death of both parents, you should provide material goods, skillfully speak the Dharma, offer comfort, remonstrate, and encourage them, and skillfully explain the two kinds of karmic results: affliction and merit.

Good man! Anyone able to cultivate giving in this way is called a great benefactor.

Good man! There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: those who are householders and those who have left the household life. It is not difficult for a bodhisattva who has left the household life to be a pure benefactor. It is truly difficult for a householder bodhisattva to be a pure benefactor. Why is this? Because householders are bound by many adverse conditions.

Chapter Twenty

Purifying the Three Refuges

Sudatta said to the Buddha: “World-Honored One! As the Buddha previously said, ‘If someone comes seeking to receive the bodhisattva precepts, that person should first be given the Three Refuges and only afterward receive the bodhisattva precepts.’ For what reason must one receive the Three Refuges? What are the Three Refuges?”

“Good man! One receives the Three Refuges because one wishes to destroy suffering, eliminate afflictions, and experience the unsurpassed bliss of tranquil extinction. As to what you have just asked, the Three Refuges are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.

The Buddha is the one who teaches the method for eliminating the causes of affliction and attaining true liberation. The Dharma is the method for eliminating the causes of affliction and attaining true liberation. The Sangha consists of those who receive and uphold the method for eliminating the causes of affliction and attaining true liberation.

Some say, ‘If so, there is only one refuge.’ This is incorrect. Why? Whether or not a Tathagata appears in the world, the True Dharma always abides, but there is no one to expound it.

After the Tathagata appears in the world, he is the one who expounds the True Dharma; therefore, one must separately take refuge in the Buddha. Furthermore, whether or not a Tathagata appears in the world, the True Dharma always exists, but there is no one to receive and uphold it. Only disciples of the Buddha can receive and uphold it; therefore, one must separately take refuge in the Sangha.

The path of true liberation is called the Dharma. One who awakens by himself without a teacher is called a Buddha. Those able to receive and uphold the teaching in accordance with the Dharma are called the Sangha.

Without the Three Refuges, how could there be said to be the Four Unshakable Faiths?^[23] Those who receive the Three Refuges may receive them completely or incompletely. What is meant by receiving them completely? It means taking refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.

What is meant by receiving them incompletely? The Tathagata, for example, takes refuge only in the Dharma and does not take refuge in the Sangha. Bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas all receive the Three Refuges completely.

“Good man! Just as Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas, and sravakas differ, so too do the Three Jewels differ. How do they differ?

Their generation of resolve, cultivation, and attainment of the Way all differ; therefore, they are said to be distinct. For what reason is it said that the Buddha is the Dharma? Because one fully understands all dharmas, one is called a Buddha.

Those who receive and uphold the Buddha’s teaching are called the Sangha. If it is said, ‘The Buddha belongs among the Sangha,’ this is incorrect. Why?

If the Buddha belonged among the Sangha, there would be no Three Jewels, Three Refuges, or Four Unshakable Faiths. Good man! Because the Dharma of bodhisattvas is distinct, the Buddha and the Sangha are also distinct.

There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: first, bodhisattvas in their final existence; and second, bodhisattvas cultivating the Way. Taking refuge in a bodhisattva in the final existence is called taking refuge in the Dharma; taking refuge in a bodhisattva cultivating the Way is called taking refuge in the Sangha. Those who contemplate how conditioned dharmas are filled with faults, obstructions, and transgressions, who cultivate alone and attain the ambrosia, are called Buddhas.

All unconditioned and uncontaminated dharma-realms are called the Dharma. Those who observe the prohibitive precepts and read, recite, and expound the twelve divisions of the teachings are called the Sangha. If someone were to ask, ‘After the Tathagata has entered nirvana, in whom does one take refuge when taking refuge in the Buddha?’”

Good man! Taking refuge in this manner is taking refuge in the qualities beyond training possessed by the Buddhas of the past. Just as I formerly taught the householder Tapussa, saying, “You should take refuge in the Sangha of the future,” so too is taking refuge in the Buddhas of the past.

According to whether the karmic rewards and fields of merit are greater or lesser, they are distinguished as the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. Whether the Buddha is still in the world or has entered nirvana, the karmic reward of making offerings to him is no different. The same is true of receiving the Three Refuges.

While the Buddha was in the world, he established the precepts and discipline for his disciples. After he entered nirvana, anyone who violates those precepts still incurs an offense. Taking refuge in the Buddhas of the past is likewise.

When the Tathagata was about to enter nirvana, all devas and humans, seeking the Dharma of nirvana, presented offerings to the Tathagata. At that time, although the Tathagata had not yet entered nirvana and was still in the world, he had already accepted the offerings of beings of future generations. Taking refuge in the Buddhas of the past is likewise.

Suppose a person’s parents are far away. If that person angrily reviles them, that person still incurs an offense; if that person treats them with reverence and praises them, that person also gains merit. Taking refuge in the Buddhas of the past is likewise.

Therefore, I have said: “If anyone makes offerings to me, whether while I am still in the world or after I have entered nirvana, the merit will be equal, without any difference.”

Good man! Any man or woman who can repeat the formula of the Three Refuges three times is called an upasaka or an upasika. Although all Buddhas take refuge in the Dharma, the Dharma can become manifest in the world only when it is expounded by the Buddhas.

Therefore, sentient beings must first take refuge in the Buddha. If, with pure actions of body, speech, and mind, one wholeheartedly recollects the Buddha, one will certainly be freed from fear, suffering, and distress. Therefore, one must first take refuge in the Buddha.

The wise deeply contemplate the supreme wisdom and liberation of the Tathagata: he can teach the Dharma of liberation, explain the causes of liberation, show sentient beings the place of unsurpassed tranquility, and dry up the vast ocean of the suffering of birth and death. The Buddha is dignified and composed, and his three kinds of karma are tranquil. Therefore, one must first take refuge in the Buddha.

The wise deeply contemplate that the condition of birth and death is an accumulation of suffering that only the unsurpassed Right Path can eliminate. The condition of birth and death is craving, hunger, and thirst, which only the unsurpassed ambrosia can fully satisfy. The condition of birth and death is fear and peril, which only the unsurpassed True Dharma can eliminate. The condition of birth and death is filled with error, perversity, and wrongness: the impermanent is held to be permanent, non-self is held to be self, what is not pleasant is held to be pleasant, and the impure is held to be pure. Only the unsurpassed True Dharma can eliminate all these. For this reason, one should take refuge in the Dharma.

The wise should contemplate followers of non-Buddhist paths. They know neither shame nor remorse and do not live in accordance with the Dharma. Although they practice, they do not know the true path.

Although they seek liberation, they do not know its genuine essentials. Although they acquire a few wholesome worldly qualities, they are miserly and conceal them, refusing to transmit or teach them to others; and they regard what is not wholesome Dharma as wholesome Dharma. By contrast, members of the Sangha within the Buddha-Dharma are tranquil in mind and nature, constantly compassionate, of few desires and content, living in accordance with the Dharma, cultivating the Right Path, and attaining genuine liberation.

Having attained it, they then teach it to others. Therefore, one should next take refuge in the Sangha.

If a person bows to the Three Jewels, respectfully welcomes and escorts them, honors and praises them, lives in accordance with the Dharma, and believes without doubt, this is called making offerings to the Three Jewels. If, after taking refuge in the Three Jewels, a person has not yet received the precepts but eliminates all unwholesome dharmas and cultivates all wholesome dharmas, then although that person is a householder, if that person lives in accordance with the Dharma, that person is also called an upasaka.

Some may say, “If a person has not first taken refuge in the Three Jewels—the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—then one should know that, upon receiving the precepts, that person does not obtain the Five Precepts.” This is not so. Why? As I formerly said, “Come, bhiksu!” Those persons had never taken refuge in the Three Jewels, yet they all became fully endowed with the precepts.

Others may say, “If one does not receive every individual precept, one does not acquire the essence of the precepts. The same applies to the Eightfold Fasting Observance.” Yet this too is not so. Why?

If one could not acquire the essence of the precepts without receiving every individual precept, how could those upasakas who seek only the blessings and pleasures of human and heavenly existence acquire the precepts? In truth, they acquire the essence of the precepts; only the individual precepts are incomplete. Likewise, although one who does not receive all the individual precepts of the Eightfold Fasting Observance cannot be said to observe the fast, it may still be called wholesome Dharma.

Good man! If one receives the upasaka precepts through pure karma of body, speech, and mind, this is called the five skandhas. What are the five skandhas? Not accepting wrong views, not expounding wrong views, believing in and accepting right view, expounding right view, and practicing the True Dharma—these are called the five skandhas.

If, after receiving the Three Refuges, one performs actions rooted in delusion, subsequently accepts the false teachings of non-Buddhist paths, and heeds the words of the followers of Isvara, then for these reasons one loses the Three Refuges. If a person is upright in heart, neither miserly nor greedy, always knows shame and remorse, and has few desires and is content, that person will before long attain the Body of Tranquility.

If one performs defiled actions and cultivates wholesome dharmas merely to enjoy pleasure, without compassion for sentient beings, as though engaging in commerce and exchange, such a person does not acquire the Dharma of the Three Refuges. If, in order to protect one’s home, body, and life, one worships spirits, one is not said to have lost the Three Refuges. If a person wholeheartedly believes that followers of non-Buddhist paths can rescue that person from every fear and therefore bows to them, that person loses the Three Refuges.

If one has heard that those devas have taken refuge in the Buddha and that their merit and virtue surpass one’s own, then bowing and making offerings to them does not cause one to lose the Dharma of the Three Refuges. If one bows to the heavenly king Isvara in the same manner as one bows to kings, householders, nobles, or persons venerable in age and virtue, then such bowing also does not cause one to lose the Dharma of the Three Refuges.

Although at times one may bow in reverence to the heterodox teachings of non-Buddhists, one must nevertheless take care not to accept their doctrines. When making offerings to heavenly deities, one should arouse a mind of loving-kindness and compassion, wishing to protect one’s life, possessions, and country, and to free the people from fear. Why should one not accept the false doctrines of non-Buddhists?

The wise should examine what they teach. They claim that all things are created by Ishvara. If everything is created by Ishvara, why must we now cultivate wholesome dharmas?

Some say, “By leaping into an abyss, throwing oneself into fire, fasting, or taking one’s own life, one can bring all suffering to an end.” These things are causes of suffering; why should anyone maintain that suffering can thereby be ended? All sentient beings perform wholesome and unwholesome karma, and through these karmic conditions they themselves experience the resulting retributions. Others claim, “All things are produced either by time, by the stars, or by Ishvara.” If so, why do we experience the retributions of karma from this life and past lives?

The wise clearly know these to be karmic retributions; why, then, should they say that all things are produced by the seasons, the stars, or Ishvara? If suffering and happiness were experienced because of the conditions of the seasons and stars, then many people in the world are born at the same time or under the same stars; why does one experience suffering while another enjoys happiness? Why is one male and another female?

Devas and asuras may likewise be born at the same time or under the same stars; why is it that sometimes the devas prevail and the asuras are defeated, while at other times the asuras prevail and the devas are defeated? Why is it that kings, though born at the same time and under the same stars, differ in governance, with one losing his kingdom and another preserving his? Non-Buddhists also say, “If there is an inauspicious year or an ominous star appears, sentient beings must be instructed to cultivate wholesome dharmas in order to avert calamities and overcome misfortune.” If calamities are caused by an inauspicious year or an ominous star, why can they be overcome by cultivating wholesome dharmas?

Knowing this, why should the wise still accept the erroneous false doctrines of non-Buddhists?

Good man! All sentient beings fare according to their own karmic conduct. If they know how to cultivate right view, they will enjoy peace and happiness; if they cultivate wrong view, they will undergo much suffering and affliction. Through the cultivation of wholesome karma, one attains mastery. After attaining mastery, sentient beings will draw near; one may then teach them wholesome karma, and through wholesome karma they too will attain mastery. All sentient beings attain peace and happiness through cultivating wholesome karma, not through the years, months, or stars.

Good man! King Ajatashatru and Devadatta fell into hell because of the karma they created; they did not undergo that retribution because of the years, months, or stars. Udraka Ramaputra, because of the conditions of wrong view, will fall into hell in the future.

Good man! Aspiration is the root of all wholesome dharmas. Through aspiration, one attains the three kinds of bodhi and the fruit of liberation.

Through aspiration, sentient beings leave the household life, destroy fundamental unwholesome karma and the karma that brings about cyclic birth and death. They are able to uphold the precepts, draw near to the Buddhas, and give all their possessions to those who come seeking alms. They resolutely destroy all unwholesome retributions, eliminate all grave unwholesome karma, enter the “group assured of certainty,” leave the three obstructions far behind, and skillfully cultivate methods for destroying the afflictions.

Because of aspiration, they are able to receive and uphold the Three Refuges. Having received the Three Refuges, they are able to receive the five precepts. After receiving the precepts, all their realization of the path and cultivation of the path surpass those of the shravakas.

Even those who take refuge in the Buddha out of fear of lions, tigers, wolves, or vicious beasts attain liberation; how much more so would those who arouse a wholesome mind and seek deliverance from birth and death attain liberation? When Anathapindika instructed his wife to receive the Three Refuges on behalf of the child still in her womb, that child had not yet fulfilled the Dharma of the Three Refuges. Why?

Because the Dharma of the Three Refuges must be spoken by one’s own mouth. Although the child had not yet fulfilled it, the child in the womb was nevertheless protected by dragons and devas.

Good man! Non-Buddhists claim that all worldly dharmas were created by Ishvara. They further claim that, in the future, after one hundred kalpas, an illusory person will appear.

By the words “illusory person,” they mean the Buddha. If Ishvara created the Buddha, why did the Buddha refute the doctrine of “taking refuge in Ishvara”? If Ishvara did not create the Buddha, why do they say that Ishvara created everything?

Non-Buddhists also claim, “The three deities Brahma, Maheshvara, and Vishnu are only one deity, although the place where each is born differs. Ishvara is also called ‘Eternal,’ ‘Lord,’ ‘Being,’ ‘Rudra,’ and ‘Shiva,’ each name having a different meaning. Ishvara is the one who seeks liberation and is also liberation itself.” This, however, is incorrect.

Why? If Ishvara can create sentient beings, then he also creates the world, creates wholesome and unwholesome karma together with its retributions, and creates greed, anger, and delusion, which bind sentient beings. Non-Buddhists also claim that when sentient beings attain liberation, they enter the body of Ishvara; one therefore knows that their liberation is an impermanent dharma.

This is incorrect. Why? If it is impermanent, how can it be called liberation?

Just as the son of a brahmin has a finite lifespan, one therefore knows that he cannot be called Ishvara. The three deities Mahabrahma, Maheshvara, and Vishnu are likewise not one. Why?

Because the people of Arjuna were liberated by Vishnu and Mahabrahma. For this reason, these three deities are not one.

If it is claimed that liberation is an impermanent dharma, then liberation itself is illusory, not the Buddha. To see the true self correctly and clearly is called liberation. Some claim, “To see the distinction between the original nature and the true self is called liberation.” This is incorrect! Why? One who cultivates the path and sees the Four Noble Truths is truly one who sees the original nature and the true self. Moreover, only one who has received the Three Refuges can see the Four True Truths. Therefore, the Dharma of the Three Refuges is the root of immeasurable wholesome dharmas, up to and including anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.

There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: householders and those who have left the household life. For a bodhisattva who has left the household life to purify the Three Refuges is not difficult. For a householder bodhisattva to purify the Three Refuges is difficult indeed. Why? Because householders are bound by many adverse conditions.

Chapter Twenty-One

The Eight Precepts of the One-Day Fast

Sujata addressed the Buddha, saying, “World-Honored One! If a person receives the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts of the One-Day Fast, what retributions will that person obtain?”

– Good man! If a person receives the Three Refuges, you should know that the retributions obtained by that person will be inexhaustible.

Good man! In the country of Kalinga there was a treasury of the seven precious substances called Pingala. All the people of that country—old and young, men and women—brought every kind of cart, elephant, horse, camel, donkey, and so forth to transport its contents for seven years, seven months, and seven days, yet they still could not exhaust it. If a person receives and upholds the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts of the One-Day Fast with utmost sincerity, the meritorious retributions obtained by that person will be even greater than the wealth contained in that treasury of the seven precious substances.

Good man! In the kingdom of Videha there was a treasury of the seven precious substances named Bān Lục Ca. All the people of that kingdom—old and young, men and women—brought every kind of cart, elephant, horse, camel, donkey, and so forth, and transported its treasures for seven years, seven months, and seven days, yet they still could not exhaust it. If a person sincerely receives and upholds the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat, the meritorious reward attained by that person will surpass even the wealth contained in that treasury of the seven precious substances.

Good man! In the kingdom of Varanasi there was a treasury of the seven precious substances named Nhương Khê. All the people of that kingdom—old and young, men and women—brought every kind of cart, elephant, horse, camel, donkey, and so forth, and transported its treasures for seven years, seven months, and seven days, yet they still could not exhaust it. If a person sincerely receives and upholds the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat, the meritorious reward attained by that person will surpass even the wealth contained in that treasury of the seven precious substances.

Good man! In the kingdom of Gandhara there was a treasury of the seven precious substances named Y La Bát Đa. All the people of that kingdom—old and young, men and women—brought every kind of cart, elephant, horse, camel, donkey, and so forth, and transported its treasures for seven years, seven months, and seven days, yet they still could not exhaust it. If a person sincerely receives and upholds the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat, the meritorious reward attained by that person will surpass even the wealth contained in that treasury of the seven precious substances.

Good man! If a person receives the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts three times from monastics, that person will be fully endowed, for one day and one night, with the essence of the precepts of a lay Buddhist who practices purity. On the following day, when the sun rises, that essence of the precepts will naturally cease. Therefore, one must not receive the precepts before an image of the Buddha, but must receive them from monastics. The recipient of the precepts must be pure in foundation; after receiving them, one must uphold the precepts purely, be adorned with purity, have pure initial and sustained contemplation, maintain pure thoughts, and receive a pure karmic reward. This is called the purity of the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts.

Good man! If one is able to receive the Three Refuges and the Eight Precepts with such purity, one will eradicate the five heinous offenses and the retributions of other offenses. These Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat cannot be received by two people simultaneously. Why is this? If two people were to receive them at the same time, through what causes and conditions would one violate the precepts while the other upheld them? Furthermore, through the power of the Dharma of the precepts, when one is born in a future life, one will not commit evil karma. Even if one violates the precepts after receiving them, the essence of the precepts will not thereby be lost forever.

Suppose a person had previously sent a letter ordering a subordinate to kill someone. Because the letter traveled slowly and had not yet reached the subordinate, during that interval the person resolved to receive the precepts. While that person was receiving the precepts, the subordinate received the letter and went to kill the intended victim. Although the receiving of the precepts and the killing occurred at the same time, through the power of the precepts, the person receiving them did not commit the offense of taking life.

If a person possessing authority orders subordinates to perform an evil deed and then wishes to receive the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat, that person must first order them to cease the evil deed; only afterward can the reception of the precepts be accomplished. If that person does not first issue an order forbidding the evil deed but proceeds to receive the precepts, this is not called receiving the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat.

If a person possessing authority wishes to receive the Eight Precepts, that person must first announce to everyone within the territory under their rule that they intend to receive the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat, and must order that on the day of receiving them, all evil deeds, executions, and punishments cease. If one can receive and uphold the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat with such purity, one will obtain immeasurable blessings, even attaining the supreme fruit of bliss.

When Maitreya Buddha appears in the world, receiving and upholding the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat for a hundred years at that time will not equal receiving the precepts for a single day and night in the present age. Why is this? Because in the present age, sentient beings are beset by all five defilements. Therefore, I taught Visakha, the Mother of Migara: “Good woman! If a sala tree were able to receive the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat, it too would attain the blissful rewards of heavenly and human existence, even the supreme fruit of bliss.”

Good man! These Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat are easy to practice, yet they enable one to obtain immeasurable merit. If there is something easy to practice and one is unwilling to practice it, one is called a heedless person.

Good man! Bodhisattvas are of two kinds: householders and monastics. It is not difficult for a monastic bodhisattva to instruct sentient beings to receive the Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat with purity. It is truly difficult for a householder bodhisattva to instruct others to receive the precepts with purity. Why is this? Because householders are bound by many adverse conditions.

Notes:
^[23] The four kinds of unshakable faith: faith in the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sangha, and the precepts that can no longer be shaken or destroyed.