優婆塞戒經

G5. Exhortation to Abandon Evil Precepts

Good man! The transgressions committed by sentient beings are generally of two kinds: ⁽¹⁾ those arising from evil precepts, and ⁽²⁾ those arising from having no precepts. A person who has undertaken evil precepts, even if he kills only one goat, incurs the transgression of killing both when he kills and when he does not kill.

Why is this? Because he previously made a vow. A person who has not undertaken evil precepts, however, may kill a thousand people, yet incurs the transgression only while killing and does not incur it while not killing.

Why is this? Because he made no vow. Therefore, the mind is the foundation of all wholesome and unwholesome dharmas.

It is on account of this foundation—the mind—that it is said that bhikshus commit offenses in only two ways: ⁽¹⁾ through the body, and ⁽²⁾ through speech; there is no offense committed by the mind alone. With regard to this kind of precept Dharma, if the required time is not fulfilled—for example, one must be twenty years old—or the required conditions are incomplete—for example, one must possess the three robes, an alms bowl, and so forth—then the essence of the precepts cannot be obtained.

This is like producing

fire by friction: a focusing lens, human effort, dry grass, and so forth must all be present before fire can be produced. If even one condition is lacking, there will be no fire. The precept Dharma is likewise.

Whether one obtains the essence of these precepts, relinquishes the precepts, or observes the precepts depends entirely upon the mind. The Tathagata clearly knows the nature of dharmas and therefore established this kind of precept Dharma. If, through the power of volition directed toward wholesome karma, a person refrains from creating evil karma, this is called precepts in accordance with the True Dharma.

If one obtains the essence of the precepts from another person, this is called receiving the precepts. If merit could be obtained without receiving the precepts, then creatures of the evil destinies, such as lions, tigers, wolves, and so forth, would all necessarily obtain merit. But in truth this is not so.

For this reason, receiving wholesome precepts brings immeasurable merit, while receiving evil precepts incurs immeasurable transgression. The sutras speak of the following evil modes of livelihood and conduct: ⁽¹⁾ raising goats, ⁽²⁾ raising chickens, ⁽³⁾ raising pigs, ⁽⁴⁾ angling, ⁽⁵⁾ fishing with nets, ⁽⁶⁾ slaughtering cattle, ⁽⁷⁾ serving as a prison guard, ⁽⁸⁾ raising hunting dogs, ⁽⁹⁾ making traps, ⁽¹⁰⁾ working as a hunter, ⁽¹¹⁾ using spells to command dragons to do evil, ⁽¹²⁾ killing

people, ⁽¹³⁾ becoming a bandit, ⁽¹⁴⁾ engaging in divisive speech, and ⁽¹⁵⁾ using instruments of punishment such as whips, staffs, stocks and fetters, iron spikes, fire, and so forth to torment others. Furthermore, evil kings, evil officials, those who accept another’s trust but prove heartless and ungrateful, wicked village chiefs, cruel tax collectors, and shameless bhikshus who violate the precepts—all such people lack the essence of the precepts.

Although their conduct is not called an unwholesome course of karma, they nevertheless incur grave transgressions. Why? Because they do evil throughout their lives.

With respect to such conduct, if one neither makes a vow to undertake evil precepts nor receives wholesome precepts from another, the essence of the precepts is not established. Evil precepts may be relinquished in four circumstances: ⁽¹⁾ upon becoming a person with both sexual faculties, ⁽²⁾ at death, ⁽³⁾ upon receiving wholesome precepts, and ⁽⁴⁾ upon severing the fetters of the Desire Realm.

G6. Clarifying the Characteristics of Receiving the Precepts and Obtaining Their Essence

Some may maintain: “Just as wholesome precepts encompass all three periods of time, evil precepts do so as well.” This is incorrect! Why? Because evil precepts are easily obtained: only one condition is needed, namely, making a vow.

Wholesome precepts are not like this. Five conditions—generosity, understanding, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom—must all be fulfilled before they are established; therefore, they are difficult to obtain. Because they are difficult to obtain, all the conditions must be complete.

Some may say: “The upasaka precepts contain no individual precepts against meaningless speech, divisive speech, or harsh speech. Therefore, the upasaka precepts, the Eight Precepts observed for a day and a night, the novice precepts, and the bhikshu precepts do not fully constitute the essence of the precepts.” This is incorrect! Why?

Because one is then undertaking to maintain purity of verbal karma. If someone says, “I receive the Five Precepts in order to purify body, speech, and mind,” but his mind is impure when he receives them, know that this person does not fully obtain the essence of the precepts. This is like a person who, after receiving evil precepts, continually maintains those evil precepts even when he does not kill.

A bhikshu who violates the prohibitory precepts is likewise. Why? Because after the precepts have been received,

each individual precept entails many kinds of karma and many kinds of fruit. Sentient beings are immeasurable, and thus the precepts are also immeasurable; the myriad things are immeasurable, and thus the precepts are also immeasurable. Both wholesome and evil precepts are of three grades: superior, middling, and inferior. If one has not received evil precepts, then even though one commits many offenses, these are not called evil precepts. If someone asks, “For what reason must the Five Precepts be observed for one’s entire life, whereas the Eight Precepts need be observed for only one day and one night?” one should answer: “The Tathagata perfectly knows the characteristics of dharmas and comprehends them without obstruction; therefore, he established the precept Dharma in this way.”

G7. A Separate Explanation of the Modes of Committing the Five Heinous Offenses

Good man! There are two kinds of fields of merit in the world: ⁽¹⁾ the field of virtue, and ⁽²⁾ the field toward which gratitude is owed. To kill those who constitute either of these two fields of merit is called committing one of the five heinous offenses. The commission of a heinous offense has three causes and conditions: ⁽¹⁾ possessing an extremely evil mind, ⁽²⁾ failing to recognize merit and virtue, and ⁽³⁾ failing to perceive true karmic retribution. If a

person mistakes an arhat for someone else and kills the arhat by mistake, he does not commit a heinous offense. The same applies in the case of one’s father or mother. If a person’s mind knows no shame, gives no thought to repaying kindness, and lacks reverence, and he merely plots and arranges the deed but has not yet committed the fundamental offense, then although he has not yet committed a heinous offense, he will nevertheless undergo extremely grave retribution.

Because parents have rendered the kindness of teaching, loving, caring for, and patiently enduring hardships; because they do everything and bear every kind of suffering, they are called a field of kindness. If someone kills his father or mother, then even though he cultivates wholesome dharmas, he will not obtain wholesome results. For this reason, I say: “That which has sheltered one, even for a moment, should not be damaged, nor should its boughs, branches, flowers, or fruits be cut or destroyed.” Good man!

After my nirvana, some of my disciples will advance the following positions: “If one kills one’s parents while holding a different intention or referring to them by a different designation, one does not commit a heinous offense.” This is the position of the Dharmaguptaka school. Those who maintain, “Although one kills one’s parents while holding a different intention, one still commits a heinous offense,” belong to the Mahishasaka school.

Those who maintain, “Although one kills one’s parents while holding a different intention and referring to them by a different designation, in every case one commits a heinous offense,” belong to the Sarvastivada school. Why? Because this is a worldly truth worthy of trust.

If they truly are one’s parents, one knows with certainty that they are, and one kills them with an evil mind, then one commits a heinous offense. Although they truly are one’s parents, if one does not know this and does not give rise to an evil mind, then even if one inadvertently kills them, one does not commit a heinous offense. Why?

Four conditions must be fulfilled for a heinous offense to be committed: ⁽¹⁾ they truly are one’s parents, ⁽²⁾ one gives rise to an evil mind, ⁽³⁾ one gives rise to a mind that repudiates and refuses to acknowledge them as one’s parents, and ⁽⁴⁾ one knows that they are sentient beings. Only when these four conditions are fulfilled is a heinous offense constituted; if they are not all fulfilled, no heinous offense is constituted.

If, out of compassion, reverence, adherence to a particular teaching, fear, or concern for reputation, one does not dare to kill one’s parents but instead gives them the instruments of killing so that they may kill themselves, then although one does not kill them with one’s own hands, one still commits a heinous offense. If compelled by another person

if compelled by others to kill one's parents, and one does so while weeping and grieving, one commits a lesser offense in all three periods. If one intends to kill one's parents but mistakenly kills someone else, one does not commit an offense of immediate retribution. The same applies if one intends to kill someone else but mistakenly kills one's parents.

Or one may intend to kill one's mother but mistakenly kill someone who resembles her; after the killing, while putting away the knife, one accidentally strikes one's mother's body and causes her death: one does not commit an offense of immediate retribution. If the mother's appearance has changed and her child kills her while still believing that he is killing someone else, he commits only the offense of killing and not an offense of immediate retribution.

Among these five offenses of immediate retribution, killing one's father is comparatively less grave than killing one's mother; killing an arhat is graver than killing one's mother; causing the Buddha's body to bleed is graver than killing an arhat; and disrupting the harmony of the Sangha is graver than causing the Buddha's body to bleed. There are acts that are grave but whose intention is slight, acts that are slight but whose intention is grave, acts in which both deed and intention are grave, and acts in which both deed and intention are slight.

An act that is grave but whose intention is slight is, for example, killing one's parents without a malicious mind; an act that is slight but whose intention is grave is, for example, killing an animal with a malicious mind; an act in which both deed and intention are

grave is, for example, killing one's parents with an extremely malicious mind; an act in which both deed and intention are slight is, for example, killing an animal with a morally indeterminate mind. These unwholesome karmas may be: ⁽¹⁾ the karma of initiating the preparatory action is grave, while the fundamental karma and the karma upon completion are slight; ⁽²⁾ the karma of initiating the preparatory action and the fundamental karma are slight, while the karma upon completion is grave; ⁽³⁾ the karma of initiating the preparatory action and the fundamental karma are grave, while the karma upon completion is slight; or ⁽⁴⁾ the fundamental karma is slight, while the karma of initiating the preparatory action and the karma upon completion are grave.

G8. Distinguishing Whether Karmic Recompense Is Fixed or Unfixed

The act itself is only one factor; the gravity or lightness of its karmic recompense depends upon the power of the mind. Good man! Suppose someone intends to offer food to me, but before he can give it to me, he instead gives it to a hungry dog. I still praise that person as a great donor. If someone practices giving without discriminating whether the recipient is a field of merit or not a field of merit, that person will obtain immeasurable merit. Why? Because his wholesome mind is

pure. Karma has four kinds of recompense: ⁽¹⁾ recompense in the present life, ⁽²⁾ recompense in the immediately following life, ⁽³⁾ recompense in later lives, and ⁽⁴⁾ no recompense. There are also four kinds of recompense: ⁽¹⁾ the time is fixed, but the recompense is not fixed; ⁽²⁾ the recompense is fixed, but the time is not fixed; ⁽³⁾ both the recompense and the time are fixed; and ⁽⁴⁾ neither the recompense nor the time is fixed.

A fixed time means the present life, the next life, or a subsequent life. If neither the time nor the recompense is fixed, that karma can be transformed. If the recompense is fixed to be experienced in a later life, it can be transformed so as to be experienced in the present life.

Why? Because of the power of wisdom arising from a wholesome mind. If an unwholesome recompense is fixed, it can be transformed into a lighter recompense.

For what reason is a recompense called fixed? Because that person habitually feels no remorse and applies his mind exclusively to doing evil; or because he delights in doing good, makes a vow, and rejoices after completing the deed. Therefore, he receives such fixed recompenses.

Apart from

these cases, all are called unfixed. The karma performed by sentient beings may be light or heavy, remote or near; according to the proper time and causal conditions, they will experience their recompenses sooner or later. If a person cultivates the body, cultivates morality, cultivates the mind, and cultivates wisdom, and knows with certainty that both wholesome and unwholesome deeds bear recompense, one should know that this person can transform heavy karma into light karma and eliminate light karma.

If someone encounters fields of merit or good spiritual friends and cultivates goodness and the Path, that person can transform a heavy recompense due in a later life into a light recompense in the present life. Suppose someone possesses all the unwholesome karma of the Desire Realm: if he attains the fruit of an anagamin, he can transform recompenses due in later lives into recompense in the present life. The same applies to attaining the fruit of an arhat.

Good man! If a wise person can cultivate the body, morality, mind, and wisdom, he can eradicate even extremely heavy unwholesome karma, just as agada medicine, incantations, and precious substances counteract and destroy all kinds of poison. If someone commits a slight offense, the karma remains slight when he first initiates the preparatory action, but by the time the act is completed, the karma becomes heavy.

Because that

person does not know how to cultivate the body, morality, mind, and wisdom, he causes light karma to become heavy. Sentient beings may create one karma, two karmas, or even many karmas; sometimes they create complete karma, and sometimes incomplete karma. If one first plans and arranges the act and then carries it out, it is called complete karma.

If one has not previously conceived the thought but suddenly encounters circumstances and commits the act, it is called incomplete karma. Again, karma may be incomplete, meaning that after the karma has been created, its recompense is not fixed; or it may be complete, meaning that after the karma has been created, recompense will certainly be undergone. Furthermore, incomplete karma means that although the recompense is fixed, the time at which it will be experienced is not fixed; complete karma means that both the recompense and its time are fixed.

Karma may be incomplete when, after creating it, one then cultivates moral discipline and right view; or it may be complete when, after creating it, one continues to violate the precepts and hold wrong views. Karma may be incomplete when, after creating it, one gives rise to faith in cause and effect;

or it may be complete when, after creating it, one continues to disbelieve in cause and effect. Karma may be incomplete when, as one is doing evil, good people surround and restrain one; or it may be complete when, as one is doing evil, evil people surround one, praising and assisting one. Furthermore, karma may be incomplete when, although one commits evil deeds, one is reborn among human beings and experiences the recompense there; or it may be complete when one commits evil in the human realm and is reborn in hell to experience the recompense.

Furthermore, karma may be incomplete when, after creating it, one gives rise to right mindfulness; or it may be complete when, after creating it, one has no right mindfulness. Furthermore, karma may be incomplete when, during the creation of the karma, one gives rise to remorse in all three periods; or it may be complete when, during the creation of the karma, one has no remorse in any of the three periods. The cases concerning the creation of wholesome karma are likewise as just explained above.

Because the karma created is complete [or incomplete],

a small deed may bring a great recompense, or a great deed may bring a small recompense.

G9. Explaining the Meaning of Form Being Produced by Intention

A single thought produces a human body; after the body comes into being, there are immeasurable thoughts. The first thought that produces a human body must be a wholesome thought. After the body has been produced, it experiences two kinds of recompense: wholesome and unwholesome.

The case of a heavenly body is the same as that of a human body. The bodies of hell beings are produced by unwholesome thoughts. After their bodies come into being, they experience only unwholesome recompense.

Hungry ghosts and animals likewise have bodies produced by unwholesome thoughts. After their bodies come into being, they experience two kinds of recompense, wholesome and unwholesome. Wholesome and unwholesome intermediate-existence bodies are likewise produced by wholesome and unwholesome thoughts, and they too experience the two kinds of recompense, wholesome and unwholesome.

From the moment of entering the womb until old age, one simultaneously experiences the two kinds of recompense, wholesome and unwholesome. Therefore, the sutra states that there are four kinds of karma: black karma that brings black recompense, white karma

receives a white result; mixed karma receives a mixed result; karma that is neither black nor white receives no result. Black karma that receives a black result pertains to the hell realms; white karma that receives a white result pertains to the heavens of the Form Realm; mixed karma that receives a mixed result pertains to the heavens of the Desire Realm, the human realm, the animal realm, and the realms of hungry ghosts; karma that is neither white nor black and receives no result is unconditioned, undefiled karma.

Good man! Those who do not clearly understand karmic conditions as described above will drift through birth and death for many lifetimes. Why is this?

Those who do not clearly understand these karmic causes and conditions, although they may be born in the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception and enjoy a lifespan of eighty thousand kalpas, will still fall into the three evil paths when their merit is exhausted. Good man! Among all forms of depiction, nothing surpasses thought.

Thought depicts the afflictions, the afflictions depict karma, and karma depicts the body. Through the causes and conditions of greed, one acquires an attractive complexion, a refined voice, and dignified bearing; through the causes and conditions of anger, one has a coarse appearance, a harsh voice, and crude behavior.

The case of a deluded mind is the same as that of an angry mind.

G10. A Clear Explanation of the Characteristics of Acquiring and Relinquishing the Precepts

Immeasurable worlds, one hundred and thirty-six abodes of hell, immeasurable animals, and immeasurable hungry ghosts are all brought into being by karma. The human and heavenly realms are likewise. Immeasurable sentient beings also attain the result of liberation by virtue of karma.

Good man! The ten wholesome paths have three functions: ⁽¹⁾ restraining the afflictions, ⁽²⁾ giving rise to wholesome states of mind, and ⁽³⁾ increasing the Dharma of the precepts. This is like the three kinds of means for eliminating poison: ⁽¹⁾ agada medicine, ⁽²⁾ incantations, and ⁽³⁾ true words.

If a person cultivates heedfulness, is fully endowed with right mindfulness, and can distinguish good from evil, you should know that this person will certainly cultivate the ten wholesome karmas. If a person is habitually heedless and lacks a sense of shame, moral dread, and faith, you should know that this person will certainly create the ten unwholesome karmas. These ten karmas also have three

parts: ⁽¹⁾ initiating the preparatory means, ⁽²⁾ the fundamental act, and ⁽³⁾ its completion. If a person diligently bows to and makes offerings to parents, teachers, preceptors, venerable masters, and virtuous persons, greeting and welcoming them with gentle speech, this is called the preparatory means. If afterward that person continually recollects what was done, rejoicing without regret, this is called completion.

Single-minded attention while performing the act is called the fundamental act. Good man! These ten paths of karma are further divided into superior, middling, and inferior grades: the preparatory means may be superior, the fundamental act middling, and the completion inferior; or the preparatory means may be middling, the fundamental act inferior, and the completion superior; or the preparatory means may be inferior, the fundamental act superior, and the completion middling.

These ten paths of karma are surrounded by three dharmas, namely either the absence of greed, anger, and delusion, or the presence of greed, anger, and delusion. The ten paths of karma are also of two kinds: conduct governed by the precepts and conduct governed by the distinctive precepts. There are six circumstances in which the precepts are relinquished: ⁽¹⁾ when the roots of goodness are severed, ⁽²⁾ when one becomes intersex, ⁽³⁾

when one relinquishes one's lifespan, ⁽⁴⁾ when one undertakes evil precepts, ⁽⁵⁾ when one makes a vow to relinquish the precepts, and ⁽⁶⁾ when one relinquishes a body of the Desire Realm. Some say, “When the Buddha-Dharma becomes extinct, the essence of the precepts will be lost.” This is incorrect! Why?

After one has received the precepts, the essence of the precepts is not lost; before one has received them, one does not acquire their essence. Eliminating the evil karma of body, speech, and mind is called the precepts of moral restraint; the four meditations of the Form Realm and the four preliminary concentrations are called the precepts associated with concentration; the four meditations of the Form Realm and the preliminary stage of the first meditation are called the undefiled precepts.

After relinquishing this body, no longer committing evil in a subsequent life is called the precepts of non-action. Guarding the faculties, cultivating right mindfulness, and not giving rise to heedlessness regarding the sense objects—forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tactile objects, and dharmas—in all that is seen, heard, sensed, and known is called the precepts of guarding the faculties. For what reason are they called precepts?

Precepts mean restraint. Because they can restrain all unwholesome dharmas, they are called restraint. Furthermore, the precepts are also called narrowness.

Although evil dharmas exist, the essential nature of the precepts does not accommodate evil; therefore, they are called narrowness. Furthermore,

the precepts are also called coolness, because they prevent the scorching heat of the afflictions from entering; therefore, they are called coolness. Furthermore, the precepts are also called ascent, because through them one can ascend to the heavens and even to the unsurpassed path; therefore, they are called ascent. Furthermore, the precepts are also called training, because one trains in taming the mind, wisdom, and the faculties; therefore, they are called training.

Good man! Some people are fully endowed with one kind of precepts, namely the pratimoksha precepts; some are fully endowed with two kinds, namely the first together with the precepts associated with concentration; some are fully endowed with three kinds, namely those two together with the undefiled precepts; some are fully endowed with four kinds, namely those three together with the precepts of guarding the faculties; and some are fully endowed with five kinds, namely those four together with the precepts of non-action.

Good man! The essence of the pratimoksha precepts can be acquired only in the present, whereas the essence of the precepts associated with concentration can be acquired in all three periods of time. Good man!

If a person wishes to receive the precepts and sincerely contemplates the faults of the course of birth and death and the merits of liberation, doing so with faith and joy, that person will acquire the two kinds of precepts: those of action and non-action. The duration of these precepts accords with the length of one's lifespan: if one lives long, one retains the essence of the precepts for a long time; if one is short-lived, one retains it for a short time.

These precepts of non-action are relinquished through three causes and conditions: ⁽¹⁾ cultivating wholesome dharmas only rarely, ⁽²⁾ habitually allowing the mind to be heedless, and ⁽³⁾ making an irresolute vow. There are also three causes and conditions for not relinquishing the precepts: ⁽¹⁾ having an original vow, ⁽²⁾ resolutely performing wholesome karma, and ⁽³⁾ remaining single-minded and heedful. Good man!

Apart from the ten wholesome karmas, the ten unwholesome karmas, wholesome precepts, and evil precepts, there are also karmas not subsumed under the precepts, namely wholesome and unwholesome dharmas. These wholesome and unwholesome dharmas also have action and non-action. Some people are fully endowed with both action and non-action.

If, in the present thought-moment, a person is performing a wholesome deed and has not abandoned it, that person is fully endowed with action and non-action; in the next thought-moment, the person possesses the past action and non-action—the action has become past, and only the non-action remains, while the action is no longer present. If a person has acquired the essence of the precepts yet commits an evil deed, in the present life that person possesses two dharmas: the action of the evil dharma and the non-action of the wholesome dharma.

This action and non-action are relinquished through two causes and conditions: ⁽¹⁾ the donated object has been completely used up, and ⁽²⁾ the mind abandons the performance of

the wholesome deed. Action is possessed in two periods, the past and present, whereas non-action is possessed in all three periods. The precepts associated with concentration are relinquished through two causes and conditions: ⁽¹⁾ when one regresses from the resolve for the path, and ⁽²⁾ when the roots of goodness are severed.

There are also three occasions on which the precepts associated with concentration are relinquished: ⁽¹⁾ at death, ⁽²⁾ upon regressing from the resolve for the path, and ⁽³⁾ upon birth in a higher realm. There are three occasions on which the undefiled precepts are relinquished: ⁽¹⁾ upon regressing from the resolve for the path, ⁽²⁾ upon changing from dull faculties to keen faculties, and ⁽³⁾ upon attaining a higher fruition.

Upon birth in a heavenly realm, the karmic paths of wholesome states of mind belonging to the three lower realms are lost; when the roots of goodness are severed, the wholesome karma of body, speech, and mind is lost simultaneously. Good man! Whoever acquires the full precepts, the precepts associated with concentration, the undefiled precepts, and the precepts of guarding the faculties clearly understands the ten paths of karma.

G11. A Clear Explanation of the Lifespan Resulting from Wholesome and Unwholesome Karma

– Good man! Because of the ten paths of karma, the lifespans of sentient beings increase or decrease. Decrease means that when the lifespan still

ten years; “increase” means that the lifespan increases without limit. In Uttarakuru, the fixed lifespan is one thousand years; in this Jambudvipa, the lifespan is one hundred years; and in the two continents of Purvavideha and Aparagodaniya, the lifespan is two hundred and fifty years. If the lifespan in Jambudvipa is immeasurable, then the lifespans in Purvavideha and Aparagodaniya are likewise immeasurable.

The lifespan in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings reaches ninety thousand years, but it is not fixed, just as in the three continents of Jambudvipa, Purvavideha, and Aparagodaniya. The lifespan in the Trayastrimsa Heaven reaches eighteen million years, but it is likewise not fixed. The lifespan in the Yama Heaven reaches thirty-six million years, but it is likewise not fixed.

The lifespan in the Tusita Heaven reaches seventy-two million years; apart from bodhisattvas in their final existence, the lifespans of all others are likewise not fixed. The lifespan in the Heaven of Delight in Creation reaches one hundred and forty-four million years, but it is likewise not fixed. The lifespan in the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations reaches two hundred and eighty-eight million years, but it is likewise not fixed.

One year in the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Hot Hell. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that hell reaches two hundred and eighty-eight billion years, but it is likewise not fixed. One year in the Heaven of Delight in Creation is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Hell of Great Wailing.

Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that hell reaches one hundred and forty-four billion years, but it is likewise not fixed. One year in the Tusita Heaven is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Hell of Wailing. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that hell reaches seventy-two billion years, but it is likewise not fixed.

One year in the Yama Heaven is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Crushing Hell. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that hell reaches thirty-six

billion years, but it is likewise not fixed. One year in the Trayastrimsa Heaven is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Black-Rope Hell. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that hell reaches eighteen billion years, but it is likewise not fixed.

One year in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Reviving Hell. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that hell reaches nine billion years, but it is likewise not fixed. The lifespan in the Avici Hell is one great kalpa, while the lifespan in the Great Hot Hell is half a minor kalpa; only in these two places are the lifespans fixed.

Fifty years in the human realm are equal in duration to one day and one night in the realm of hungry ghosts. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in the realm of hungry ghosts reaches five thousand years, but it is likewise not fixed. In the animal realm, apart from the nagas Nanda and Upananda, the lifespans of the other species

are likewise not fixed. One year in the Avici Hell is equal in duration to one day and one night in the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception. Reckoning thirty days as one month and twelve months as one year, the lifespan in that heaven is eighty thousand kalpas. The lifespan in the Heaven of Nothingness is sixty thousand great kalpas; the lifespan in the Heaven of Infinite Consciousness is forty thousand great kalpas; and the lifespan in the Heaven of Infinite Space is twenty thousand great kalpas.

G12. A General Explanation of the Characteristics of Karmic Retribution

If a person has only very few afflictions remaining and is also attached to the concentration on emptiness, one should know that this person will be reborn in the four Formless Realms. From the time the human lifespan is ten years, it increases until it reaches eighty thousand years; it then decreases from eighty thousand years back to ten years. Eighteen such cycles of increase and decrease are called one intermediate kalpa. Three minor calamities of famine, three minor calamities of disease, and one minor calamity of warfare are called one minor

kalpa. After five occurrences of each of the two great calamities of water and fire, there is one calamity of wind; five calamities of wind are called one great kalpa. When the kalpa of warfare arises in Jambudvipa, the people of the two continents of Purvavideha and Aparagodaniya temporarily give rise to anger.

When the kalpa of disease arises in Jambudvipa, the people of those two continents suffer slight headaches, and their health also declines somewhat. When the kalpa of famine arises in Jambudvipa, the people of those two continents frequently think about food. Uttarakuru is entirely free from such calamities.

Because of the causal condition of abstaining from killing, people obtain long lifespans; because of the causal condition of stealing, their lifespans diminish. There are two kinds of kalpas: ⁽¹⁾ the water kalpa and ⁽²⁾ the fire kalpa. When the fire kalpa arises, beings in the hells whose retribution has been exhausted all leave the hells; if their retribution has not yet been exhausted, they are reborn in hells in other directions.

When the eight great hells in this world no longer contain any beings, it is said that the beings have escaped from the hells. All

beings in the four great seas whose karmic retribution has been exhausted are able to escape; but if their karmic retribution has not yet been exhausted, they are reborn in the great seas of other directions. When not a single being remains in the seas, it is said that they have escaped. About five hundred yojanas directly beneath the ground of Jambudvipa stands the city of King Yama, measuring seventy-five thousand yojanas in circumference.

If the karmic retribution of the hungry ghosts in that city has been exhausted, they all depart; but if their karmic retribution has not yet been exhausted, they are reborn in the cities of King Yama in other directions. When not a single being remains in that city, it is said that they have escaped. At that time, one being, through internal causal conditions, attains the First Dhyana.

Having attained it, that being cries out in a loud voice: “The First Dhyana is tranquil! The First Dhyana is tranquil!” After hearing this, everyone reflects inwardly, and all then attain the First Dhyana together, relinquish their human bodies, and are reborn in the First Dhyana Heaven. At that time, in the realm of the First Dhyana, another being, through internal causal conditions,

cultivates and attains the Second Dhyana. Having attained it, that being cries out in a loud voice: “The Second Dhyana is tranquil! The Second Dhyana is tranquil!” After hearing this, everyone reflects inwardly, and all attain the Second Dhyana together, relinquish their bodies in the First Dhyana Heaven, and are reborn in the Second Dhyana Heaven.

At that time, all realms from the Avici Hell up to and including the First Dhyana become empty, without a single being remaining. Good man! Outside the four continents stands Mount Yugandhara, within which are seven suns.

Because of the merit and virtue of sentient beings, only one sun appears, and through it the crops and vegetation flourish. When the fire kalpa arrives, all seven suns appear simultaneously and burn everything to ashes, from rice plants, fruit trees, mountains, rivers, earth, and rocks to Mount Sumeru and even the realm of the First Dhyana. At that time, beings in the realm of the Second Dhyana see the fiery calamity and become fearful.

The devas of the First Dhyana who were born there earlier tell the newly arrived devas: “Do not be afraid. We have seen this fiery calamity before. It reaches only the realm of the First Dhyana and then stops; it does not spread to this realm.” From the time the lifespan of sentient beings increases from ten years to eighty thousand years, and then from eighty

ten thousand years decreases until it reaches ten years. Throughout such a period, the heat of the kalpa fire still does not cease. At that time, great rain descends from the intermediate First Dhyana heaven.

After another period during which the human lifespan increases once and decreases once, through the karmic causes and conditions of sentient beings, seven layers of wind and clouds appear beneath this world to hold back the rainwater. At that time, the rain ceases, and a film resembling clarified butter forms upon the surface of the water. Mount Sumeru and each of the four continents gradually appear.

Within the water, all kinds of seeds are naturally present in abundance. At that time, in the Second Dhyana heaven, there is a sentient being whose lifespan is short and whose merit is exhausted. Through the power of karma, he is born into this world, possesses a long lifespan, and emits light from his body.

Having lived alone for a long time, he becomes distressed and thinks: “I have lived alone for a long time. If I possess merit, may someone be born here to be my companion.” When he gives rise to this thought, a sentient being in the Second Dhyana heaven with little merit reaches the end of his life and, through the causes

and conditions of karma, is likewise born into this world. The first being sees the newcomer, rejoices in his heart, and thinks: “That person was produced through my transformation; I have authority over him.” The newcomer also thinks: “I was born from that person; he transformed and created me and has power over me.” Through these causes and conditions, sentient beings give rise to the notion of self-view. Good man! The skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, and so forth, the world of sentient beings, and the world of lands all exist through the causes and conditions of the ten kinds of karma.

F6. Conclusion on the Excellence of the Householder’s Path

Good man! There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: first, householders; second, monastics. For a monastic bodhisattva to contemplate the ten courses of karma in this way is not difficult; only when a householder bodhisattva contemplates the ten courses of karma in this way is it truly difficult. Why? Because householders are bound by many adverse conditions.

25. Kshanti Paramita

C3. The Perfection of Patience

D1. Sudhana’s Question

Sudhana said to the Buddha: “World-Honored One! The Buddha previously spoke of Dana Paramita and Sila Paramita. How does a bodhisattva cultivate Kshanti Paramita?”

D2. The Tathagata’s Reply

E1. A Brief Explanation of the Nature of Patience

The Buddha said: “Good man! Patience is of two kinds: ⁽¹⁾ worldly patience and ⁽²⁾ supramundane patience. If one can patiently endure hunger and thirst, cold and heat, suffering and happiness, this is called worldly patience. If one can patiently accept faith, observance of precepts, giving, extensive learning, wisdom, and unerring right view; patiently accept the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; patiently endure all humiliation, beatings, abuse, evil deeds, greed, anger, delusion, and so forth; can patiently endure

what is difficult to endure and can do what is difficult to do, this is called supramundane patience. Good man! If a bodhisattva encounters others who beat, berate, scorn, humiliate, or revile him, he does not at that time give rise to thoughts of retaliation. A bodhisattva who practices patience does not seek rewards in the present life but seeks benefit in future lives. If treated kindly, the bodhisattva seeks a way to repay the kindness. If anyone harms him, the bodhisattva willingly endures it.

E2. Kshanti Paramita

Good man! There is patience that is not paramita; there is paramita that is not patience; there is patience that is also paramita; and there is that which is neither patience nor paramita. Patience that is not paramita includes, for example, the patience of worldly people, shravakas, and pratyekabuddhas. Paramita that is not patience includes, for example, Dhyana Paramita. That which is both patience and paramita includes, for

example, when one’s hands and feet are severed by others, one’s eyes are gouged out, or one’s head is cut off, yet one does not give rise to even a single thought of anger; it also includes Dana Paramita, Sila Paramita, and Prajnaparamita. That which is neither patience nor paramita includes, for example, the observance of precepts and giving practiced by shravakas and pratyekabuddhas.

E3. Explicitly Showing the Method of Cultivating Patience

Good man! If one wishes to cultivate patience, one must first eliminate the mind of arrogance, the mind of anger, and the mind of delusion, and must not perceive the characteristics of self, what belongs to the self, or the permanence of lineage. If one can contemplate in this way, know that such a person can cultivate patience. By cultivating patience in this way, one’s mind will rejoice. When a wise person is viciously reviled, he should think thus: “Those abusive words are not uttered all at once. When the earlier words of abuse are uttered, the later ones do not yet exist; when the later words are uttered, the earlier ones have already ceased to exist. If those words

of abuse do not exist simultaneously, then what thing is this abuse? It is merely the sound of wind; why should I become angry? My present body is merely a conjunction of the five skandhas.

The other four skandhas cannot be seen and cannot be reviled. As for the form skandha, it is formed by the conjunction of ten parts—the five faculties and the five sense objects. Yet this conjunction differs from moment to moment.

If it is different, who is being reviled? Moreover, that humiliation is merely the sound of wind. Wind is of two kinds: ⁽¹⁾ external and ⁽²⁾ internal.

I do not give rise to anger toward the sound of external wind, so why should I give rise to anger toward the sound of internal wind? The abusive words of the world are also of two kinds: first, those that accord with the truth; second, those that do not accord with the truth. If they accord with the truth, what is there to be angry about?

If they do not accord with the truth, the reviler will be reproached by others. What concern is that of mine that I should become angry? If I become angry, I myself commit evil.

Why? Because anger causes one to fall into the three evil realms. If I must undergo suffering in the three evil realms,

then I myself have acted and I myself must undergo the painful retribution. Therefore, it is said that all good and evil are created by oneself.

Good man! There are five conditions for cultivating patience: ⁽¹⁾ not retaliating against those who do evil to oneself, ⁽²⁾ contemplating impermanence, ⁽³⁾ cultivating loving-kindness and compassion, ⁽⁴⁾ maintaining a mind free from heedlessness, and ⁽⁵⁾ eliminating anger. Good man!

Whoever fulfills these five conditions, know that such a person can cultivate the practice of patience. Whoever speaks gently, purifies bodily and verbal karma, is mild and courteous, makes inquiries and offers greetings, and can contemplate all the causes and conditions of suffering and happiness, know that such a person can cultivate the practice of patience. Whoever can cultivate the samadhi of emptiness, contemplate that all sentient beings are impermanent, and endure suffering and affliction, and so forth; and, when humiliated, can regard the one who humiliates him as being like a madman, a deluded person, a child, or a fool—know that such a person can cultivate the practice of patience.”

The wise should contemplate thus: If someone superior to me reviles me, I should not become angry. Why? Because if I become angry, that person may kill me.

If someone inferior to me reviles me, I likewise should not retaliate. Why? Because that person is not my equal; if I retaliate, I will only humiliate myself.

It is like someone who gives poison to another: no one blames the recipient. But if he himself drinks the poison, people will surely ridicule him. I am the same.

If I become angry with one who reviles me, I will undergo suffering and affliction in future lives, and all sages and noble ones will reproach me. For this reason, even if my body is cut apart limb by limb, I should not give rise to anger. I should deeply contemplate the causes and conditions of karma from past lives and cultivate loving-kindness and compassion toward all beings.

If I cannot patiently endure a minor matter, how can I tame sentient beings? Forbearance is the direct cause of bodhi. Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is the fruit of forbearance.

If I do not plant the seed of such forbearance, how can I harvest the true fruit?

E4. Accomplishing the Virtue of Forbearance

Good man! If a wise person delights in cultivating forbearance, he will always possess gentle manners and a cheerful disposition. Everyone who sees his face will rejoice and gaze upon him without weariness; toward those who receive his instruction and transformation, his mind will harbor no attachment.

When a wise person sees an enemy approaching to cause trouble, he should make this vow: “May this enemy, in a future life, become my parent, sibling, or relative, and no longer be angry with, hate, or resent me. Those whose bodies are maimed, whose appearances are ugly, whose faculties are incomplete, or who lack wealth should know that they undergo such consequences because of anger. Why, then, should I now fail to cultivate forbearance?” For this reason, the wise should diligently cultivate the practice of forbearance.

Good man! When a great bodhisattva cultivates the practice of forbearance, he constantly contemplates the faults of samsara, delights in cultivating wholesome Dharma, diligently reads, recites, and copies the Tathagata’s scriptures, makes offerings to teachers and virtuous ones, cares for those afflicted by illness, cultivates loving-kindness and compassion, has pity for all sentient beings, and helps others escape suffering and affliction.

He always delights in renunciation and, even to the end of his life, upholds the precepts, practices diligently, and restrains the six faculties, preventing the causes and conditions of affliction from arising. He would rather lose his life than violate the precepts. He delights in attending to the affairs of others, always possesses a sense of shame, and delights in praising forbearance.

To tame sentient beings, he patiently endures much hardship; if he can be patient toward enemies, how much more so toward those close to him. He can endure two kinds of anger: anger toward sentient beings and anger toward insentient things. He relinquishes his own happiness so that all others may be happy.

He does not dwell upon those who have brought him great suffering, but always remembers those who have brought him happiness, even if only a little. He stays far from divisive speech and never speaks of the shortcomings of others. He only exhorts everyone to abandon afflictions and never says what others dislike hearing.

He purifies the karma of body, speech, and mind and eradicates all karmic transgressions and hindrances. If, because of afflictions, he commits an offense, he immediately gives rise to shame and remorse.

E5. The Difficulties of a Householder

Good man! There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: householders and monastics. It is not difficult for a monastic bodhisattva to cultivate the practice of forbearance. It is difficult for a householder bodhisattva to cultivate the practice of forbearance. Why? Because householders are bound by many unwholesome conditions.

26. The Perfection of Diligence

C4. The Perfection of Diligence

D1. Sudatta Asks

Sudatta addressed the Buddha: “World-Honored One! What is the direct cause for a great bodhisattva’s cultivation of the six paramitas?”

D2. The Tathagata Replies

E1. The Direct Answer Concerning the Direct Cause

– Good man! If a good man or good woman applies the mind with diligent effort to ⁽¹⁾ eradicate unwholesome states that have already arisen, ⁽²⁾ prevent unwholesome states that have not yet arisen, ⁽³⁾ cause wholesome states that have not yet arisen to arise, and ⁽⁴⁾ cause wholesome states that have already arisen to increase, this is called diligence. Such diligence is the direct cause for cultivating the Six Perfections.

E2. Distinguishing the Wrong from the Right

Such diligence can enable the practitioner to escape every realm of affliction. Good man! If one can patiently endure the suffering of the three lower realms, you should know that such a person can truly cultivate the Perfection of Diligence, practicing it evenly, neither hastily nor laxly.

Diligence is of two kinds: right and wrong. After abandoning wrong diligence, a bodhisattva cultivates right diligence. Cultivating faith, generosity, morality, wisdom derived from learning, loving-kindness, and compassion is called right diligence.

One constantly cultivates these wholeheartedly and, during the three periods of each day, harbors no regret. In cultivating wholesome Dharma, one never feels satisfied. All study of worldly and supramundane Dharma is called diligence.

Although a bodhisattva no longer clings to his body or life, because he wishes to safeguard the True Dharma, he must therefore cherish and protect his own life. He always conducts himself in the four modes of deportment in accordance with the Dharma and, while practicing, never allows his mind to become indolent or seek rest. Even if he loses his life, he does not act contrary to the True Dharma.

The accomplishment of the six paramitas is entirely due to the causes and conditions of diligence. If one personally reads, recites, copies, and contemplates the meaning and principles of the Twelve Divisions of the Teachings, this is called diligently practicing for the Dharma oneself. If one can use these practices to instruct, transform, and tame sentient beings, this is called diligently practicing for the sake of others.

If, for the sake of awakening, one cultivates the Path of Bodhi; practices generosity and upholds the precepts; cultivates extensive learning and wisdom; studies worldly teachings; makes offerings to parents, teachers, and virtuous ones; cultivates samatha and vipasyana; reads, recites, and copies the Twelve Divisions of the Teachings; and can also abandon greed, anger, delusion, and so forth, this is called diligently applying oneself for the sake of the Path of Bodhi.

All these are called right diligence, the direct cause of the six paramitas.

Good man! Those who are indolent cannot give away everything at once, uphold the precepts, diligently exert themselves, collect and stabilize the mind, patiently endure evil, or distinguish good from evil. Therefore, I say that the accomplishment of the six paramitas is due to diligence.

E3. The Perfection of Diligence

Good man! There is diligence that is not a paramita; there is a paramita that is not diligence; there is diligence that is also a paramita; and there is that which is neither diligence nor a paramita. Diligence that is not a paramita includes wrong diligence, diligence in performing worldly good deeds, and the diligence of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas. A paramita that is not diligence is, for example, the Perfection of Prajna. Diligence that is also a paramita includes the five paramitas of generosity, morality, forbearance, diligence, and meditative concentration. That which is neither diligence nor a paramita includes the generosity, morality, forbearance, meditative concentration, wisdom, and all wholesome deeds of all ordinary beings, sravakas, and pratyekabuddhas.

E4. The Difficulties of a Householder

Good man! There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: householders and monastics. It is not difficult for a monastic bodhisattva to cultivate diligence. It is difficult for a householder bodhisattva to cultivate diligence. Why? Because householders are bound by many unwholesome conditions.

27. The Perfection of Meditation

C5. The Perfection of Meditation

D1. Sudatta Asks

Sudatta addressed the Buddha: “Most Revered Blessed One! How does a bodhisattva cultivate the perfection of meditation?”

D2. The Tathagata’s Reply

E1. A Brief Explanation of the Characteristics of Meditation

– Good man! Meditation consists of moral discipline, loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity, freedom from fetters, and the cultivation of wholesome dharmas. This is called meditation. Good man! Without meditation, even worldly affairs cannot be accomplished, much less supramundane affairs. Therefore, you should cultivate it wholeheartedly.

E2. Clarifying the Practice of Meditation

A bodhisattva who wishes to perfect the perfection of meditation should first draw near to true spiritual friends and cultivate the various skillful means for attaining samadhi: the discipline of moral precepts, restraint of the faculties, abandonment of wrong livelihood, and living in accordance with the Dharma. He should follow the teachings of his masters and cultivate wholesome dharmas without weariness; while cultivating wholesome dharmas, his mind should never cease or rest.

He should always delight in secluded places, free himself from the five hindrances, delight in contemplation, and contemplate the faults of samsara. He should always cultivate wholesome dharmas wholeheartedly, never neglecting them, remain fully established in right mindfulness, and eliminate all heedlessness. His speech should be circumspect, and he should reduce sleep, rest, food, and drink.

His body and mind should be pure. He should not associate with bad companions, consort with evil people, or delight in worldly affairs. He should know the proper time, know the Dharma, and clearly know himself.

He should observe the states of his mind—whether joyful, sorrowful, angry, weak, or obstinate. Having recognized them, he should be able to eliminate them. He is like a silversmith who skillfully knows the proper degrees of cooling and heating and does not spoil the material.

He delights in the taste of amrita. Although dwelling amid worldly dharmas, his innermost mind remains unmoved, like Mount Sumeru, which is not shaken by the four winds. Firmly established in right mindfulness, he clearly understands the faults of conditioned dharmas.

If he delights in samadhi in this way, without ceasing or resting, know that he can attain meditation. It is like rubbing sticks together to kindle fire: if one rubs them without stopping, fire will readily arise.

E3. Explaining the Merits of Meditation

Good man! It is impossible for one who does not cultivate samadhi to wish to attain worldly dharmas or the supramundane Dharma of bodhi. Good man!

All samadhis are the root of all wholesome dharmas; for this reason, one must collect and concentrate the mind. Just as a person holding a mirror will see all good and evil things, so samadhi is called the adornment of bodhi. When body and mind attain peace and bliss, this is called samadhi; when there is neither increase nor decrease, it is called the samadhi of equanimity.

From the initial contemplation of the characteristics of bones until the attainment of anuttara-samyak-sambodhi, all are called samadhi. This samadhi is of four kinds: ⁽¹⁾ arising from aspiration, ⁽²⁾ arising from diligence, ⁽³⁾ arising from mindfulness, and ⁽⁴⁾ arising from wisdom. Through these four conditions, one obtains immeasurable merit and increases all wholesome dharmas.

There are also three kinds: ⁽¹⁾ arising from hearing the Dharma, ⁽²⁾ arising from reflection, and ⁽³⁾ arising from cultivation. By cultivating these dharmas, meditation gradually arises. There are also three phases: ⁽¹⁾ when it arises, ⁽²⁾ when it comes to rest, and ⁽³⁾ when it increases.

Good man! In the Desire Realm there are seeds of samadhi. Through the causes and conditions of these seeds, the three kinds of bodhi are attained.

These three kinds of samadhi may regress, temporarily cease, or increase. In the realm of the four dhyanas, however, the nature of samadhi becomes firm. In ascending order, from the realm of the first dhyana up to the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, each higher realm is superior to the one below it.

In the fundamental dhyanas there is joy and bliss, whereas in the intermediate dhyana there is none. The same is true of the six superknowledges: they are present in the fundamental dhyanas and not elsewhere. Such samadhi is called the adornment of bodhi.

Through this samadhi, one attains the stages of those in training and those beyond training, the Four Immeasurable Minds, the Three Gates of Liberation, benefit for oneself and others, immeasurable supernormal powers, knowledge of others’ minds, the ability to tame sentient beings, immeasurable wisdom, the five-wisdom samadhi, the transformation of dull faculties into keen faculties, the elimination of all birth, aging, sickness, and death, the attainment of omniscient wisdom, and the vision of the nature of all dharmas as clearly as though looking through a piece of thin silk.

E4. The Four Immeasurable Meditative Absorptions

Good man! A wise person should contemplate as follows: “All afflictions are my great enemies. Why is this? Because afflictions can destroy everything. Therefore, I must cultivate loving-kindness and compassion, wishing to benefit all sentient beings and wishing to attain immeasurable pure wholesome dharmas.” If anyone says, “One can attain wholesome dharmas even apart from loving-kindness and compassion,” this is unreasonable. Loving-kindness and compassion can eliminate unwholesome dharmas, enable sentient beings to leave suffering and attain happiness, and bring the Desire Realm to an end. If loving-kindness takes the Desire Realm as its object, it is called the loving-kindness of the Desire Realm.

Good man! If sentient beings can cultivate loving-kindness, they will obtain immeasurable merit. When cultivating loving-kindness, if one can first bring peace and happiness to one’s enemies, this is called the cultivation of loving-kindness.

Good man! All sentient beings may be divided into three kinds: ⁽¹⁾ enemies, ⁽²⁾ relatives and loved ones, and ⁽³⁾ those who are neither close nor hostile. These three kinds are called the objects of loving-kindness.

One who cultivates loving-kindness should first begin with relatives and loved ones, wishing that they may enjoy peace and happiness. After accomplishing this, one should next extend it to enemies. Good man!

Loving-kindness sometimes arises through observing moral precepts and sometimes through practicing generosity. If one can regard an enemy as one’s own child, this is called the attainment of loving-kindness. Good man!

Loving-kindness can cherish others but cannot rescue them from suffering. Compassion both cherishes them and rescues them from suffering. Good man!

If a person can perceive even the slightest good deed done by an enemy and does not dwell upon that enemy’s evil deeds, know that this person is cultivating loving-kindness. Suppose that, when an enemy is afflicted by illness and suffering, a person can visit, care for, and provide that enemy with the necessary supplies; know that this person skillfully cultivates loving-kindness.

Good man! If one can cultivate patience, know that this is a cause and condition for cultivating loving-kindness. Loving-kindness is a cause and condition for every kind of peace and happiness.

Whoever can cultivate loving-kindness, know that this person can eliminate all causes and conditions of arrogance and can practice generosity, moral discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom, cultivating in accordance with the Dharma. If a person cultivates meditative concentration, know that this person is cultivating the merit of Brahma. Because one attains the body of Brahma, it is called the merit of Brahma.

If a person contemplates the faults of samsara and the merits of nirvana, then even if that person’s feet tread upon filth, one should still respectfully bear those feet upon one’s head. Such a person can endure what is difficult to endure, accomplish what is difficult to accomplish, and cultivate the four dhyanas, the four formless absorptions, and the Dharma of the eight liberations.

One should further reflect thus: “All sentient beings create evil karma through body, speech, and mind, and in future lives they will undergo painful retribution. I vow to bear it all in their stead. If I create any wholesome karmic result, I vow that all sentient beings may share in its enjoyment with me.” If the objects and conditions of such loving-kindness and compassion are vast, then they will be vast; if the objects and conditions are limited, then they will be limited.

Loving-kindness and compassion are of three kinds: superior, middling, and inferior. Again, they are of three kinds: ⁽¹⁾ directed toward those dear to oneself, ⁽²⁾ directed toward enemies, and ⁽³⁾ directed toward those who are neither dear nor hostile. Again, they are of three kinds: ⁽¹⁾ conditioned by a mind of craving, ⁽²⁾ taking sentient beings as their object, and ⁽³⁾ taking insentient things as their object.

Such objects and conditions are all called samadhi. The mental states of compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity are likewise.

E5. The Perfection of Meditation

Good man! There is meditation that is not a paramita; there is a paramita that is not meditation; there is meditation that is also a paramita; and there is that which is neither meditation nor a paramita. Meditation that is not a paramita includes, for example, the meditation of ordinary worldly beings, sravakas, and pratyekabuddhas. Paramitas that are not meditation include, for example, generosity, observance of precepts, patience, and diligence. Meditation that is also a paramita includes, for example, the Vajra Samadhi. That which is neither meditation nor a paramita includes, for example, the wholesome dharmas arising from hearing and reflection among all sentient beings, sravakas, and pratyekabuddhas.

E6. The Difficulty for Householders

Good man! Bodhisattvas are of two kinds: householders and monastics. It is not difficult for monastic bodhisattvas to cultivate pure meditation. It is truly difficult for householder bodhisattvas to cultivate pure meditation. Why is this? Because householders are bound by many adverse conditions.

28. Prajnaparamita

C6. The Perfection of Wisdom

D1. Sudatta Asks

Sudatta addressed the Buddha: “Venerable Blessed One! How does a bodhisattva cultivate pure prajnaparamita?”

D2. The Tathagata Replies

E1. Clarifying the Characteristics of Wisdom in Practice

Good man! Suppose a bodhisattva observes the precepts, practices diligently, is learned, maintains right mindfulness, cultivates patience, has compassion for sentient beings, always possesses a sense of shame and moral dread, remains free from jealousy, truly understands wholesome skillful means, endures suffering for the sake of sentient beings without regret or retreat, delights in practicing generosity, is able to tame sentient beings, clearly knows whether an offense is grave or minor, diligently exhorts sentient beings to perform meritorious and wholesome deeds, understands words and meanings, is free from arrogance, draws near to good spiritual friends, and can benefit both self and others; reveres the Three Jewels, teachers, preceptors, and virtuous elders;

does not give rise to contempt regarding the embodiment of bodhi and can contemplate the profound and wondrous merit of bodhi; understands the characteristics of good and evil, knows all worldly and supramundane systems of language and reasoning, clearly understands cause and effect, and knows the initial and fundamental skillful means.

Know that such a person can attain wisdom.

Wisdom is of three kinds: ⁽¹⁾ that arising from hearing, ⁽²⁾ that arising from reflection, and ⁽³⁾ that arising from cultivation. Understanding the meaning through written teachings is called wisdom arising from hearing; understanding the meaning through contemplation is called wisdom arising from reflection; and understanding the meaning through cultivation is called wisdom arising from cultivation. Being able to read and recite the Tathagata’s Twelve Divisions of the Teaching, destroy the net of doubt, read and recite all worldly treatises, and skillfully distinguish wrong paths from the right path—this is called wisdom.

Being able to distinguish the Twelve Divisions of the Teaching; cause and effect; the words and meanings concerning the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth; the characteristics of vipasyana and samatha; the wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate; the four inversions; the path of seeing; and the path of cultivation—and being able skillfully to discern such matters—is called wisdom.

E2. Accomplishing the Merits of Wisdom

Good man! A wise person who wishes to realize the Ten Powers, the Four Fearlessnesses, Great Compassion, and the Three Foundations of Mindfulness should constantly draw near to the Buddha and the Buddha’s disciples. In an age when the Buddhadharma is absent from the world, such a person may follow non-Buddhist practitioners and leave the household life to study and cultivate; yet although following a wrong path, that person constantly seeks the True Dharma and continually cultivates loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity, and the five superknowledges.

After attaining the five superknowledges, that person contemplates impurity and impermanence and can clearly explain the faults of conditioned dharmas. Through right speech, that person teaches sentient beings to study language and reasoning. That person can enable sentient beings to free themselves from the painful illnesses of body and mind, and delights in teaching others worldly affairs; accomplishes undertakings in which no one can surpass them, such as incantations, various medicines, and the skillful creation of wealth; and, after acquiring wealth, knows how to preserve it, use it appropriately, and give it away in accordance with the Dharma.

Although understanding everything, that person does not become arrogant; despite attaining great merit, remains free from complacency; and can teach sentient beings right faith, generosity, observance of precepts, learning, and wisdom. That person clearly knows whether skillful means are wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate; skillfully knows the causal conditions and proper sequence of cultivation; clearly knows the path of bodhi and the adornments of bodhi; and clearly knows whether the faculties of sentient beings are superior, middling, or inferior.

Although knowledgeable in non-Buddhist systems of language and reasoning, that person’s mind does not become attached to them; clearly understands sentient beings and tames them according to their faculties; clearly understands the sentient and insentient realms of the world; and knows through what means the six paramitas are perfected.

E3. Prajnaparamita

Good man! There is wisdom that is not a paramita; there is a paramita that is not wisdom; there is wisdom that is also a paramita; and there is that which is neither wisdom nor a paramita. Wisdom that is not a paramita includes, for example, all worldly wisdom and the wisdom of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas. A paramita that is not wisdom—there is no such thing. Wisdom that is also a paramita consists of all six paramitas. That which is neither wisdom nor a paramita includes, for example, the generosity, observance of precepts, and diligence of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas.

E4. General Conclusion on Cultivating the Six Perfections

Good man! If anyone diligently cultivates the six paramitas, that person makes offerings to the six directions and can increase wealth and longevity.

E5. The Difficulty for Householders

Good man! Bodhisattvas are of two kinds: householders and monastics. It is not difficult for monastic bodhisattvas to cultivate pure wisdom; it is truly difficult for householder bodhisattvas to cultivate pure wisdom. Why is this? Because householders are bound by many adverse conditions.

A3. Conclusion

When this Dharma was taught, one thousand upasakas, including the elder’s son Sudatta and others, aroused the aspiration for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi. After arousing this aspiration, they rose from their seats, reverently bowed to the Buddha, and returned to their respective homes.

Notes:

i The path of bodhi (Chinese: 菩提道; English: The path of enlightenment): Here, “path” means a way or road. The path of bodhi is the path leading to enlightenment, that is, the cause that leads to enlightenment.

ii In ancient India, the technique of making oil required sesame seeds to be incubated until worms emerged, after which the seeds were pressed to extract the oil, killing many living beings. Therefore, the precepts strictly prohibited those who had undertaken the Five Precepts from practicing this trade.

iii Snake burrows and rat burrows commonly have many entrances. One should block only the entrance near a stupa or shrine, rather than intentionally blocking all (?) entrances to kill the animals.

iv The devas include those who have taken refuge in the Three Jewels and non-Buddhist devas. Kings—or officials or ordinary people—make offerings and sacrifices to them because they wish the devas to protect their lives, property, territory, and people.

v The two truths: the conventional truth and the ultimate truth.

vi Fame, gain, wealth, and sensual beauty.