金剛般若波羅蜜經破取著不壞假名論

The venerable Subhuti again reflected: The Buddhas are free from all conceptions and have realized the Dharma that is without intrinsic nature; by what characteristics, then, can the world believe and know this? Therefore, the sutra states: The Tathagata is one who speaks truthfully, speaks actually, speaks according to suchness, and does not speak otherwise than suchness.

Why are only these four statements used to reveal that the Buddhas have realized reality and are free from conceptions? Because in the world, those who seek fame and gain falsely claim to have realized the Dharma of superior beings when they have not realized it. The Buddha differs from such persons and is therefore said to speak truthfully.

Again, there are greedy and miserly persons whose dispositions are full of deceit. Having once attained supernormal powers, they know that they have subsequently lost them; yet when someone comes to inquire, they speak only of their former attainment. The Buddha is always utterly free from such a state of mind and is therefore said to speak actually.

Again, there are those who cultivate and attain worldly concentration, in which the mind temporarily does not arise and appears similar to quiescent cessation, yet they tell others, “I have realized nirvana.” The Buddha has completely eliminated all such erroneous assertions and is therefore said to speak according to suchness.

Here, “suchness” conveys the meaning of “just so.” Wherever the word “such” occurs, one may compare and understand that it invariably corresponds. Just as, when explaining a meaning, one speaks of what corresponds and what is contrary, and so forth at length. Among these, correspondence is like a mother cow going forward and her calf following after her. Suchness and that which is just so should be understood in the same manner.

This reveals that the Tathagata has eliminated all obstructions and speaks and expounds precisely in accordance with the clear realization he has attained. He is unlike those who have learned worldly meditation, claim to have realized nirvana, and then immediately regress and lose their attainment.

Why is it further said that he “does not speak otherwise than suchness”? Ordinary beings become attached when confronted with dreams, illusions, cities of the Gandharvas, echoes, mirage-like images shimmering in intense heat, continuous circles of fire, and so forth, and they designate these as being otherwise than suchness. The Buddhas are not like this.

Therefore, it is said that they “do not speak otherwise than suchness.” What, furthermore, does this mean? Ordinary beings grasp at cities and the like, taking what is not a city to be existent; this is called being otherwise than suchness. What the Tathagata realizes is not false; its nature is free from deception.

Thus, it is said not to be otherwise than suchness, and therefore none of his words have ever been false. How can this be known? Because the Buddha has completely eliminated all obstructions, and both his realization and his teaching can demonstrate this.

What is realization? For example, when it is said that form is impermanent and so forth, the actual dharma of form is indeed impermanent and so forth.

What is the teaching? As a sutra states: “Young man! I know all things. I clearly see all things.” Furthermore, “truth” and the other terms are names for the Four Noble Truths. The Tathagata has realized and known these four profound principles and is therefore able to teach them. It is impossible for him to teach them without knowing them.

+ Here, “speaks truthfully” refers to the skandhas, such as form and the others, which belong to the Truth of Suffering. The truth is suffering.

+ “Speaks actually” refers to the actual cause of suffering—craving—which belongs to the Truth of Origination; it is not that a sovereign deity or the like can serve as its cause.

+ “Speaks according to suchness” refers to the unconditioned nirvana that constitutes the entire Truth of Cessation. The conditioned is false, whereas the unconditioned is the opposite. As it is said, the nature of unconditioned dharmas is not false; this is called suchness.

+ “Does not speak otherwise than suchness” refers to the Truth of the Path. To claim that nirvana can be realized apart from the eightfold path is false and untrue. This path can truly be realized and is not deceptive.

Some may reflect: If the Buddhas are free from all conceptions, how can they, with regard to directly realized dharmas, say that the eightfold path is true while entering water, fire, and so forth is false? To speak of truth and falsehood necessarily entails discriminating conceptions. Therefore, the sutra states: “Subhuti!

The Dharma realized by the Tathagata and the Dharma taught by him are neither true nor false.” What does this mean? The Tathagata realizes the ultimate truth: the intrinsic nature of all dharmas is non-arising. Because they do not arise, they have never existed; how, then, could they be called true?

Since they do not arise, where could anything true be found? For this reason, they are not false either. Since neither the object of truth nor that of falsehood can be apprehended, with regard to what could discrimination arise?

The Dharma that is taught has the nature of written words. Written words are conditioned and therefore are not true. Yet because one relies upon them to realize reality, they are not false.

– Again, an objection is raised: If the Dharma realized is non-arising, without intrinsic nature, neither true nor false, then it is the ultimate-truth body of the Buddhas. Taking this as the cause, the three bodies are fully perfected. Why, then, would bodhisattvas forsake the Dharma they have realized, abide in things and so forth, and practice giving? To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: “Subhuti! It is as though a person entered a dark place and saw nothing at all. So it is when a bodhisattva practices giving and so forth with a mind abiding in things.”

These two analogies of darkness and light reveal the merit and fault of abiding and non-abiding. What does this mean?

It is like a person in darkness who abandons a level road, enters a pathless place, falls into a difficult and perilous course, and undergoes many sufferings and hardships, unable to reach a delightful place nearby. If bodhisattvas abide in things while practicing giving, they abandon the level path of the nature of non-attainment and enter the perilous course of attainment. Amid samsara they undergo all manner of hardship and distress; when, then, could they ever reach the realm of nirvana?

+ “Like a person with eyes” means attaining the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas.

+ “The dark night has ended” means permanently abandoning the fruit of craving.

+ “The sunlight shines forth” means decisively and clearly knowing that all dharmas are without intrinsic nature.

+ “Seeing innumerable forms” means awakening to the fact that all dharmas are unattainable: neither ceasing nor arising, neither annihilated nor permanent, neither identical nor different, neither coming nor going. When bodhisattvas practice in such a state of non-abiding, they will swiftly attain perfect enlightenment and realize great nirvana.

Within the cultivation of all these dharmas, there are two benefits: benefit for oneself and benefit for others.

Benefit for oneself further comprises cultivation through the teaching and cultivation through its meaning.

+ Cultivation through the teaching means receiving, retaining, reading, and reciting.

+ Cultivation through its meaning means listening and contemplating.

Benefit for others means expounding the teaching to others. As the sutra states: “Subhuti! If good men and good women receive, retain, read, recite, cultivate, and expound this Dharma-gate, the Tathagata knows each of them and clearly sees each of them. They generate such immeasurable accumulations of merit and acquire such immeasurable merit.”

+ Here, “receiving” means forming the resolve to accept the teaching.

+ “Retaining” means reviewing and remembering it without forgetting.

+ “Reading and reciting” means clearly reciting the text.

+ “Cultivating” means listening and contemplating.

What is meant by immeasurable accumulations of merit? The sutra states: “If good men and good women, in the morning, were to give away bodies and lives as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,” and so forth, up to: “With regard to this Dharma-gate, they give rise to faith and do not disparage it,” and so forth. The merit of this giving far surpasses the former because both the act and the duration are great. The greatness of the act is as the sutra states: “They give away bodies and lives as numerous as the sands of the Ganges.” The greatness of the duration is as the sutra states: “For hundreds of thousands of kotis of nayutas of kalpas.”

Cultivation naturally yields its fruits. What, then, is here called a natural fruit? It refers to the merits attained by practitioners in this and future lives, from the very beginning of their cultivation until before they attain perfect enlightenment. The fundamental objective they seek is Buddhahood; but what are these merits? Mara and adherents of other paths cannot obstruct or disturb them. Because their merit is great, its karmic fruit is firm, supreme, and incomparable. It constitutes the complete provisions of a vessel for the unsurpassed Dharma. They are able to develop for themselves profound and vast faith and understanding—more difficult to attain—in the field that produces merit, completely extinguish all transgressions, and swiftly realize the bhumi.

Here, Māra together with the followers of heterodox paths cannot obstruct or disturb him. As the sutra states: “This Dharma gate is inconceivable.” What does this mean? Because the power of the Dharma is inconceivable, the merit and wisdom acquired by that person surpass the sphere of all forms of knowledge. Therefore, all followers of false paths are unable to obstruct or disturb him.

+ His great merit is supreme and beyond comparison: As the sutra states: “It cannot be reckoned.” Because he is able to receive and uphold this Dharma gate, the power and merit of the Dharma cannot be measured or reckoned, and nothing else can compare with them. Therefore, that person is exceedingly supreme.

+ The fruit of merit is secure: As the sutra states: “The immeasurable fruition cannot be hindered by the wicked.” That is, because of his vast merit, he receives among gods and humans supreme blessings that nothing can usurp.

+ A vessel for the highest Dharma: As the sutra states: “The Tathagata teaches this Dharma gate for those who have set forth in the Great Vehicle. He teaches it for those who have set forth in the Supreme Vehicle.” That is, because the Dharma is true and supreme, one who undertakes its transmission and reception is a vessel of the Dharma.

+ The provisions are perfected: As the sutra states: “If someone receives and upholds, reads and recites, cultivates, expounds, and so forth…” Here, by receiving and upholding, reading and reciting, and explaining it to others, merit increases. Through listening and reflection, wisdom increases. How is this increase demonstrated? As the sutra states: “They all accomplish immeasurable accumulations of merit that are inconceivable, inexpressible, and boundless.”

+ The term “immeasurable”: This reveals that such merit is not an object that any mind can measure. Therefore, no act of thought can know or apprehend it; it is said that no boundary can be reached.

+ He is able personally to shoulder an even more difficult undertaking: As the sutra states: “Such a person,” and so forth—that is, he is able to undertake and practice the Tathagata’s path to the fruit of unsurpassed bodhi. What does this mean? Just as the Buddha accomplished the subtle, wondrous, and inconceivable Dharma and universally delivered all suffering beings without omitting a single kind, so too should one who upholds this sutra act.

+ Vast and profound faith and understanding: The sutra states: “If a person delights in lesser teachings, he will be unable to receive and uphold, read and recite this sutra,” and so forth.

Here, vast faith and understanding means having no aspiration for what is lesser.

Profound faith and understanding means being free from views of self and the like.

+ A place that is a source of merit: The sutra states: “Wherever this sutra is expounded,” and so forth.

Because merit is accumulated and offenses are relinquished there, it is called a stupa-shrine (caitya). The merit of one who can expound the Dharma is equal to that of such a place, although the place itself neither reflects upon, receives and upholds, nor expounds it.

+ The complete eradication of all offenses: As the sutra states: “If good men and good women receive and uphold and read and recite this sutra, yet are treated with contempt by others,” and so forth.

Receiving and upholding this sutra leads to Buddhahood, yet instead they are treated with contempt by others. How can this be? The sutra states: “That person committed sinful karma in past lives for which he ought to fall into the evil destinies.

Because in this life he receives and upholds and reads and recites this sutra, he is merely treated with contempt by others; consequently, the sinful karma of his past lives is immediately extinguished.” The Tathagata Chapter states: “Furthermore, if someone receives and upholds this sutra and even expounds it extensively, that person in the present life may have evil dreams, contract grave illnesses, be oppressed and driven into exile, be insulted or beaten, or even lose his life; yet all the evil karma he possesses will thereby be extinguished.” Another verse states:

If a person creates evil karma,

And, having done so, becomes afraid,

Repents by himself or before another,

All its roots are eradicated.

If fear and repentance for one’s offenses can even eradicate their roots, how much more so when someone receives and upholds the true Dharma. Is this not entirely contrary to other teachings? As it is said:

Though karma may pass through a hundred kalpas,

It is never finally destroyed;

When the conditions come together,

Its fruit must necessarily arise.

There is no contradiction. How is this so? The ten unwholesome actions, for example, are karma leading to the evil destinies. Through receiving and upholding the true Dharma and repenting of former offenses, although the fruit of rebirth in the evil destinies will never arise, one must still undergo painful retributions in the present body. Does undergoing these present sufferings mean that the karma has been destroyed? Does not avoiding rebirth in the evil destinies mean that the roots of the offenses have been completely severed? If there is definite karma of an uninterrupted offense, after death one will certainly be born in that place; yet during the kalpa of abiding, one will undergo it only briefly and then emerge, as did King Ajātaśatru. Therefore, there is no contradiction.

+ Swift attainment of the bhūmis: The sutra states: “I recollect that, throughout immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas in the past,” through to: “Furthermore, if in a future life someone is able to receive and uphold and read and recite this sutra, and extensively explain it to others, then the merit I gained by making offerings to the Buddhas, compared with this merit, would not equal even one hundredth part of it,” and so forth.

What does this mean? The merit gained by making offerings to boundlessly many Buddhas does not bring realization of ultimate truth. By receiving and upholding this Dharma gate, however, one can swiftly realize it. Therefore, if the power of the merit gained from upholding the sutra were divided into one hundred parts, that former accumulation of merit would not equal even one part. Likewise, it would not equal one part in a thousand, one part in a hundred thousand, or any calculable fraction; the corresponding categories should be understood accordingly.

+ Number: This means sixty orders of magnitude; beyond these, no number can be reached.

+ It cannot be reached by kalā, nor can it be reached by comparison: This is stated with reference to the meaning of the exceedingly minute kalā fraction. That is, the merit of receiving and upholding the sutra is exceedingly subtle in nature and its merit is so abundant that the former merit cannot reach it. Even when comparison is carried to its utmost extent, it remains wholly unequal. If this is so even regarding the minutest fraction, how much more so regarding the whole.

+ Upaniṣad: This means cause. What does this mean? Here, even a small portion of the merit mentioned afterward has the nature of a cause in relation to the supreme fruit. By contrast, even the entire former accumulation of merit does not constitute such a cause and cannot attain the ultimate fruit.

+ No analogy can reach it either: There was, for example, a maiden named Moon-Face. Could the maiden’s face be entirely identical to the moon? Because it had a bright appearance, there was a slight resemblance.

The former accumulation of merit is not like this. It bears not the slightest resemblance by which an analogy could be made. How is this so?

The merit gained merely by receiving and upholding the written words is such that the former merit bears no resemblance to it; one of meager merit could not receive those written words. As the sutra states: “If I were to explain it fully, some who heard it might immediately become bewildered in mind and give rise to contempt.” This means that when they hear of the power of that merit and consider it, they do not believe.

As the sutra states: “This Dharma gate is inconceivable, and its fruition is also inconceivable.” Because their power is supreme, both are difficult to fathom.

Why did Venerable Subhūti again ask: “How should those who have set forth in the Bodhisattva Vehicle abide?” and so forth? If he wished to reveal fully the pure characteristics of the cause, why had they not yet been completely explained?

What does complete clarification mean? It means that, as the cause of cultivation, merely abandoning the characteristics and conceptions of the three matters is not yet called purity; one must also completely abandon such conceptions as “I abide,” “I cultivate,” and “I subdue the mind.” Only then is purity attained. As the sutra states: “One should give rise to such a mind,” and so forth, up to: “In truth, there is no dharma called the arousing of the bodhisattva vehicle.” What does this mean? In the ultimate truth, there is no sentient being who attains parinirvana, nor is there any dharma called a bodhisattva’s arousing the mind, abiding in the fruition, cultivating, or subduing. To conceive existence where there is none is inverted practice and not a cause of purity.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If there is no bodhisattva who arouses the mind and advances toward the Great Vehicle, then there is no cause by which the fruition of Buddhahood may be attained and the four kinds of beneficial activity perfected. Why, then, was the Blessed One, in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, given the prediction: “In a future age, you will attain the fruition of Buddhahood, bearing the name Shakyamuni, and will be able to accomplish the four kinds of activity that benefit sentient beings”?

To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: “Subhuti, what do you think? Long ago, in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, did the Tathagata possess any dharma by which he attained unsurpassed perfect enlightenment?” and so forth.

Here the meaning is that long ago, when the Buddha realized the true meaning and received the prediction, he did not perceive the slightest dharma called unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. Because the essence of the cause was “nothing whatsoever to attain,” he received the prediction. This is precisely the realization that all dharmas are unattainable.

As the sutra says: “Subhuti, one is called the Tathagata because of suchness.” Suchness means that there is nothing whatsoever to attain. Venerable Subhuti thought: “I no longer have any doubt about this teaching, but someone may say: ‘If, in the presence of Dipankara Buddha, he perceived no dharma, how could he attain enlightenment and ascend the seat of awakening? Is that also so?’” Therefore, the sutra states: “Subhuti, if someone says that the Tathagata attained unsurpassed perfect enlightenment, that person speaks falsely,” and so forth, up to: “In the Dharma attained by the Tathagata, there is neither truth nor falsehood.” What does this mean?

Truth and falsehood arise from there being something attained: at one time something spoken as true is destroyed, and at another time something is recognized as false. Where there is nothing whatsoever to attain, both are extinguished.

Another thought may arise: If the Tathagata realizes only that there is nothing whatsoever to attain, then the Buddha-Dharma is only one thing and is not boundless. Therefore, the sutra states: “The Tathagata says that all dharmas are Buddha-Dharma.” What does Buddha-Dharma mean? It means that there is nothing whatsoever to attain.

There has never been a single dharma possessing an intrinsic nature that can be attained; therefore, there is no dharma that is not Buddha-Dharma. How is it that all are unattainable? The sutra states: “All dharmas are not all dharmas.” How are they “not”?

Their nature is non-arising. If they are non-arising, they are without intrinsic nature. Why, then, are they called “all dharmas”?

Within the absence of intrinsic nature, they are provisionally designated and explained.

+ That all dharmas have no intrinsic nature: This is the nature of the tathagatagarbha in sentient beings. Therefore, the Blessed One disclosed and clarified it in due sequence. The sutra states: “Subhuti, suppose there were a person whose bodily form was wondrous and vast,” and so forth.

A wondrous and vast body means a body whose nature is empty.

Why is it wondrous and vast? Because wherever it is present, it is no different, and therefore all sentient beings possess it in common. The empty nature of this one sentient being and the empty nature of all those sentient beings are the same; the Tathagata possesses it, and sentient beings also possess it.

Why, then, is it said only that the tathagatagarbha exists in all sentient beings, rather than that the sentient-being-garbha exists in the Tathagata? It is because sentient beings have not yet realized the principle of emptiness, whereas the Tathagata has realized it. A sutra states: “Within the bodies of sentient beings is the tathagatagarbha, complete with the marks of adornment.” Is this not the same as the deluded attachment to a divine self?

Although it is spoken of in this way, the realization of empty nature is called the Dharma-body. Because the Dharma-body is the cause from which physical forms arise, it is not the same as the self taught by non-Buddhist traditions. As stated in the Lankavatara Sutra, the bodhisattva Mahamati addressed the Buddha: “Blessed One!

The sutras state that the tathagatagarbha is intrinsically pure, endowed with the thirty-two marks, and permanently abides, unchanging, within the bodies of all sentient beings. Because greed, hatred, and delusion, through false discrimination, create defilements in the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas, beings rely upon these and are bound, just as a priceless jewel is wrapped in a filthy garment. Blessed One!

How does this teaching differ from the false doctrines of non-Buddhist traditions? Non-Buddhist traditions teach that the self is permanent, is the agent, is in essence not the gunas—that is, not dependent upon or grounded in the fundamental principle—is omnipresent, and is inexhaustible.” The Buddha said: “Mahamati! My teaching of the tathagatagarbha does not have the same meaning as the self taught by non-Buddhist traditions.

The tathagatagarbha is precisely emptiness at the ultimate limit of reality, nirvana, and the meanings of non-arising, non-cessation, signlessness, and wishlessness. Wishing to put a complete end to the fear of selflessness felt by the ignorant, the Tathagata teaches the gateway of the tathagatagarbha, which is the realm free from discrimination and falsity.

“Mahamati! Bodhisattva-mahasattvas of the present and future should not, through attachment to this teaching, give rise to the view of a self,” and so forth in the fuller exposition.

Because Venerable Subhuti wished to clarify that the wondrous body and the vast body mean the absence of intrinsic nature, the sutra states: “The Tathagata says that a person with a wondrous and vast body is one who has no body.” “No body” means that, when the physical body is spoken of according to the true meaning, its nature is non-arising. Therefore, the nature of non-arising is called the wondrous and vast body; it is not the physical body.

The characteristics of the pure cause were explained above, but the meaning was not yet complete. To complete it, the sutra states: “Subhuti, a bodhisattva is likewise. If one says, ‘I shall liberate immeasurable sentient beings,’ one is not a bodhisattva,” and so forth.

Only by eliminating every discrimination concerning an agent who liberates and those who are liberated does the bodhisattva’s cultivation of the cause become pure.

Furthermore, to perfect the nondiscriminating mind, the sutra states: “Has there ever been a dharma called a bodhisattva?” Subhuti replied: “No, Blessed One!” and so forth, up to: “The Buddha says that all dharmas are without self, without sentient being,” and so forth.

In the ultimate truth, there is no bodhisattva and no ordinary being.

+ “I shall adorn a Buddha-land” is not the statement of a bodhisattva: Because this is defiled attachment to the cause, one grasps aggregates such as form and regards them as constituting a Buddha-land.

+ “It is not adornment”: This is the true meaning of non-arising.

+ “Therefore, it is called adornment”: This is speech in accordance with conventional truth.

+ One who comprehends the selflessness of dharmas is called a bodhisattva: This is the pure cause, free from all conceptions.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If the pure cause is free from all conceptions, is there an object that can be attained, or is there none? Therefore, the Buddha’s sphere of cognition is explained here. The sutra states: “Subhuti, what do you think? Does the Tathagata possess the physical eye?” Subhuti replied: “Yes, Blessed One! The Tathagata possesses the physical eye.” This continues up to: “Does the Tathagata possess the Buddha-eye?” Subhuti replied: “Yes, Blessed One! The Tathagata possesses the Buddha-eye,” and so forth.

Why did the Blessed One fully explain the five kinds of eyes? It was to show that within the sphere of cognition there is nothing that is not clearly known. Here there are objects included within the numerical range of sentient beings and objects not included within the numerical range of sentient beings. As the sutra says: “However many kinds of minds with which existing sentient beings abide,” and so forth—this reveals clear knowledge of objects included within the numerical range of sentient beings. “Worlds as numerous as the sands of the Ganges,” and so forth—this clarifies knowledge of objects not included within the numerical range of sentient beings.

+ “However many kinds of minds”: Their wishes and inclinations are not the same.

+ “Abide”: They continue and proceed in an unbroken succession.

Or one may give rise to this thought: If the mind can abide, then this should be possible. Therefore, the sutra states: The Tathagata says that all abiding of the mind is non-abiding of the mind.

+ Non-abiding of the mind: In the ultimate truth, there is no continuity. As the sutra states: “Why is this so? Subhuti! The past mind cannot be apprehended. The present mind cannot be apprehended. The future mind cannot be apprehended.” What does this further mean? The past mind has already ceased. The future mind has not yet arisen. The present mind does not remain or manifest. The Ratnakuta Sutra states: “Kasyapa! All Buddhas do not see the past mind, do not see the future mind, and do not see the present mind,” and so forth in detail.

The sutra states: “If the accumulation of merit truly existed, the Tathagata would not call it an accumulation of merit.” What does this mean?

+ Accumulation means gathering together. It is a provisional designation and is not real; if it were real, it would not be an accumulation. With respect to what is it called an accumulation? How is it known to be a provisional designation and not real? In the ultimate truth, there is no accumulation, while in conventional truth there is verbal expression. Thus, all five kinds of eyes are unattainable; this is the Buddha’s sphere. Accordingly, one should know that when the cause is purified and free from perception, there is no object that can be apprehended. Therefore, the Great Prajnaparamita states: “Subhuti! In the ultimate truth, the Tathagata’s five kinds of eyes are all unattainable. If anyone says that they are attainable, that foolish person has slandered the Tathagata.”

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If, in the ultimate truth, the Buddha’s sphere is unattainable, does this mean that the Tathagata’s physical characteristics also do not exist? To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: “Subhuti! What do you think? Can the Tathagata be seen by means of the complete physical body?” Subhuti replied: “No, Blessed One!” and so forth.

This reveals the seeing of the Buddha’s Dharma body. How is it seen? As the sutra states: “The complete physical body spoken of by the Tathagata is not a complete physical body.” This is stated on the basis of the true meaning: one sees the Dharma body precisely in the physical characteristics.

+ Not complete: This is the Dharma body. As it is said: “The nature of non-arising is the eternally abiding Tathagata,” and so forth in detail.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If, in the ultimate truth, both the Buddha’s sphere and the body with its physical characteristics have no intrinsic nature, could there still be the complete virtues, while the body and characteristics manifested through speech likewise do not exist? To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: “Subhuti! What do you think? Does the Tathagata entertain the thought, ‘I have taught the Dharma’?” and so forth. To ensure that attachment to the existence of teaching is decisively eliminated, the sutra states: “If anyone says that the Tathagata teaches the Dharma, that person slanders the Buddha,” through to: “There is no Dharma that can be taught; this is called teaching.” What does this mean? It speaks of the absence of intrinsic nature. That is, no internal or external phenomenon, whether contaminated or uncontaminated, is seen to possess even the slightest reality that could be expounded.

Venerable Subhuti further wished to reveal that it is difficult for anyone to accept in faith the Dharma thus taught. Therefore, he said: “Will there be any beings in the future who, upon hearing this Dharma taught, give rise to faith?” through to: “They are neither beings nor non-beings,” and so forth.

How are they not beings? In the ultimate truth, the notion that “the skandhas are one thing and a being another” cannot be found when its essence is investigated. As the sutra states: “They are not beings.” Why are they not beings? Because, in conventional truth, they are provisionally established and designated in dependence upon the five skandhas corresponding to karma and its results. As the sutra states: “Therefore, they are called beings.”

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If, in the ultimate truth, the Buddha’s sphere, physical body, and body manifested through speech are all inapprehensible, is the intrinsic nature of the Dharma body likewise so? To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: “Subhuti! What do you think? Was there any Dharma by which the Tathagata attained unsurpassed bodhi?” Subhuti replied: “There was none, Blessed One!” and so forth. What does this mean?

The Buddha realizes reality without seeing even the slightest Dharma as an object of attainment. Because there is nothing attained, it is called unsurpassed bodhi. Why is there nothing attained? The sutra states: “That Dharma is equal, with neither high nor low.” Why is it equal? The sutra states: “Because there is no self, no being, no life, and no appropriator.” Just as equality arises in selflessness, so too is the selflessness of the unattainable Dharma. Through what cause is this principle of non-attainment realized? The sutra states: “All wholesome dharmas.”

Why can wholesome dharmas, which possess an intrinsic nature and can be attained, lead to realization of the principle of non-attainment? How could dissimilar dharmas become a cause? The sutra states: “Wholesome dharmas are said by the Tathagata to be non-dharmas.” What are non-dharmas? They are the nature of non-arising in the ultimate truth. One should therefore know that this cause itself is unattainable.

+ Wholesome dharmas: These are verbal expressions of conventional truth, not the true meaning.

Why, moreover, is a quantity of particles equal to Mount Sumeru used to compare with the merit gained by giving jewels in charity? It is intended to cause practitioners to become diligent and courageous in mind.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If the Tathagata says that there are no beings, why is this not considered contradictory to other scriptural teachings? For one sutra states: “Immeasurable beings, because they have had me as their spiritual friend, have all been liberated from the sufferings of birth and so forth.” To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: “Subhuti! What do you think? Does the Tathagata entertain this thought: ‘I liberate beings’?” through to: “In truth, there are no beings for the Tathagata to liberate,” and so forth.

+ There are no beings: This is said from the standpoint of the ultimate truth. Furthermore, through the sustaining power of great compassion, they are embraced as being the same as oneself.

+ If there truly were beings distinct from the Tathagata who were objects of liberation, the Tathagata would then possess the four kinds of grasping, such as grasping at a self. Why? If he saw himself as the one who liberates beings, this would be grasping at a self. Why is it undesirable to have such grasping at a self and so forth? The sutra states: “Grasping at a self is said by the Tathagata to be non-grasping.”

+ What does “non-” mean? It means unwholesome. Why is it unwholesome? Because it binds beings within samsara.

+ Furthermore, “non-” means the absence of intrinsic nature. What does this further mean? Since there is no self as an object to be grasped, there is likewise no agent that grasps. If the various forms of grasping at a self and so forth have no intrinsic nature that can be apprehended, why is it necessary to eliminate the self and call this non-grasping? Because ordinary beings deludedly grasp in an inverted manner, non-grasping is taught so that they may understand. As the sutra states: “It is only because foolish ordinary beings, lacking wisdom, give rise to mistaken grasping,” and so forth.

Those who have not yet attained the state of a noble one all arise through imagining distinctions with respect to a self that they deem to exist; hence they are called arising ordinary beings. This is precisely non-arising, an unwholesome arising. Just as an unwholesome person is called a non-person, so too, because dharmas arise from conditions and there is no self that creates them, this is called non-arising. Therefore, the arising of ordinary beings is spoken of according to convention.

Because beings give rise to much grasping with regard to the Buddha’s physical body, the lack of intrinsic nature of the physical body is taught once again. The sutra states: “Subhuti! What do you think? Can the Tathagata be seen by means of accomplished characteristics?” through to: “A wheel-turning sage-king would then be the Tathagata,” and so forth. The Buddha wished to enable people to see the meaning of the Dharma body in the physical body and thus make it easy to retain; therefore, he spoke this verse:

If one sees me through form,

Or seeks me through sound,

That person follows a deviant path

And cannot see the Tathagata.

The Tathagata has the Dharma as his body;

One should contemplate only the Dharma-nature.

The Dharma-nature cannot be seen,

Nor can it be known by cognition.

What is the meaning of “seeing Me by means of form,” and so forth? It means that some, seeing the excellent marks shining clearly, say that they have seen the Buddha. Others, having heard and received the written words of the sutras and so forth, say that because they have become attached to them, they have “attained” the Tathagata.

Such persons say: By relying upon and cultivating in relation to the body adorned with excellent marks and the body of verbal teachings, afflictions will be eliminated. To remove this view, the sutra states: Such persons follow a deviant path and cannot see the Tathagata. What does this mean?

Form and written words are unreal in nature; to grasp them is a deviant path. How could one who follows that path see the Buddha? What, then, is seeing?

The sutra states: The Tathagata has the Dharma as his body; one should contemplate only Dharma-nature.

+ Dharma-nature: This is emptiness, the absence of intrinsic nature, the nature of non-arising. This is precisely the body of ultimate meaning of all Buddhas. To see this body is to see the Buddha. As a sutra says: The non-arising and non-ceasing is the Tathagata. The Sutra in One Hundred Thousand Lines also says: Because Maitreya sees the nature of emptiness, this is called seeing the Tathagata. The Satyaka Sutra further says: To see without grasping or attachment is to see the Buddha.

If seeing without grasping or attachment is called seeing the Buddha, then taking Dharma-nature as an object is itself not grasping or attachment. Because wisdom is pure, the mind clearly knows Dharma-nature. Is Dharma-nature, then, an object that is clearly known? Therefore, the sutra states:

Dharma-nature is not an object of perception;

That wisdom likewise cannot know it.

(Dharma-nature is not what is seen;

That likewise cannot know it.)

There is not a single thing within the sphere of Dharma-nature that can be called an object of knowledge. Therefore, that wisdom is likewise not a knowing subject. As a sutra says: Great King! The nature of all dharmas is like empty space, serving as the support for all things. Yet the essential nature of empty space is neither a thing nor the absence of a thing. When all knowing therein has utterly ceased, this is called clear knowing. What is called “knowledge” is so designated according to the verbal conventions of conventional truth.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If wisdom likewise cannot attain nirvana with respect to Dharma-nature, why do the Buddhas, fully endowed with the marks of a great man, realize bodhi? That is, because they see the complete marks of a great man, they realize bodhi. To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: Subhuti! What do you think? Can the Tathagata realize the fruit of unsurpassed bodhi by means of the perfected marks? And so forth.

Here the characteristic of the dharmadhatu is revealed. What does this mean? If the perfected marks truly existed, then when these marks ceased, this would be called annihilation.

No bodhisattva who sees the Dharma regards it as annihilated. Why? Because whatever arises must therefore be annihilated.

The nature of all dharmas is non-arising; hence it is far removed from the two extremes of eternalism and annihilationism. Freedom from these two extremes is the characteristic of the dharmadhatu. Therefore, it is said here that the merit gained by being able to believe in and understand non-arising is greater than the merit gained by giving jewels in charity.

If all the seven precious substances throughout the realms were given in charity, yet a bodhisattva realized the non-arising dharmas, such as the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, and delighted only in accepting and cultivating non-arising, that bodhisattva’s merit would be greater than the former. As a verse says:

If one upholds the true Dharma

And also generates the mind of bodhi,

It does not equal one sixteenth

Of understanding emptiness.

Some may reflect: If all dharmas are non-arising, how can merit arise? Therefore, the sutra states: Subhuti! A bodhisattva should not grasp merit, and so forth.

+ “Should not grasp merit”: This means that, in ultimate truth, there is no merit that can be grasped.

Subhuti said to the Buddha, “A bodhisattva does not grasp merit”: A bodhisattva must fully perfect merit.

The Buddha said: Subhuti! “A bodhisattva should grasp it” is spoken according to conventional truth. “Should not greedily cling to it” is spoken according to ultimate truth.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If, in ultimate truth, there is no merit that can be grasped, why do other sutras say that the Tathagata, having perfected the accumulations of merit and wisdom, sits securely upon the seat of bodhi and proceeds toward nirvana?

To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: Subhuti! If anyone says that the Tathagata goes or comes, stands, sits, or lies down, that person does not understand the meaning of what I have taught, and so forth.

Nirvana has no real place to which one arrives, which could be called going. Samsara likewise has no real place from which one departs, which could be called coming. Neither going nor coming is the meaning of “Tathagata.” This reveals non-abiding nirvana. Although samsara and nirvana are neither one nor different, within the prison of the three realms the Tathagata guides living beings so that, until the end of the future, they may all obtain benefit.

– Furthermore, a doubt is raised: If samsara and nirvana cannot be apprehended, and therefore there is neither going nor coming, then is the Tathagata, like Mount Sumeru and so forth, an abiding, unified aggregate?

To eliminate the view that therein is something unitary and permanent—a composite whole possessing parts or lacking parts—the sutra states: Subhuti! If good men and good women were to pulverize the trichiliocosm into minute particles, should the number of those particles be considered great? And so forth.

+ Here, “very many minute particles” eliminates the view of a partless unity.

+ “Not minute particles” eliminates the view of a unity possessing parts.

+ “They are called minute particles” means that they are not entities possessing parts that could be designated as a collection or as many.

Further, to eliminate the view of aggregation, the sutra states: The Tathagata says that the trichiliocosm is not a world, and so forth. Why is it said to be not a world? The sutra states: If the world truly existed, this would be the view of a unity.

Why is the view of a unity rejected? The sutra states: It is not a view. What does “not a view” mean? It means delusively seeing as existent that which does not exist. As the sutra says: A unity cannot be expressed; nevertheless, ordinary beings, because of the view of self, grasp it as such. What does this mean? A unity is an appearance of conventional truth and is not truly existent. Why? Because, in ultimate truth, the original nature of all dharmas is non-arising. Because they are non-arising, they cannot be apprehended. Because they cannot be apprehended, they transcend all verbal expression. Yet ordinary beings who cling to a self mistakenly grasp therein. If the view of self is not to be regarded as contrary to the teaching, as a verse says:

The self is one’s own refuge;

How could another be one’s refuge?

The wise discipline the self

And are reborn in heaven, enjoying happiness.

To eliminate this doubt, the sutra states: Subhuti! If anyone says, “The Tathagata has spoken of such views as self, living being, life, and a person who apprehends,” would that be correct speech? And so forth.

Why did the Buddha speak of the view of self? It was to guide and embrace living beings, causing them to have faith and joy. Therefore, regarding the five skandhas, he spoke according to conventional truth, not as though the self were real.

Thus, what the Buddhas see as the self is, by nature, transcended. As the sutra says: It is not the view of self, and so forth. Because the Blessed One has abandoned views of unity, such as self and so forth, with respect to samsara and nirvana, he realizes bodhi.

Furthermore, out of compassion for all beings, wishing to enable them also to realize it, the sutra states: Subhuti! A bodhisattva who generates the aspiration toward the bodhisattva vehicle should know all dharmas in this way, see them clearly in this way, and believe in and understand them in this way.

+ “Not giving rise to the perception and cognition of dharmas”: This refers to the time of realization.

+ “Believing and understanding”: This refers to the time of cultivation and study.

For those who believe and understand, even the perception of dharmas does not arise, much less the perception of non-dharmas.

+ Here, “the perception of dharmas” and “the perception of non-dharmas” mean the perception of dharmas, discrimination in accordance with Dharma, and discrimination not in accordance with Dharma. Why does discrimination in accordance with Dharma not arise? The sutra states: “The perception of dharmas is said by the Tathagata to be the non-perception of dharmas.” What, then, does this mean? The nature of all dharmas is non-arising. If they are non-arising, they do not exist; where, then, could they be perceived and known? It is only according to conventional truth. As the sutra states: “Therefore it is called the perception of dharmas.”

Why does it again speak of the merit of receiving and upholding the sutra? It is intended to cause sentient beings to possess complete faith. The sutra states: “To expound nothing is called expounding.” What does this mean? In ultimate truth, there is neither the mundane nor the supramundane, nor is there the slightest dharma or thing that can be expressed.

+ Only when one can expound the meaning of suchness in this way is it called expounding. This is non-abiding nirvana, which is realized only after contemplating the conditioned. How should it be contemplated? The sutra states: At that time, the Blessed One spoke this verse:

All conditioned dharmas

Are like stars, cataracts, lamps, and illusions;

Dew, bubbles, dreams, lightning, and clouds—

Thus should one contemplate them.

In this verse, the essential characteristics of nine aspects of the conditioned are contemplated. What are these nine? They are the contemplation of:

1. Sovereignty.

2. Objects.

3. Movement.

4. Essential nature.

5. Youthful flourishing.

6. Lifespan.

7. Activity.

8. Mind.

9. Existence and nonexistence.

+ Contemplating sovereignty as stars (Stars): Just as stars distinctly manifest their forms in empty space, move according to their courses, and radiate brilliant light, yet even if they abide for a long time, they ultimately pass away when the kalpa ends, so too devas and humans receive various blessed rewards, possess abundant wealth and lofty positions, and are looked up to by many. Though their sovereignty may endure for a long time, when its conditions converge, it too returns to emptiness.

+ Contemplating objects as cataracts in diseased eyes (Cataracts): Just as eyes afflicted by cataracts and obscured by a film see tiny circles like floating flowers or two moons within pure empty space, so too is consciousness obscured by ignorance. Where in true reality no objects exist, it sees innumerable internal and external, mundane and supramundane dharmas.

+ Contemplating movement as a lamp (Lamp): Just as the flame of a burning lamp arises and ceases in the very place where it appears and does not travel elsewhere, yet because of that flame, flames arise in other places, succeeding one another from thought-moment to thought-moment as though they had moved, so too are sentient beings. The skandhas of a former realm of existence cease in that very realm and do not travel to another realm. Yet because of the former skandhas, the skandhas of a later realm arise. Owing to their continuity, it appears as though they have moved, and it is said that ordinary beings go to another realm.

+ Contemplating essential nature as an illusion (Illusion): Just as, through the power of illusion, a woman of pleasing appearance is conjured, although she has no essential nature, and those who do not understand grasp her as real, so too are all dharmas. Falsely arising from conditions, everything that arises is devoid of a real essence. Those who have not understood reality give rise to views and cling to them as truly existent.

+ Contemplating youthful flourishing as dew (Dew): Just as morning dew vanishes when it sees the sun, so too are the appearance and physical form of strong and vigorous youth. Once they encounter impermanence, they swiftly proceed toward decline.

+ Contemplating lifespan as a bubble (Bubble): Just as a bubble may have only just arisen, before its form is fully formed, or may abide for merely a moment after arising and then immediately dissolve, so too is lifespan. It begins with conception in the womb; then one is born, becomes a child, then a youth, reaches middle age, and finally declines in old age and returns to dissolution.

+ Contemplating activity as a dream (Dream): Just as in a dream, through recollection and discrimination based on what was previously seen and heard, habitual impressions are caused to persist, and although there is no agent, innumerable realms appear distinctly before one, so too have sentient beings, since beginningless time, been sustained by the habitual impressions of afflictions associated with wholesome and unwholesome karma. Although there is no self that acts as an agent, boundless events of birth and death nevertheless manifest.

+ Contemplating mind as lightning (Lightning): Just as a flash of lightning ceases the very instant it shines, so too does the mind invariably recede and cease in every kshana.

+ Contemplating existence and nonexistence as clouds (Clouds): Just as clouds in the sky are absent at first and later appear, only to disperse again in a moment, so too are conditioned dharmas. Their essential nature is originally nonexistent, but they come to exist through delusive conditions. Once those conditions have dispersed, they return to nonexistence.

Furthermore, the foregoing relies upon conventional truth and uses the nine similes, such as stars and so forth, to establish conditioned dharmas. It then relies upon the ultimate truth of the Madhyamaka Treatise: All dharmas are neither ceasing nor arising, neither annihilated nor permanent, neither one nor different, neither coming nor going. Together with the teaching in the Prajnaparamita that the nature of all dharmas neither accumulates nor abides, how should this verse be explained?

Just as the light of a star is always ceasing in its own essence, so too are conditioned things. Their nature is constantly shifting and perishing.

Just as what is seen by one with cataracts arises through the condition of illness, although there is no agent, so too do conditioned things arise solely in dependence upon conditions.

Just as the flame of a burning lamp continually ceases from thought-moment to thought-moment, so too do conditioned things never abide even for a kshana.

Just as one who does not understand what has been magically conjured clings to it as real and permanent, so too do deluded fools cling to conditioned dharmas.

Just as dew gathered upon various objects moistens them everywhere, although its essence is but one, so too the internal conditioned skandhas are moistened and continuously arise; although they have their own natures, these are all alike associated with craving.

Just as raindrops accumulate to form masses of bubbles, each arising separately and each ceasing separately, so too are the formations of sentient beings. The eighty-four thousand kinds arise separately and cease separately.

Just as a scene in a dream comes from nowhere, yet the dreaming mind falsely perceives a place from which it comes, so too can no coming of conditioned things be apprehended. Ignorance is the dream, and consciousness falsely perceives coming and going.

Just as a flash of lightning is by nature unmoving—the earlier place ceasing earlier and the later place arising later—yet, because of the similarity of their characteristics, this is called going.

The coming and going of conditioned dharmas are likewise so.

Just as clouds in empty space do not perpetually accumulate or abide, so too, it should be known, are the characteristics of conditioned things.

This is called establishing conditioned dharmas in reliance upon conventional truth.

Just as the Madhyamaka Treatise establishes the true meaning of non-arising and so forth, conditioned dharmas should be understood in this way. What does this mean? In that Treatise, by contemplating dharmas as arising neither from themselves, from another, from both, nor without a cause, it establishes that they are fundamentally non-arising. Thus, the arising of conditioned dharmas, resembling what appears through a cataract’s veil, should be understood as non-arising. Because they are non-arising, to say that starlight ceases is contrary to reason. The conditioned is likewise, and should therefore be understood as non-ceasing.

Furthermore, because it is non-arising, even the essential nature of the lamp cannot be apprehended; how, then, could there be a kshana of which one might speak as annihilated? Conditioned things are not annihilated; they should be understood in the same way.

Furthermore, because they are non-arising, they resemble magical creations. Conditioned dharmas have no meaning of permanence and should therefore be understood as impermanent.

Furthermore, because they are non-arising, they resemble morning dew. The oneness of conditioned dharmas cannot be established. It is unreasonable that craving could moisten and produce arising; therefore, they should be understood as not one.

Furthermore, because they are non-arising, they resemble bubbles. The distinction of conditioned dharmas as different in nature cannot be established; therefore, they should be understood as not different.

Furthermore, because they are non-arising, they resemble scenes in a dream. Conditioned dharmas fundamentally have no meaning of coming; therefore, they should be understood as not coming.

Furthermore, because it is unborn, it resembles a flash of lightning. Of phenomena that arise and cease, because of their apparent similarity, they are said to go. Yet this is not in accord with principle; therefore, know that they do not go.

Furthermore, because it is unborn, that phenomenon is like a cloud: its essence does not even exist, so how could there be accumulation or abiding? Thus should it be understood. The verse says:

I, Merit-Giver, now

In order to dispel all deluded attachments,

Open and reveal the gate of the Middle Contemplation,

Briefly setting forth the meaning of this sutra.

May all kinds of sentient beings

Who see, hear, or uphold it

Illuminate true emptiness and abide without decay,

Their minds fully penetrating and unobstructed.

END OF VOLUME 2