妙法蓮華經玄贊

The meaning of the ONE VEHICLE is precisely

the central tenet of the sutra.

It will now be provisionally distinguished under five headings:

I. DISCLOSING ITS ESSENTIAL NATURE

II. EXPLAINING ITS NAME

III. CLARIFYING THE BASIS OF THE TEACHING

IV. DISTINCTIONS AMONG THE CATEGORIES

V. QUESTIONS, ANSWERS, AND DISCERNMENT

I. DISCLOSING ITS ESSENTIAL NATURE.

Broadly, there are three kinds:

1. The essence that comprehensively includes all.

2. The essence according to what is predominant.

3. The true essence.

– First, the essence that comprehensively includes all:

All uncontaminated dharmas, whether seeds or manifest activities, conditioned or unconditioned, causes or fruits, fundamental means or skillful means, that are capable of accomplishing the virtues of a Buddha are called the One Vehicle. The One Vehicle is the Great Vehicle. The Great Vehicle is the Supreme Vehicle.

Therefore, the Śrīmālā Sutra says: “The One Vehicle is the Great Vehicle.”

This treatise says: “Revealing” means this unsurpassed meaning.

The chapter on the Supreme Vehicle in the Madhyāntavibhāga speaks of three forms of supremacy:

1) Supreme right practice: this refers to the ten perfections, which, according to the distinctions in their cultivation, comprise six right practices.

2) Supreme objects of cognition: there are twelve kinds of objects of cognition.

3) Supreme cultivation and realization: this refers to ten kinds of cultivation and realization, such as the cultivation and realization of spiritual lineage and so forth, encompassing all the objects, practices, and fruits of bodhisattvas.

Thus, the Śrīmālā Sutra says: “Arhats and pratyekabuddhas take refuge because of fear. Since the four knowledges are not ultimate, they are said to be directed toward the realm of nirvana.”

It also says: “The abiding of the True Dharma, the extinction of the True Dharma, the Prātimokṣa, the Vinaya, going forth into homelessness, and receiving full ordination: these six dharmas were taught for the sake of the Great Vehicle.”

Therefore, it is known that all fundamental means and skillful means, and all uncontaminated dharmas, whether seeds or manifest activities, conditioned or unconditioned, causes or fruits, that are capable of accomplishing the virtues of a Buddha are called the One Vehicle, because those possessing the three kinds of mind-made body all enter the First Ground.

– Second, the essence according to what is predominant:

This has six kinds:

1) The essence that gathers phenomena and returns them to principle:

In such scriptures as the Nirvana Sutra and the Śrīmālā Sutra, the Dharma-body, ultimate truth, and Buddha-nature are often called the One Vehicle.

The Śrīmālā Sutra says: “The One Vehicle is the Great Vehicle. The Great Vehicle is the Buddha Vehicle. The Buddha Vehicle is the realm of nirvana.”

The Śrīmālā Sutra also says: “Cultivating the six pāramitās for kalpas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges does not equal a person’s hearing and accepting, reading and reciting, or even preserving a scroll of this sutra, much less a person’s extensively expounding it for others.” This compares conditioned practices with the Unconditioned Vehicle.

The Nirvana Sutra says: “The One Vehicle is the Buddha-nature.” Here, in the Lotus Sutra, the Conjured City is abolished and the Place of Jewels is reached; only the equality of suchness and the Dharma-body is regarded as the One Vehicle.

2) The essence that gathers the other aspects and returns them to wisdom:

True wisdom is also regarded as the One Vehicle. An earlier passage of the sutra says: “Their skillful means and knowledge and vision are all complete. Even if non-retrogressing bodhisattvas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges were single-mindedly to deliberate together, they still could not fathom the Buddha’s wisdom.”

The essence of wisdom consists solely of fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom. This is because:

– At the causal stage, wisdom is weaker and consciousness stronger.

– At the resultant stage, wisdom is stronger and consciousness weaker.

3) The essence that conceals the inferior and follows the superior:

A verse in the latter part of the sutra says:

“To teach the Buddha’s wisdom,

The Buddhas appear in the world.

This one matter alone is real;

The other two are not true.”

And:

“That Dharma abides in the Dharma-position;

The characteristics of the world constantly remain.

Having realized this at the place of enlightenment,

The Guiding Teacher teaches it through skillful means.”

The chapter “Distinctions in Merit” says: “If, for the sake of unsurpassed, complete enlightenment, a person cultivates the five pāramitās for eighty myriads of koṭis of nayutas of kalpas, this merit does not equal the merit of a person who gives rise to faith in a single thought, for the merit gained by giving rise to faith in a single thought is beyond analogy.”

Thus, the two aspects of principle and wisdom belonging to the fruit of Buddhahood are regarded as the One Vehicle. Principle is quiescent and originally existent; when freed from entanglements, it is called nirvana. Illuminating wisdom newly arises; when its fruit is perfected, it is called Perfect Enlightenment.

These are precisely the great source of the four virtues and the wondrous foundation of the three higher knowledges. Therefore, it is said that the Buddhas appear in the world for the sake of this knowledge and vision, namely, the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

The two aspects of principle and wisdom are regarded as the essence of the One Vehicle.

The nature of wisdom and the characteristics of wisdom are collectively called wisdom.

4) The essence of the extensive functioning of the two:

Only causal wisdom is regarded as the One Vehicle. In the parable of the burning house, the bodhisattvas and śrāvakas are given this jeweled vehicle with which to reach the place of enlightenment; this is causal practice.

5) The supreme essence that transcends fragmentary birth and death:

Both the principle and wisdom of cause and fruit that transcend fragmentary birth and death are taken as the One Vehicle.

Among the four meanings of revealing, showing, awakening, and entering, the first three concern the two fruits, while the last concerns the two causes. As explained above, this will be passed over without further discussion.

The Śrīmālā Sutra says: “Just as grasping is the condition and contaminated karma the cause that perpetuates subsequent existence and thereby produces the three existences, so too the ground of the habitual tendencies of ignorance is the condition and uncontaminated karma the cause that produces the three kinds of mind-made body possessed by arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas who have attained mastery.”

Therefore, the Vehicle employed by those with mind-made bodies is called the two within the causal stage.

The Mahāyānasaṃgraha says: “The myriad practices and suchness are both called the Great Vehicle.”

6) The essence of supreme guidance and inclusion:

The two aspects—the teaching that expresses and the purport expressed—are regarded as the One Vehicle.

The teachings are established in accordance with beings’ capacities, while their profound intent is difficult to know. Principle is reached through the illumination of wisdom, yet it is difficult to comprehend; its essence is profound and unfathomable. Therefore, at the beginning of the “Skillful Means” chapter, the wisdom that is expressed and the gateway of teachings that expresses it are regarded as the One Vehicle. Among the seventeen names given in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, the fourteenth is also “the One Vehicle.”

Accordingly, the lotus in the title of this sutra also has two meanings:

a) Its substance emerges from the water.

b) It is able to open and unfold.

The first meaning symbolizes wisdom; the second corresponds to the gateway of wisdom. If only suchness were regarded as the One Vehicle, there would merely be the meaning of emerging from the water, while the second meaning, the ability to open and unfold, would be lost. Yet since the lotus here fully possesses four meanings, how could the Dharma alone have only two kinds?

– Third, the true essence:

The fundamental teachings, principle, practice, and fruit of the Great Vehicle, together with the skillful means that enable entry into the Great Vehicle—these four dharmas are all called the One Vehicle, because they all possess the function of conveying beings onward.

1) The fundamental teaching:

At the beginning of this chapter, the sutra says: “That gateway of wisdom is difficult to understand and difficult to enter.” This treatise explains this by saying that the Āgama is extremely profound. The meaning of the flower opening and unfolding symbolizes the Wondrous Dharma. A later passage of the sutra also says: “The treasury of the Lotus Sutra is profound, firm, remote, and hidden,” and so forth.

The Mahāyānasaṃgraha says that these are scriptures such as the Mahāyāna Abhidharma and so forth.

2) The skillful teaching:

This chapter says: “I may teach sūtras, gāthās, accounts of past events, birth stories, and unprecedented events. I also teach causes and conditions, parables, geyas, and upadeśa scriptures. These nine divisions of my Dharma are based upon entry into the Great Vehicle; I teach them in accordance with sentient beings, and therefore I teach this sutra.”

The Śrīmālā Sutra says: “The abiding of the True Dharma and so forth—these six bases were taught for the sake of the Great Vehicle.” Therefore, the three baskets of the Lesser Vehicle are all skillful means of the Great Vehicle.

3) The fundamental principle:

This refers solely to the Dharma-nature of true suchness. Practices such as the six perfections can, by relying upon this ultimate truth, reach their destination; therefore, it is called the Great Vehicle.

An earlier passage of this sutra says: “The wisdom of the Buddhas is exceedingly profound and immeasurable.” A verse below says:

“That Dharma abides in the Dharma-position;

The characteristics of the world constantly remain.

Having realized this at the place of enlightenment,

The Guiding Teacher teaches it through skillful means.”

This treatise says: “Contemplative mindfulness means that practitioners of the Great Vehicle contemplate the selflessness of dharmas, true suchness, the Dharma-realm, and so forth.”

The Asaṃbhāva Commentary says: “Or, because the nature of that Vehicle is great, it is called the Great Vehicle.”

The Madhyāntavibhāga says: Suchness, the Dharma realm, is called the unsurpassed object of cognition.

4) The principle of expedient means:

This refers to the principle of the Four Truths. What is contemplated by the Two Vehicles is entirely the principle of expedient means.

The Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says: “Śrāvakas know the Four Noble Truths involving activity. The Buddha knows the Four Noble Truths involving no activity.”

The Nirvana Sutra also says: “For śrāvakas, there is suffering and there is truth, but there is no Reality. Bodhisattvas possess all of these.”

The root treatise says: Contemplative mindfulness means that śrāvakas contemplate the selflessness of persons, and so forth.

Therefore, both of these principles are principles of the One Vehicle.

5) The fundamental practices:

These refer to the bodhisattva’s six pāramitās and myriad practices.

The Treatise on the Bodhisattva Stages says: On the seven stages, four bodhisattva practices are cultivated.

The Chapter on Peaceful Practices sets forth practices that are all bodhisattva practices. It also says: “Using this jeweled vehicle to proceed directly to the place of enlightenment—this is the practice of the Great Vehicle.”

The Mahāyānasaṃgraha says: “Because it is both a vehicle and great, it is called the Great Vehicle.”

The Madhyāntavibhāga says: “The ten pāramitās are called unsurpassed practice.”

6) The practices of expedient means:

The Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says: “The abiding of the True Dharma and so forth—these six bases are taught for the sake of the Great Vehicle.” Relying upon the teachings of the Tripiṭaka to advance goodness, eliminate evil, and cultivate undefiled practices—all these are practices of the Great Vehicle.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra says: “They are called expedient means because śrāvakas contemplate the skandhas, dhātus, and āyatanas, become weary of suffering, and free themselves from suffering, whereas bodhisattvas cultivate the six pāramitās, the four means of attraction, and practices benefiting both self and others.”

Therefore, both kinds of practice above are practices of the One Vehicle.

7) The fundamental fruit:

This is the bodhi and nirvana of the Buddha-bodies, namely the two bodies of Dharma and Reward, and the two views of Principle and Wisdom discussed above.

A verse later in the sutra says:

“To expound the Buddha’s wisdom,

The Buddhas appear in the world.

Only this one matter is real;

The other two are not true.”

It also says:

“This Dharma abides in the position of Dharma;

The characteristics of the world constantly remain.

Having realized this at the place of enlightenment,

The Guide teaches it through expedient means.”

Moreover, the Dharma-body, Reward-body, and Transformation-body taught in the Chapter on the Lifespan are all fruits of the One Vehicle.

The Madhyāntavibhāga says: Among the ten kinds of cultivation and realization, the seventh is the Pure Land, the ninth is the Buddha-stage, and the tenth is the manifestation of bodhi.

8) The fruit of expedient means:

This is the bodhi and nirvana of the Two Vehicles.

Later, this sutra says: “What you practice is the bodhisattva path. The sheep-cart and deer-cart were provisionally devised so that one might seek the ox-cart and escape from the burning house. The conjured city midway along the road is merely a resting place on the journey to the Place of Jewels. It was for this reason that the Two Vehicles were taught. In reality, there is only the One Vehicle; there is no other vehicle.”

The Śrīmālādevī Sūtra also says: “Because the four knowledges of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are not ultimate, they are said to be directed toward the realm of nirvana. It is said that they attain a place of respite—a place where they revive, breathe normally, and rest. When the four ultimate knowledges are attained and nirvana has been realized, this is the Buddha’s expedient means.”

Therefore, the fruit of the Two Vehicles is also the One Vehicle.

Thus, those of sudden awakening chiefly study the fundamental Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruit; and in order to discipline and transform those of the Two Vehicles, they also study the expedient Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruit.

Those of gradual awakening first study the expedient teachings; only after turning their minds toward the Great Vehicle do they study the fundamental teachings.

The Dharma studied by these two kinds of practitioners is the same, but the sequence in which they study it is entirely different.

Therefore, one should know that there are only the two kinds of Buddha-nature, Principle and Wisdom; the two undefiled causes, present and seed; the conditioned and the unconditioned; and the fundamental and expedient Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruit that enable one to attain Buddhahood. All of these constitute the essence of the One Vehicle.

Moreover, even the contaminated merits accumulated before the stages, together with the auxiliary practices of the ten stages, are also the One Vehicle.

Thus, this does not contradict right principle.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra and other teachings explain only one approach among these three kinds of essence and therefore do not necessarily encompass everything. If one relies upon the passages here that explain their comprehensive inclusion, then nothing is left unencompassed.

Nevertheless, this essential nature comprises five approaches:

1/ Distinguishing Exposition and Purport, encompassing Teaching and Principle.

2/ Distinguishing Cause and Fruit, encompassing Practice and Fruit.

3/ Distinguishing Wisdom and Merit, encompassing Merit and Wisdom.

4/ Distinguishing Awakening and Quiescence, encompassing the truths of Cessation and the Path, and bodhi and nirvana.

5/ Distinguishing the Two Benefits, encompassing benefit to oneself and benefit to others.

Here the One Vehicle is taught, and thus its meaning is all-encompassing. When it is called the Buddha Vehicle, the Fruit is named while the designation also includes the Cause. When it is called the Bodhisattva Vehicle, the Cause is named while the designation also includes the Fruit. Although the names are not shared, their meanings can encompass both.

Furthermore, practitioners cultivate the two wisdoms of fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom; contemplate the two principles of the emptiness of persons and the emptiness of dharmas; sever the two obstructions of afflictions and the knowable; eliminate the two kinds of birth and death, fragmentary and transformational; realize the two fruits of bodhi and nirvana; perfectly attain the two cessations, nirvana without remainder and non-abiding nirvana; and practice the two benefits, benefit to oneself and benefit to others. When these are fulfilled, the Fruit is perfected.

Thus:

The two obstructions to be severed are included within the truth of the origin of suffering.

The two kinds of birth and death to be eliminated are included within the truth of suffering.

The two wisdoms to be cultivated and the bodhi to be realized are included within the truth of the Path.

The two principles to be contemplated, the two cessations to be attained, and the nirvana to be realized are included within the truth of cessation.

The two benefits to be practiced are included within the truths of cessation and the Path.

Cessation and the Path together are called the One Vehicle.

Therefore, in its explanation of negation, the root treatise says that the nonexistence of the Two Vehicles means that there is no nirvana belonging to the Two Vehicles. Only the Buddha, the Tathagata, realizes great bodhi and ultimately perfects all wisdom; this is called great nirvana, because there is only the one Buddha Vehicle.

The Nirvana Sutra regards Mahāprajñā, the Dharma-body, and liberation—the perfection of these three—as great nirvana. Therefore, the essence of this One Vehicle consists of the two truths.

II. EXPLANATION OF THE NAME

Vehicle means that which transports or conveys. Thus, the Guangya says: “Vehicle means a conveyance, or to ride in a conveyance.” The Rites of Zhou says: “Vehicle means to carry,” because it transports practitioners to the other shore.

Therefore, the sutra says: “Using this jeweled vehicle, proceed directly to the place of enlightenment.”

The Mahāyānasaṃgraha also says: The six pāramitās and myriad practices are both a Vehicle and Great. The Dharma-nature of suchness conveys great nature. Both phenomena and principle are capable of conveying practitioners, transporting oneself and others to the other shore; therefore, all are called the Vehicle.

Question: Because causal practices can transport one to the new Fruit, they may rightly be called the Vehicle. At the Buddha-fruit, however, self-transportation ceases; should it not therefore be excluded from the essence of the Vehicle?

Answer: There are five meanings:

1) That which transports and conveys is called the Vehicle. At the causal stage, it encompasses both kinds of transportation: transporting oneself and transporting others. Once the Fruit is reached, it transports others universally; therefore, it is also called the Vehicle.

2) Both the essence and the capacity encompass the two kinds of transportation. Both capacity and essence are called the Vehicle. The essence is present in the Fruit, and the capacity is not absent; hence both are included within the Vehicle. It is like the name “cutting,” which exists because of a knife. The capacity to cut is already inherent in the knife. It is not the case that only when the capacity to cut is extensively manifested does it become a knife, while otherwise it is not a knife. The virtuous essence and capacity of the Buddha-fruit are the two kinds of transportation; they need not be extensively exercised before being called the Vehicle.

3) The Two Vehicles transport only themselves. Though they are Lesser, they are still called Vehicles. Since the Buddha transports others universally, how could his not be a Vehicle?

4) Principle and Wisdom at the causal stage are capable of transporting both oneself and others. Because these two functions are excellent, they are called the Vehicle. Principle and Wisdom at the fruit stage are accomplished through the cultivation of causes. Since they are of the same kind as the causal vehicle, they too belong to the Vehicle.

5) The two kinds of transportation at the causal stage continually advance. Because their manifest functions are excellent, they are called the Vehicle. Self-transportation at the fruit stage reaches the end of future time, while enabling others to advance; therefore, it is called the Vehicle.

The first four meanings are provisional answers given in accordance with others, not the definitive answer.

The latter meaning is the answer according to the true meaning of the words themselves.

Therefore, the Abhidharma-samuccaya says: the One Vehicle is the basis upon which both benefit for oneself and benefit for others depend.

“One” has three meanings:

– It is called One because it distinguishes itself from the others.

– It is called One because it refutes distinctions.

– It is called One because it integrates distinctions.

1) It is called One because it distinguishes itself from the others:

In the past, the three vehicles were taught; today, the One Vehicle is taught. Thus, it should be understood that the ultimate principle signified is the one reality, while the teachings that signify the two vehicles are expedient vehicles. There are no two distinct ultimate principles; this is what is meant by “ultimate.” Although non-self and liberation are entirely equal, only at the fruit of Buddhahood are they called ultimate. Therefore, the signified principle—Buddha-wisdom—is called One. This is not merely to distinguish it from the Three, but because there are not two ultimate realities.

In explaining the negation, the Treatise says: that there are no two vehicles means that there are no two distinct essences of nirvana. Yet the sutra says: “I establish this expedient means so that sentient beings may enter Buddha-wisdom.” It also says: “In the burning house, three carts were promised. After they had passed through the gate, only the ox cart was given,” and, “He further hired him to clear away dung, and for twenty years provisionally called him his son.” Thus, the two vehicles are causes whereby, later, they become true sons and are entrusted with the family estate.

Moreover, the one fruit is used to distinguish it from the three causes. Thus, there are two kinds of distinction:

a) The principle distinguishes itself from the teachings.

b) The fruit distinguishes itself from the causes.

For “what you practice is the bodhisattva path.”

2. It is called One because it refutes distinctions:

Those of the two vehicles do not know that the Two are expedient means, and they cling to the fruits of the two vehicles as the true ultimate. Now it is taught that the two nirvanas are merely a conjured city, and that the two kinds of bodhi are merely expedient teachings provisionally established, like the goat cart and deer cart. The bodhi and nirvana attained and realized as the two fruits—the fruits of the two vehicles—are not the truly supreme ultimate.

To refute their deluded attachment to the existence of two ultimate fruits, the One is taught. This is precisely what the sutra states: “Among those who seek the three vehicles, there are some who harbor doubts; the Buddha will help them eliminate these completely, leaving nothing behind.” Sariputra also said: “Yet we did not understand the expedient means and the teachings spoken according to what was appropriate. Upon first hearing the Buddha-Dharma, we immediately encountered it, believed, and accepted it, until at last our doubts and regrets were eliminated.” Kasyapa also said: “Furthermore, today we have attained and realized nirvana, yet toward the bodhisattva Dharma we have not given rise to a mind of joyful aspiration.”

The Mahayana-samgraha also says: eliminating the obstructions of the four places, the mental orientation of the two vehicles, and so forth—this refers precisely to this attachment.

The concluding section of this Treatise also says that the Skillful Means chapter manifests five sections: refuting the Two, elucidating the One, and so forth; it does not speak of refuting the Three.

Some may say: because it refutes attachment to the Three, it does not refute only the Two. For example, the Sarvastivadins cling to the Buddha’s transformation body as the true Buddha. It is now taught to be a transformation; hence attachment to the Three is refuted.

That is not so here. The Lotus Sutra takes the One Vehicle personally cultivated as its central tenet, integrating and refuting the other vehicles so that they enter the One. It does not take the one body that is known as its central tenet, integrating and refuting the other bodies so that they enter the one body.

Moreover, they do not cling to that transformation body as ultimate, do not seek to attain it, and likewise do not seek to attain another body. If their attachment were now refuted so that they might seek the one body, then only their attachment to the two vehicles as ultimate would be refuted; their attachment to the other two bodies as ultimate would not be refuted.

Some also explain: in the past, upon hearing the Three taught, they clung to all Three as ultimate. Now the one ultimate is taught; hence attachment to the Three is refuted. Since this attachment arises in bodhisattvas before the stages, if their attachment to the Great as ultimate were refuted while the One Vehicle were still taught to them, this would only increase their illness. How could this be called refutation?

Moreover, before leaving the house—that is, before escaping the burning house—the ox cart was promised. After leaving the house, would the Great Vehicle also be refuted? If so, what cart would remain?

If it is said that the white ox is given and the former yellow ox discarded, then one would have to abandon sudden learning and instead follow gradual learning. What difference is there between the characteristics of the yellow ox and the white ox as causal practices? Since the former ox is still given, this proves that the Great Vehicle is not refuted. If one clings to the One as ultimate, this likewise does not conflict with seeking the Great; why would such attachment need to be refuted?

It is precisely because they cling to the Two as ultimate and no longer seek the Great that this attachment must be refuted.

If one attains any stage of fruition and immediately clings to it as ultimate, no such attachment has yet been seen among those who seek the Great Vehicle while still on the causal path. Even supposing it existed and was also refuted, refutation would have to continue without end. Therefore, only attachment to the Two as ultimate is refuted.

Furthermore, attachment to the four vehicles as ultimate is not refuted, because the human and deva vehicles are taught to those without a spiritual lineage. Those who understand that there are four vehicles do not cling to them as ultimate. Attachment to the Two as ultimate is no different from refuting the Two.

They do not cling to the human and deva vehicles as ultimate, because those who so cling do not understand the Vehicles, while those who understand the Vehicles do not so cling. Since the One is contrasted with the Four, if the One were an expedient means, attachment to the One would have to be refuted and beings returned to the four vehicles. Nor is it a refutation of the Five, because attachment to the indeterminate vehicle is the same as attachment to the Three.

Therefore, the Srimala Sutra says only: “Arhats and pratyekabuddhas take refuge because they are afraid,” and, “To say that they have attained the Four Wisdoms and nirvana is the Buddha’s expedient means.”

This sutra says:

“Only this one matter is real;

The other two are not true.”

Because the two vehicles were taught in order secretly to provide those of the two vehicles with a resting place, the sutra speaks of the two vehicles rather than the three vehicles. In truth, the two vehicles—the goat cart and deer cart—are not true vehicles.

Counting from the superior to the inferior, the Buddha Vehicle is first, the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle is second, and the Sravaka Vehicle is third. There is no second, namely the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and no third, namely the Sravaka Vehicle; this does not mean that among the three vehicles there is no Great Vehicle whose essence is ultimate.

According to the Sanskrit text, it says: “There is no second and no third.” The present translation abbreviates this and therefore says: “There is neither Two nor Three.”

Here someone raises an objection: The sutra teaches the Three Jewels as distinct in essence, yet does not refute their distinct essences in order to return them to a single essence. Why, then, does it refute the two vehicles in order to return them to the One Vehicle?

That is not so. If one clings to distinct essences as ultimate, this is likewise an attachment to be refuted. For if the Three Jewels have essences with distinct characteristics, there still cannot be three ultimate realities. Nevertheless, one need not abide in their distinct essences; they may be integrated into the shared essence.

For a fuller explanation, it is as the sutra says: “It is not the tenet of the Expedient and the Real.”

3. It is called One because it integrates distinctions.

Teachings, principles, practices, and fruits all have both a foundation and expedient means.

This integration of distinctions has two kinds: integrating gradual awakening and integrating into the One.

– Integrating gradual awakening:

This means that those of the two vehicles initially employ the teachings, principles, practices, and fruits as expedient means for the Great Vehicle, thereby cultivating and accomplishing it.

According to this Treatise, bodhisattvas at the first bhumi and above are free from fragmentary birth-and-death. Before the path of seeing, their cultivation of teachings, principles, practices, and fruits constitutes the fundamental cause for the stage of non-retrogression.

– Integrating into the One.

According generally to the scriptural passages, integration into the One has four kinds:

1/ Integration of teachings:

The Vimalakirti-nirdesa Sutra says: “The Buddha expounds the Dharma with a single sound, and sentient beings each understand it according to their own faculties.”

Later in this sutra it says: “One rain universally waters the three grasses and two trees, yet they grow differently.”

This is the integration of teachings as the same while faculties differ, because within the teachings of the three vehicles some are particular, directed only toward one kind of recipient, while others are universal, common to all recipients.

2/ Integration of principle:

The Ratnagotravibhaga says: it is like the three animals—the hare, horse, and elephant—crossing the same river. The nature of the river does not differ, but some cross where it is shallow while others cross where it is deep.

Later in this sutra it says: “Suppose one digs for water on a high plateau. If dry earth is seen, one knows that water is still far away. If moist earth is seen, one knows that water is not far away. If mud is seen, one knows that water is very near.” The nature of the water does not differ, but the extent to which it is reached does differ.

This is the integration of principle as the same while realization differs, because the three vehicles differ in whether their realization of the principle is complete or incomplete.

3/ Integration of practice:

Sariputra said: “This is the ultimate Dharma; this is the path to be practiced.” The Buddha also said: “I establish this expedient means to enable sentient beings to enter the Buddha’s wisdom.”

The Srimala Sutra says: “These six bases are taught for the sake of the Great Vehicle.”

Therefore, one should know that practice is the same, but cultivation differs, because the cultivation of the three vehicles may be partial or complete.

4) Convergence of the fruits:

A later passage in this sutra says:

Because it is a resting place, the two vehicles are taught. The conjured city is established midway in order to lead beings to the place of treasures, which alone is the ultimate destination. To induce beings to leave the burning house in quest of the ox cart, the sheep cart and deer cart—representing the two vehicles—were provisionally presented; afterward, however, all were given the ox cart—representing the Great Vehicle.

The Srimala Sutra says: “The four knowledges of the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas are not ultimate; they are called ‘directed toward the realm of nirvana.’” This means that the bodhi and nirvana of the two vehicles, whether as principle or wisdom, converge in the One Vehicle.

Therefore, one should know that the fruit is the same, but realization differs, because attainment of the fruit in the three vehicles occurs at different times, earlier or later.

Although, relying on the texts of various sutras, these four kinds are all brought into convergence, the Lotus Sutra explicitly brings teaching and principle into convergence, while implicitly bringing practice and fruit into convergence.

a) Explicit convergence of teaching and principle: this refers to the wisdom of all Buddhas and the gateway to that wisdom mentioned above.

“One rain waters all alike”: this is the convergence of teaching.

“The ox cart and the place of treasures”: this is the convergence of principle.

Here, what is signified is called “principle”; it does not necessarily refer only to suchness. To reveal that what is attained is exceedingly profound and difficult to understand, and that even when expressed its purport is difficult to comprehend, the Dharma attained at the place of enlightenment was something about which no one could ask. Therefore, the Buddha said: “My intention is difficult to fathom, and no one is able to question me about it.”

This also reveals that the Lotus Sutra opens the gateway of expedient means and discloses the mark of reality; thus the Lotus Dharma unfolds and emerges in unsurpassed excellence.

b) Implicit convergence of practice and fruit: both are made the same.

“I establish this expedient means to enable sentient beings to enter the Buddha’s wisdom and, riding this jeweled vehicle, proceed directly to the place of enlightenment”: this is the convergence of practice.

“The conjured city is established midway in order to reach the place of treasures”: this is the convergence of fruit.

The Srimala Sutra, however, explicitly brings practice and fruit into convergence:

“These six bases are taught for the sake of the Great Vehicle”: this is precisely the convergence of practice.

“The four knowledges of the two vehicles are not ultimate; they are called ‘directed toward the realm of nirvana’”: this is the convergence of fruit.

Because the Srimala Sutra principally teaches the cause and fruit of the One Vehicle, it explicitly brings practice and fruit into convergence while implicitly bringing teaching and principle into convergence.

The Lotus Sutra principally clarifies that what was taught in the past was provisional and what is taught now is real; therefore, it explicitly brings teaching and principle into convergence. And because it enables beings to cultivate and realize, it implicitly brings practice and fruit into convergence.

Thus, according to reality, the One Vehicle universally brings teaching, principle, practice, and fruit into convergence. This completes the general explanation of the principle and the name found in the various scriptural passages.

Therefore, it is said: That which brings the distinct into convergence is called One.

This sutra principally takes the cause and fruit of the One Vehicle as the essence of the true vehicle and takes the teaching as an expedient means; hence, these do not contradict one another.

Although this small measure of meaning has not yet stirred the ocean of wisdom, according to what I understand, it is nevertheless unsurpassed throughout the past and present. Those of profound wisdom and broad learning will surely discern this for themselves.

Of the three meanings, the first two explain both those of determinate nature and those of indeterminate nature. The last meaning mostly applies only to those of indeterminate nature. Although the unsurpassed Great Vehicle is itself the One Vehicle, it is not the matter that this sutra chiefly intends to discuss; therefore, it is passed over without explanation.

III. CLARIFYING THE INTENTION OF THE TEACHING

(Clarifying the purpose of teaching the Dharma)

The Mahayana-samgraha says:

To draw in and embrace one class,

And to sustain another class,

Because their seed-natures are indeterminate,

The Buddhas teach the One Vehicle.

Because Dharma, non-self, and liberation,

Because the seed-natures differ,

Because two intentions are attained, and because of transformation,

Ultimately, the One Vehicle is taught.

Here there are ten reasons:

1) To draw in and embrace one class of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas of indeterminate seed-nature, enabling them to enter parinirvana by relying upon the Great Vehicle. Therefore, the assembly of the Lotus Sutra chiefly teaches the One Vehicle for this class. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra calls them those who, having regressed, again arouse the aspiration for great bodhi. Sariputra and the others had all formerly sought the Great Vehicle, but regressed and cultivated the lesser fruit. Thus they are said to have regressed and then aroused the aspiration again. This does not mean that all those of indeterminate nature have regressed and then aroused the aspiration again. This class should be called those of indeterminate seed-nature.

2) To sustain another class: bodhisattvas of indeterminate seed-nature who have not yet reached the stages above the Sixth Abode remain at a stage where regression is possible. It is feared that their diligent progress in the Great Vehicle may fail and that they may regress and seek parinirvana through the two vehicles. Therefore, this sutra says: “When bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, the net of their doubts is entirely removed.”

The root treatise also says that the Tathagata explained it specifically for two classes of persons. Both classes are of indeterminate seed-nature; for their sake, the One Vehicle is taught.

3) Because of Dharma, and so forth: although the vehicles of practice differ, the suchness toward which they proceed is without distinction. Therefore, the teaching of the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra largely agrees with what is stated here.

4) Because of non-self, and so forth: if there were a truly existent pudgala, distinctions among vehicles could exist. Since the self is not distinct, the One Vehicle is taught.

5) Because of liberation, and so forth: because all three vehicles alike attain liberation from the afflictive hindrances, there is no distinction in liberation.

6) Because the natures differ: among those of the two vehicles, there are those of indeterminate nature who differ from the others. A sravaka of this kind possesses both the sravaka nature and the Buddha-nature. Because this nature is present, the One Vehicle is taught.

7) Because the Buddha has attained the intention of identity of essence with sentient beings, he says: “I am precisely they, and they are precisely me. I have already become a Buddha, and they too will become Buddhas.”

8) Because those of the two vehicles derive from the Buddha the intention of identity of essence, they are all called bodhisattvas who receive individual predictions. In this assembly, the Buddha gives individual predictions to those of the two vehicles, enabling them to acquire this intention: “We and the Buddha are equal and without difference.”

Furthermore, in this assembly there are bodhisattvas who bear the same names as they do and who thereby receive individual predictions.

One utterance of the Buddha contains benefits for two classes: those of the two vehicles attain the intention of sharing the Buddha’s own essence, while the bodhisattvas receive individual predictions.

9) Because of transformation. As the Blessed One said: “Bhiksus! I remember that in the past, immeasurable hundreds of thousands of times, I repeatedly relied upon the Sravaka Vehicle and entered parinirvana.

“How could one who had already become a Buddha later rely again upon the two vehicles and enter parinirvana? It was precisely because Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and others wished to train the sravakas whom they were transforming that they transformed their own bodies into beings of the same kind. They manifested parinirvana in the nirvana without remainder, and for hundreds of thousands of kalpas they delighted in the wine of quiescence, lying there intoxicated.

Afterward, they arose from it and visibly received the Buddha’s prediction, causing all those of indeterminate seed-nature in the two vehicles to think: ‘Those elders of former times who entered nirvana have now all arisen again and visibly received the Buddha’s prediction. Why, then, should we now enter nirvana without aspiring to become Buddhas?’ Purna and the others present in this assembly today are precisely of this kind.”

In the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra, “giving predictions to transformed sravakas” refers precisely to this matter. It also serves to diminish the arrogance of those in the two vehicles, for the Buddha too has attained the nirvana they attained.

In greater detail, the Lankavatara Sutra says: “Arhats enter nirvana without remainder and, for hundreds of thousands of kalpas, delight in the wine of samadhi, lying there intoxicated. Afterward, they arise from it and only then arouse the great aspiration. All of this is the transformational activity of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.”

Were it otherwise, if they truly entered nirvana without remainder, both body and wisdom would be extinguished. If they afterward arose from it, from where would the newly arisen dharmas come? Therefore, one should know that this is a transformation.

10) Because it is ultimate. Beyond this vehicle, there is no other vehicle superior to it. According to the ultimate principle, this vehicle is the most excellent. Therefore, it is called One.

Now, in this assembly, according to the treatise, individual predictions are given only to two classes of persons:

a) Those of indeterminate nature.

b) Those who are responsive manifestations.

As for those of indeterminate nature, this refers to the first and second meanings and a small part of the eighth meaning.

For those who are transformation manifestations: it is on account of the ninth meaning, together with a few other meanings, that the One Vehicle is taught, rather than entirely for those of indeterminate nature.

Therefore, this One Vehicle is a teaching of hidden intent.

The Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra says: “Characteristics, arising, and ultimate meaning—I have revealed them all in this way as being without self-nature. If one does not understand this hidden intent of the Buddha, one will ruin the right path and be unable to follow the pure paths of purification.”

Only this One Vehicle is followed, because there is no second. The establishment of the One Vehicle therein does not mean that sentient beings have no differences in nature. For those of determinate nature, indeterminate nature, endowed with a nature, or without a nature, the One is taught in every case.

The Nirvana Sutra says: “The One Vehicle, one path, and four fruits—the noble ones will all attain Buddhahood. Because they do not understand my intent, it is best that it be taught only in this way.”

These ten meanings now explain the One Vehicle.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra does not set them forth as fully as this. The Prakaraṇa Āryavāca teaches six causes, while the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra discusses eight meanings of the One Vehicle; they do not go beyond these ten meanings, and so they will not be recounted again.

IV. CHAPTER ON DISTINCTIONS

(Clarifying the distinctions)

The One Vehicle taught in this sutra differs in its characteristics from that taught in the Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra and the Nirvana Sutra.

Here (meaning the Lotus Sutra), both principle and wisdom are included. There (meaning the Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra and the Nirvana Sutra), only Buddha-nature is taught.

Here, only inclusion and entry are taught. There, origination is also included.

Here, only those endowed with a nature are addressed. There, those without a nature are also included.

Here, only those of indeterminate nature are specifically addressed. There, those of determinate nature are also included.

Here, teaching and principle are discussed chiefly. There, practice and fruition are discussed chiefly.

Here, the One Vehicle is said to be real and the Two Vehicles provisional. There, the One Vehicle is said to be provisional and the Four Vehicles real.

Therefore, the Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra says: “If the Tathagata, in accordance with their inclinations, teaches by skillful means, then there is only the One Vehicle and no other vehicle.”

The distinctions between this and the One Vehicle taught in many other scriptures and treatises have already been explained extensively in the section “Explanation of the Name.”

These distinguishing characteristics, together with the fifth section, “Questions, Answers, and Analysis,” and so forth, are all as explained in another chapter and need not be set forth here.

*

-Sutra text: “Śāriputra” to “whether two or three.”

The Commentary says: This is the fourth section: causing them to abide in the One Vehicle within the part on bestowing predictions.

This One Vehicle is used to teach the Dharma to sentient beings because there are no second or third vehicles, namely, those of the pratyekabuddhas and śrāvakas. They are ordered from superior to inferior, rather than according to the shallowness or profundity, difficulty or ease, of cultivation.

Therefore, in this sutra:

The first passage says: “The Two are not true.”

The second passage says: “Secretly causing people to cultivate the Two Vehicles.”

The third passage says: “Because they are resting places, the Two Vehicles are taught; the Three Vehicles are not taught.”

Thus, it should be understood that this does not mean there are no Three Vehicles at all. It should only be said that the meaning taught now is to integrate the teaching, principle, practice, and fruition they cultivate into the present great cause—the cause of the Mahayana—and exhort them to abide in the Mahayana.

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-Sutra text: “Śāriputra” to “the Dharma is likewise.”

The Commentary says: What follows is the fifth section: revealing conformity with the Dharma.

The present Buddha Śākyamuni follows the rule by which all Buddhas teach the Dharma: first teaching skillful means and afterward teaching the truth, exhorting beings to give rise to faith and guiding them to accomplish the path.

The main text has three parts:

– The first part clarifies that such is the Dharma-method of the Buddhas of the ten directions.

– The second part explains that such is the Dharma-method of the Buddhas of the three times.

– The final part clarifies that my own Dharma-method is likewise.

+ This is the first part: although apart from the three times there are no ten directions, and apart from the ten directions there are no three times, because the horizontal dimension (within the same age) and the vertical dimension (through successive ages) differ, distinct divisions are made.

The Mahāyānasaṃgraha says: “The number of places where sentient beings belonging to the human realm dwell is immeasurable, and in each successive thought-moment they realize perfect awakening. Therefore, one should not become discouraged, for the Dharma-methods of the present Buddhas throughout these ten directions are infinitely numerous and are all alike.”

*

-Sutra text: “Śāriputra” to “for the sake of the One Buddha Vehicle.”

The Commentary says: What follows explains the Dharma-method of the Buddhas of the three times.

There are two parts: first, an explanation of the Dharma-method of the three times; afterward, the conclusion that the purpose—the cultivation and practice—is the same in every case.

The first part has three sections: first the past, next the future, and finally the present.

Each of these three sections has two stages: first, it clarifies that the Dharma-methods taught by the Buddhas are the same; afterward, it explains that the sentient beings they liberate attain the path in the same way.

This clarifies that the Dharma-methods of past Buddhas were the same and is the first section:

They used various causes and conditions and so forth as skillful means for teaching the Dharma; all of these lead subsequently to the attainment of the One Buddha Vehicle.

The root treatise says:

Skillful means means:

+ In the Lesser Vehicle: contemplating the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas; becoming disillusioned with suffering and abandoning it; and attaining liberation.

+ In the Mahayana: the pāramitās and the four means of attraction, embracing practices that benefit oneself and others, and remedial teachings.

+ Causes and conditions: these were explained in the root treatise under the second exposition of the six meanings. They refer to the various causes and conditions previously indicated by the phrase “as taught before,” namely, the teachings of the Three Vehicles. Those Three Vehicles are taught only through names, words, phrases, and passages and do not possess the real meaning, for that real meaning is inexpressible.

+ Parable: this means that, just as relying upon a cow there come to be fresh milk, curds, raw butter, clarified butter, and finally ghee, of which ghee is foremost, so the Lesser Vehicle is like fresh milk and the Mahayana like ghee. Thus, this parable explains that the unsurpassed Mahayana is supreme and that the śrāvakas and others likewise share in the unsurpassed Mahayana.

That the śrāvakas share in it reveals that the nature of śrāvakas is the same as the nature of the Dharma-body of all Buddha-Tathagatas. The Dharma-bodies of ordinary beings, śrāvakas, and pratyekabuddhas are equal and without distinction; this is illustrated through the parable.

The meaning here is that ordinary beings are like the cow, śrāvakas like fresh milk, pratyekabuddhas like curds, lesser bodhisattvas like raw butter, great bodhisattvas like clarified butter, and Buddhas like ghee, of which ghee is foremost. The Buddha Vehicle is likewise. Originally, it is through the same nature of milk within the cow’s belly, progressively transformed and refined, that ghee is obtained. Likewise, from the state of an ordinary being until the attainment of Buddhahood, appearances differ, but the essential nature is equal, because it has never been two.

The present sutra text contains only these three topics.

The root treatise, in explaining the sutra, further adds the topic of contemplative mindfulness.

+ Contemplative mindfulness means:

In the Lesser Vehicle: contemplating the selflessness of persons and so forth.

In the Mahayana: contemplating suchness, the Dharma realm, ultimate reality, the selflessness of persons, the selflessness of dharmas, and so forth.

This sutra arranges the sequence as Skillful Means, Causes and Conditions, Parables, and Words. The root treatise, in explaining the sutra, arranges the sequence as Parables, Causes and Conditions, Contemplative Mindfulness, and Skillful Means. The order cited from the sutra thus differs from that of the treatise, and students should discern this clearly.

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-Sutra text: “These sentient beings” to “wisdom of all modes.”

The Commentary says: This passage clarifies that the sentient beings liberated in the past all attained the path in the same way. Although at first they practiced the Two Vehicles, afterward they all attained Buddhahood and acquired the wisdom of all modes. The wisdom of all modes is the Buddha’s right wisdom, because it is capable of knowing all dharmas in their distinct varieties; it is precisely the ox cart.

*

-Sutra text: “Śāriputra” to “is the One Buddha Vehicle.”

The Commentary says: This passage reveals that the Dharma-methods of future Buddhas will be the same.

*

-Sutra text: “These sentient beings” to “wisdom of all modes.”

The Commentary says: This passage reveals that the sentient beings who will be liberated in the future will attain the path in the same way.

*

-Sutra text: “Sariputra” to “for the sake of the One Buddha Vehicle.”

Commentary: This passage makes clear that the present manner of teaching the Buddha-Dharma is the same.

Benefiting: This means enabling beings to obtain benefit.

Bringing peace and happiness: This means enabling beings to attain peace and happiness.

Relieving suffering and bestowing happiness, bestowing wisdom and merit, bestowing worldly and supramundane fruits, and bestowing the lesser and greater fruits should be correlated in that order.

*

-Sutra text: “These sentient beings” to “wisdom of all modes.”

Commentary: This passage makes clear that the sentient beings liberated in the present attain the same path.

*

-Sutra text: “Sariputra” to “enter the path of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.”

Commentary: This concludes the purpose for which this is done. The sentient beings for whose sake it is done are, ultimately, solely bodhisattvas, because they will become Buddhas. Since in the past they gave rise to the aspiration and all the practices they cultivated were directed toward the Great Fruit, they are all called bodhisattvas; and all the Dharma taught for their sake is the One Vehicle. “To reveal the Buddha’s knowledge and vision to those sentient beings, awaken those sentient beings, and cause those sentient beings to enter the path of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.”

The sutra text does not contain the word “open,” because it is already included in the general meaning.

The meaning of “reveal” is as explained above; the Treatise gives no further explanation.

Another explanation is that “awaken” means causing sentient beings who follow non-Buddhist paths to awaken, abandon the false, and enter the true.

Another explanation is that “enter” means causing those who have attained the fruit of a sravaka to enter great bodhi, abandoning the Lesser and following the Great.

The Treatise states: the first explanation interprets “open” as unsurpassed; the second interprets “reveal” as sameness, concerning those who harbor doubts in their practice; the third interprets “awaken” in relation to those who do not know—those who have not yet aroused the aspiration are caused to arouse it, and followers of non-Buddhist paths are caused to awaken; the fourth interprets “enter” as entering the stage of non-retrogression—those who have already aroused the aspiration are caused to enter the Dharma, and those who have attained the sravaka state are caused to enter great bodhi.

According to the text, the first is correlated with the proper explanation of the great matter; the second with the conclusion concerning the great matter; and the third with the section on reliance upon the Dharma. The Treatise explains all of these under the heading of the great matter, which is also not incorrect in principle.

*

-Sutra text: “Sariputra” to “wisdom of all modes.”

Commentary: This makes clear that I, too, follow this same manner of teaching. Since only a Buddha possesses the power of knowledge concerning every kind of superior resolve, he knows every kind of desire among sentient beings.

Because the Buddha possesses the power of knowledge concerning practices leading to every destination, he clearly knows the attachments deep within the minds of sentient beings.

Here, “attachments” refers to the preferences and attachments involved in spiritual practice, or to the preferences and attachments arising from the desires of discriminating consciousness. This means that wherever sentient beings form attachments, the Buddha guides them out of those attachments. All these are known through the power of knowledge concerning superior resolves. Since the Buddha possesses the power of knowledge concerning the various dispositions, he knows the innate natures of sentient beings and also knows the aspirations in practice of those whose spiritual disposition is indeterminate.

At first, teaching the Three Vehicles was an expedient means; now, teaching the One Vehicle is the ultimate. Both are intended to enable sentient beings to attain the wisdom of all modes of the One Buddha Vehicle. The passages above all speak of attaining the wisdom of all modes of the One Buddha Vehicle; therefore, it is known that the wisdom of all modes is itself the One Buddha Vehicle.

*

-Sutra text: “Sariputra” to “how much less could there be three.”

Commentary: This is the section on exclusion—the sixth section.

Even the second vehicle, that of the pratyekabuddha, does not exist; how much less the third vehicle, that of the sravaka.

Because this sutra states that the goat cart and deer cart are sought so as to obtain the ox cart and escape the burning house, it refutes only the Two Vehicles and does not say that the ox cart is also to be refuted. This means that the Two Vehicles have no ultimately real nirvana.

The Treatise states that the nonexistence of the Two Vehicles means that the nirvana of the Two Vehicles does not exist; only the Buddha-Tathagata realizes great nirvana. The ultimate and complete fulfillment of the wisdom of omniscience is called great nirvana, because the three aspects of its essential meaning are all complete.

The Two Vehicles are not so; theirs is only nominal cessation attained through discernment, without the Dharma-body or great wisdom. Sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and others do not possess the Dharma of great nirvana, because there is only the One Buddha Vehicle.

The One Buddha Vehicle is understood in reliance upon the four kinds of meaning explained above.

The Treatise correlates the six meanings in the section on bestowing predictions with the five meanings extending from “What Dharma?” to “What is the essence of the Dharma?” as explained above.

1. “What Dharma?” indicates the first meaning, “causing those who have not heard to hear,” which means teaching them the unprecedented Dharma so that they may hear it.

2. “What kind of Dharma?” indicates what was stated in the second meaning. At first, it is taught through expedient means, various expressions, and parables.

3. “What does the Dharma resemble?” indicates the third meaning explained above: on what meanings is it based? Solely upon one great matter!

4. “What are the characteristics of the Dharma?” indicates the fourth meaning, “causing them to abide in the One Vehicle.” This means that, in accordance with sentient beings’ capacities, all of them possess Buddha-nature, and they are caused to abide in the Dharma of the Buddhas.

5. “What is the essence of the Dharma?” indicates the section on exclusion—the sixth section.

Exclusion means excluding the existence of two essences: there is only the one essence of the One Vehicle, namely, the equal Dharma-body of all Buddha-Tathagatas. The causes and fruits and the contemplative practices of the Three Vehicles differ and may indeed be distinguished, but these are not what is excluded here.

What is excluded here is “the existence of two kinds of Dharma-body essence,” because the Dharma-body of true suchness is the same in the Three Vehicles; it does not mean “excluding any essence of the Two Vehicles.”

All things are empty. If one reasons on the basis of this principle, it can be understood. Otherwise, the wording of the Treatise is somewhat obscure and difficult to understand. Only the fifth meaning, concerning the Buddhas’ manner of teaching the Dharma, is absent. Thus, if the other five meanings are correlated in sequence, the passage can immediately be understood!

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-Sutra text: “Sariputra” to “the turbidity of lifespan.”

Commentary: Beginning with this third passage, the Real Characteristic is disclosed and the Expedient Gate is revealed. It has two parts:

– Above, the two kinds of prediction—receiving a prediction and bestowing a prediction—have been explained.

– Below, four kinds of doubt are refuted.

Of the five sections analyzed by the Treatise, the fifth section below is the elimination of doubts.

The Treatise speaks of four kinds of doubt:

1. At what time is it taught?

2. How is it known that there is overweening pride?

3. Under what conditions is it fitting to teach?

4. How does it not amount to false speech?

This refutes the first doubt.

The Treatise asks: At what times do the Buddha-Tathagatas employ expedient means in teaching the Dharma? That is, at what time did the Buddha first teach the Two Vehicles as expedient and afterward clarify the One Vehicle as real?

The reply below has two points: first, it states that “a Buddha appears in the time of the Five Turbidities”; afterward, it explains the reason. This is the first part.

•The meaning of the Five Turbidities is distinguished through five approaches:

1. Explanation of the names 2. Identification of their essence 3. Their antidotes

4. Rejection and establishment 5. Their mutual inclusion.

1. Explanation of the names:

– Turbidity means sediment, impurity, and admixture. Just as one may become defiled by consuming sediment and impure, inferior, and foul substances, this is called “turbidity.” The meaning is this: during the period of an increasing kalpa, the three calamities gradually diminish, afflictions become lighter, sentient beings incline toward goodness, corrupt views gradually decrease, and lifespan becomes longer, progressively approaching what is fine and excellent. Because the superior and good are desirable, this is called clarity. When sentient beings do not suffer, a transformation Buddha does not appear in the world.

A transformation Buddha necessarily appears during a declining kalpa, when minor calamities gradually arise, afflictions become grave, sentient beings incline toward evil, defiled views gradually flourish, and lifespan becomes short, progressively approaching what is inferior, foul, and repellent. Therefore, the designation “turbidity” is established.

– Five is explained as a number compounded with enumeration.

Regarding the Explanation of the Specific Designations, they are all explained as karmadharaya compounds. Alternatively, the specific is used to distinguish it from the general; this may also be explained as a tatpurusha compound.

2. Disclosure of the substance:

The Treatise on the Stages of the Bodhisattva says: People in the present age are mostly short-lived, and the longest lifespan is one hundred years. This is called the turbidity of lifespan.

Here, the store consciousness is called the seed, while the life faculty, whose efficacy varies according to the karma that impels it, is regarded as the substance. When the power of wholesome karma is weak, the life faculty gradually shortens, as a result brought about by the karma of killing. If sentient beings do not acknowledge their parents, do not acknowledge shramanas, brahmins, elders, or clan leaders; do not cultivate righteousness; do not fear the consequences of evil karma in this life or future lives; do not practice generosity, perform meritorious deeds, observe fasting practices, or uphold the precepts—this is called the turbidity of sentient beings.

Although the eighth consciousness is called the sentient being, here it is said that, through proximity to evil external conditions, this provisional combination of the five skandhas commits evil and unwholesome deeds; therefore, it is called the turbidity of sentient beings.

The eighth consciousness and the five skandhas taken together are called its nature.

If those sentient beings increase their craving for what is contrary to the Dharma, provide knives and swords or offer weapons, engage in litigation, conflict, and disorder, practice deceit and false speech, and embrace wrong teachings, evil teachings, and other unwholesome teachings, this is called the turbidity of afflictions.

Apart from the five views, all other afflictions and subsidiary afflictions constitute the substance of the turbidity of afflictions.

Such craving contrary to the Dharma includes providing knives, swords, and the like and ordering others to kill, or, from miserliness and greed for wealth, relinquishing only knives and swords. Because of craving contrary to the Dharma, one gives rise to litigation and dispute, extending to evil teachings and other unwholesome teachings. All these are included among the afflictions and the afflictive hindrances.

Because their habitual nature is continually cultivated, when they encounter evil circumstances that draw them onward, their afflictions become increasingly grave. Thus, in the present age, the Dharma deteriorates, the True Dharma becomes obscured, the Semblance Dharma gradually arises, and false teachings come into being. This is called the turbidity of views. Its essential nature consists of the five views; through association with non-Buddhist practitioners, evil views repeatedly arise.

When an eon of famine arises, an eon of epidemic disease arises, or an eon of warfare arises, this is called the turbidity of the eon. Its substance is the form skandha consisting of the four elements of sensory matter; alternatively, it pervades all five skandhas but takes time, a factor dissociated from mind, as its substance, because it is established in dependence upon the four or five skandhas. When afflictions greatly increase and evil karma increases still further, evil results are incurred and the three calamities arise.

3. Counteractions:

This means teaching the Dharma of counteraction in accordance with their characteristics. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom establishes four siddhantas. Siddhanta means a fundamental tenet:

1) The worldly siddhanta.

2) The individually adapted siddhanta.

3) The counteractive siddhanta.

4) The siddhanta of the ultimate truth.

The turbidity of the eon and the turbidity of sentient beings are counteracted by the worldly siddhanta, for one understands that both the world as a receptacle and the world of sentient beings are illusory. If one becomes disenchanted and fearful and cultivates the path, one will forever transcend them.

The turbidity of lifespan is counteracted by the individually adapted siddhanta, for through wholesome karma acquired by cultivating pure precepts and practicing non-killing and the like, a person's life faculty will naturally endure for a long time. Alternatively, for persons of the Three Vehicles, the Dharma of the appropriate vehicle is taught according to their respective vehicle, enabling them to attain the nirvana-fruit of their own vehicle and thereby eliminate every turbidity of lifespan within samsara.

The turbidity of afflictions and the turbidity of views are treated by the counteractive siddhanta, for cultivating the corresponding counteractive path prevents them from arising. Because the three siddhantas break through the five turbidities, one enters the ultimate truth and realizes the true doctrine.

4. Rejection and establishment:

Question 1: Why are only five turbidities established, without increasing

or decreasing their number?

Answer: Sentient beings are of two kinds:

a) Those whose evil conduct is confined to white-robed householders.

b) Those whose wrong conduct is confined to non-Buddhist renunciants.

Householders lack wisdom; when their afflictions increase, this is called the turbidity of afflictions.

Non-Buddhists hold erroneous understandings; when their confused thinking proliferates, this is called the turbidity of views.

The delusions of those who are dull and ignorant are called the turbidity of afflictions.

The other, acute delusions are called the turbidity of views.

When the corresponding results are attained through these two causes, differences in their combination and separation yield two further turbidities:

– The two internal results taken together are called the turbidity of sentient beings, because sentient beings are evil.

– The two external results taken together are generally called the turbidity of the eon, because the receptacle-world is evil.

An eon is merely a period of time. Time has no separate substance, for it is differentiated in dependence upon dharmas.

The turbidity of the eon takes the evil receptacle-world as its substance. Although these evil sentient beings and their external results have been collectively described as the two resultant turbidities, it has not yet been analyzed what constitutes the substance of the principal evil result.

The foundation is now clarified; therefore, the turbidity of lifespan is established. The internal evil result is called the turbidity of lifespan. The external evil result is called the turbidity of the eon.

Through whom do these evil causes and results exist? They pertain only to evil sentient beings; therefore, this is called the turbidity of sentient beings. Because these five turbidities are established according to their increasingly prevalent manifestations, and because the intention is to cause sentient beings to develop revulsion, the five are emphasized in the teaching.

Question 2: Why are delusion and suffering called hindrances, yet here they are distinguished and called turbidities? Karma is also included among these hindrances, so why is it not established as a turbidity?

Answer: A hindrance means an obstruction. All three are obstructions because they impede the sacred teachings. Turbidity means filthy sediment. The sense of turbidity is very slight in karma; therefore, karma is not established as a turbidity. Moreover, warfare within an eon is itself the turbidity of karma.

The meaning of the turbidity of the eon is broader; hence it is named according to that broader meaning. If the turbidity of karma were established, this would not be erroneous either.

5. Mutual inclusion:

The Sutra of Satyaka Nirgranthaputra establishes twelve turbidities:

1) The manifested turbidity of the eon.

2) The manifested turbidity of time.

3) The manifested turbidity of sentient beings.

4) The manifested turbidity of afflictions.

5) The manifested turbidity of lifespan.

6) The manifested turbidity of distinctions among the Three Vehicles.

7) The manifested turbidity of impure lands.

8) The manifested turbidity of sentient beings difficult to transform.

9) The manifested turbidity of teaching various afflictions.

10) The manifested turbidity of disorder caused by non-Buddhist practitioners.

11) The manifested turbidity of Mara.

12) The manifested turbidity of Mara's deeds.

“Good man! The lands of all Buddhas transcend the world, are adorned with merit, are fully pure, and are free of all turbidities. All such faults are expediently manifested by the Buddhas for the benefit and happiness of sentient beings.”

Because the text speaks only of manifestation, it is known that karma and the like may also be established as turbidities. These twelve turbidities exist only in the Mahayana. According to the relative superiority and inferiority of two aspects of the realms in which the Buddha teaches and transforms beings, different analyses and combinations are provisionally established. The five turbidities are based solely on the characteristics of an impure land. From the doctrinal perspective of increase, however, they are generally said to exist in both the Hinayana and Mahayana.

The turbidity of the eon and the turbidity of time here are the turbidity of the eon.

The turbidity of sentient beings and the turbidity of sentient beings difficult to transform are the turbidity of sentient beings.

The turbidity of afflictions and the turbidity of teaching various afflictions are the turbidity of afflictions.

The turbidity of lifespan is the turbidity of lifespan.

The turbidity of disorder caused by non-Buddhist practitioners is the turbidity of views.

These eight turbidities are thus the five turbidities. The remaining four—the turbidity of distinctions among the Three Vehicles, the turbidity of impure lands, the turbidity of Mara, and the turbidity of Mara's deeds—are not included within the five turbidities.

The five turbidities are established according to what is predominant; they are indeed defilements. The twelve turbidities encompass both that which transforms and that which obstructs, because they are manifested by the Buddha.

According to the Vinaya Matrika Sutra, the five turbidities do not include the turbidity of views, but instead establish the turbidity of karma. According to that sutra, afflictions and karma are each a distinct turbidity. The results are divided into three:

1/ The substance of the principal recompense is called the turbidity of lifespan.

2/ The substance of the internal recompense is called the turbidity of sentient beings.

3/ The substance of the external result is the turbidity of the eon.

Obstructions are classified according to similar kinds and combined into three obstructions; or the Dharma obstruction may be added as well. Turbidities, however, are classified according to impure and defiled residues, whether combined or distinguished, varying according to the capacities of beings so as to cause weariness and fear; this cannot be faulted.

The first fascicle of the Treatise on the Ten Stages states: Purity means freedom from turbidity. There are six kinds of turbidity; because one is free from these turbidities, it is called purity:

1) The turbidity of desire.

2) The turbidity of deportment.

3) The turbidity of the hindrances.

4) The turbidity of divergent conceptions, because thoughts of jealousy toward those who are superior and thoughts of causing harm arise.

5) The turbidity of insufficient merit, because one’s roots of goodness are slight and one’s mind does not delight in abiding within that teaching.

6) The turbidity of delusion, consisting solely of ignorance and so forth.

This is established only with reference to the turbidity of conduct, not universally with reference to all dharmas, because there are six counteragents: freedom from indolence, dignity, purity, firmness, completeness of merit, and completeness of wisdom. Because these six objects of counteraction exist, six turbidities are established; there is no need to reconcile them. The remainder is explained in another chapter; fearing prolixity, we stop here.

According to the rule, whenever a Buddha appears, it must be during the time of the Five Turbidities. Therefore, it is said that a Buddha appears in the evil age of the Five Turbidities.

Question 1: Why will Maitreya Buddha be born when the lifespan of sentient beings is eighty thousand years, whereas Shakyamuni Buddha appeared when the lifespan of sentient beings was one hundred
years?

Answer: Because the power of their vows differs. Both are ages of turbidity; both teach the Three Vehicles, first the provisional and afterward the real; and both are transformation bodies.

If reward-body Buddhas and transformation-body Buddhas do not teach the Two Vehicles in the proper sequence of first the provisional and afterward the real, then they do not necessarily appear only during an age of turbidity.

If they teach the Two Vehicles, first the provisional and afterward the real, they necessarily appear during an age of turbidity, because evil beings are difficult to transform and can enter the path only gradually.

Here, “turbidity” means that when these five gradually arise during the decreasing kalpa, it is called the time of turbidity. Therefore, when the kalpa first begins to decrease and the lifespan reaches eighty thousand years, gradually tending toward the Five Turbidities, Maitreya Buddha will then appear in the world.

Thus, it is not necessary to wait until the human lifespan is only twenty or thirty years and minor calamities arise before it is called the Turbidity of the Kalpa. Hence, the treatises say: during a decreasing kalpa, a Buddha appears in the world; during an increasing kalpa, a wheel-turning king appears.

Question 2: If a Buddha appears in the world only during a decreasing kalpa, whereas a wheel-turning king appears during an increasing kalpa, how can Shankha and Maitreya exist in the same age? Moreover, if the Buddha had not renounced the household life, he certainly would have become a wheel-turning king. The eight sons of Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Buddha each ruled over the four continents. How, then, can this be called a decreasing kalpa?

Answer: King Shankha appears during an increasing kalpa, but because his lifespan is long, he encounters Maitreya Buddha; it is not that Maitreya Buddha appears during a time that is not decreasing. Furthermore, if the Buddha had not renounced the household life, he would certainly have occupied the position of a gold-wheel king, but this does not mean that he was destined to become one. The principle concerning the eight sons of Lamp Radiance Buddha is the same; because that was a reward body, there is likewise no contradiction.

Here it is said that a gold-wheel king necessarily appears only during an increasing kalpa, whereas the times when silver-, copper-, and iron-wheel kings appear are not fixed. Therefore, there is no concern that whenever a wheel-turning king exists, a Buddha must have passed into extinction. A human lifespan of one hundred years is the age of an iron-wheel king.

*

-Scriptural passage: “Thus, Shariputra” to “distinguishing and teaching the three.”

Commentary: The following explains the Five Turbidities, the conditions that caused the Buddha to appear in the world, and reiterates the Five Turbidities explained and enumerated above; therefore, it says, “Thus.”

“The troubled time of the Turbidity of the Kalpa” explains the aforementioned Turbidity of the Kalpa: the times of famine and cold, epidemics, and warfare.

“Sentient beings are heavily defiled”: “Defilements” refers to the six defilements. That which contaminates body and mind and stains them with impurity is called a defilement. When it is intensified and difficult to overcome, it is called heavy.

The six defilements are:

1) Harmfulness 2) Resentment 3) Vexation

4) Deceit 5) Fraudulence 6) Arrogant intoxication.

Delighting in injuring and afflicting sentient beings is called harmfulness.

First anger arises; afterward it congeals into enduring enmity that is not relinquished. This is called resentment.

When one recalls past wrongs and encounters adverse conditions in the present, the mind immediately becomes embittered, and one may utter clamorous, violent, coarse, sarcastic, and cutting words. This is called vexation.

These three have anger as their substance.

To ensnare others, conceal one’s own faults, or ingratiate oneself with others, one falsely displays a different demeanor and acts in a sinister and devious manner. This is called deceit.

To gain profit and reputation, one pretends to possess virtue and acts cunningly and dishonestly. This is called fraudulence.

This means that the fraudulent person harbors ulterior schemes within, because such a person habitually displays false wrong livelihood.

These two have greed and delusion as their substance.

Deep attachment to one’s own prosperity, accompanied by intoxication and haughtiness, is called arrogant intoxication. Arrogant intoxication has greed as its substance.

Because sentient beings possess these six grave defilements, do not recognize shramanas, and do not cultivate wholesome dharmas, this is called the Turbidity of Sentient Beings.

“Stinginess, greed, envy, and jealousy”: these constitute the Turbidity of Afflictions.

To cling covetously to the wealth or Dharma one has acquired, being unable to give generously and instead hoarding it miserly and concealing it, is called stinginess.

To desire more of what one has not yet acquired, or to desire still more even though one already has enough, is called greed.

Although stinginess is itself greed, greed includes attachment both to what has been acquired and to what has not yet been acquired, together with the desire to obtain other things; therefore, they are divided into two categories.

– The character Tật [ 嫉 ] has three pronunciations: Tất, Tuất, and Tật (now pronounced Tật). It is sometimes written [ ] and means poisonous or harmful (Tật means hatred).

To risk one’s life for one’s own reputation and profit, while being unable to bear the prosperity of others and becoming envious, resentful, and distressed, is called envy and jealousy.

Although envy is itself jealousy, when directed toward another’s true Dharma, reputation, or standing it is called envy; when directed toward another’s glory, pleasure, reputation, or profit it is called jealousy.

– The Shuowen and Yupian explain: harming the worthy is called envy; begrudging beauty is called jealousy.

“Accomplishing the unwholesome roots”: There are three unwholesome roots, namely greed, anger, and delusion. They are established as the unwholesome roots because they fulfill two criteria:

a) They are fundamental afflictions capable of producing other afflictions. The derivative afflictions are excluded and cannot be included here.

b) They pervade all six consciousnesses and possess grave and extensive faults. Pride, views, and doubt are not unwholesome roots, because they occur only in the mental faculty.

Because they fulfill these two criteria, only the above three are called the unwholesome roots. Here, “root” means that which produces, because they produce evil conditions; these also constitute the Turbidity of Afflictions. Only three turbidities are mentioned, without explaining the Turbidity of Views and the Turbidity of Lifespan, because the Turbidity of the Kalpa includes the Turbidity of Lifespan, since during famine, warfare, and disease, lifespans are generally short. The Turbidity of Afflictions already includes the Turbidity of Views; and when the fundamental unwholesome roots of affliction are cited, all afflictions are thereby included.

Because at that time humans and devas are fewer while the evil destinies increase, sentient beings ultimately are difficult to teach and transform by means of the Great Vehicle. Therefore, the Buddha had to employ skillful wisdom to distinguish and teach the One Buddha Vehicle as three vehicles, so that sentient beings might gradually enter the path.

Therefore, the sutra says that if only the Buddha Vehicle were praised, suffering sentient beings would be unable to believe and accept it; hence it was taught through skillful means.

*

-Scriptural passage: “Shariputra” to “is not a pratyekabuddha.”

Commentary: The following explains the second doubt.

The second doubt states: The Tathagata does not teach those of overweening pride. How, then, can it be known that they are persons of overweening pride?

The passage has three parts:

– The first part clarifies the characteristics of those who are not genuine sages of the Two Vehicles.

– The following section explains the characteristics of those with overweening pride.

– The final section concludes concerning the characteristics of true sages of the two vehicles.

This is the first section.

If true shravakas and pratyekabuddhas who are destined for quiescence encounter a Buddha, most of them will not be ignorant of the Dharma. Those among them of indeterminate nature can turn their minds toward the Great Vehicle; whether sooner or later, they will certainly be able to hear and understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas.

Those who regard themselves as true sages of the two vehicles, however, even when they encounter a Buddha, do not hear or understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas. They are neither noble disciples of the Buddha nor true sages of the two vehicles.

*

-Scripture: “Furthermore, Shariputra,” to “are all persons of overweening pride.”

Commentary: This explains the characteristics of those with overweening pride.

Ordinary beings who have attained the fourth dhyana but have not yet abandoned the defilements of the three realms nevertheless consider themselves true sages of the two vehicles—arhats in their final bodies who have attained ultimate nirvana. They do not seek perfect enlightenment, and their minds do not believe or follow. This is overweening pride.

*

-Scripture: “Why is this?” to “there is no such possibility.”

Commentary: This concludes concerning the characteristics of true sages of the two vehicles.

Only true sages who encounter me form the aspiration to proceed toward quiescence. Most of them are not ignorant of the Dharma; although they cannot practice it, they believe upon hearing it. Those of indeterminate lineage believe it in principle, and if they cultivate it, they awaken. Therefore, they are true sages of the two vehicles. If they do not believe, there is no such possibility, for that would be contrary to reason.

As for those “destined for quiescence,” this means that they cannot realize and enter it. At first they still do not believe, which is called impairment and fear; when they return to the path, doubts arise, and only afterward do they believe and cease to be ignorant of the Dharma. Therefore, this passage concludes: There is no possibility that they would not believe in the One Vehicle.

*

-Scripture: “Except after the Buddha’s parinirvana, when no Buddha is present.”

Commentary: The following explains the third doubt: How can one be capable of teaching?

Some may have this doubt: Those who hear the Dharma from the Buddha nevertheless develop a mind of slander. Could it be that the Tathagata is incapable of teaching the Dharma? Why is this so?

This sentence means that there are also true sages of the two vehicles who are destined for quiescence yet remain ignorant of the Dharma; upon hearing the Dharma, they slander it and likewise do not hear or understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas. Thus, the Blessed One is unable to transform them. Could the Buddha then be someone incapable of teaching the Dharma? And if he is indeed incapable of teaching the Dharma, what is the reason?

In other words: How can the Blessed One be capable of teaching the Dharma to sentient beings and be called the One Possessed of Omniscience?

The Buddha replied: “Except after the Buddha’s parinirvana, when no Buddha is present. Although true sages destined for quiescence who encounter me are mostly not ignorant of the Dharma and will all certainly hear and understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms bodhisattvas, those destined for quiescence who do not encounter me may be ignorant of the Dharma and unable to understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas.”

This passage has three parts: first, the proposition is stated; next, it is explained; and finally, the conclusion is established. The foregoing is the first part.

*

-Scripture: “Why is this?” to “such persons are difficult to find.”

Commentary: This explains the preceding proposition.

After my parinirvana, because they lack wholesome conditions and skillful means to guide and induce them, most of those destined for quiescence will be ignorant of the Dharma. It will be difficult to find those who accept, retain, and interpret these sutras, because they do not understand their meaning. Therefore, after my parinirvana, there will be true sages of the two vehicles who neither hear nor understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas.

*

-Scripture: “If they encounter another Buddha” to “they will immediately understand clearly.”

Commentary: This establishes the conclusion of the preceding meaning.

If, after my parinirvana, these persons ignorant of the Dharma encounter another Buddha who teaches and transforms them through skillful means, they will clearly understand this Dharma. Thus, they too can understand that the Buddha teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas. If they do not encounter a Buddha, some will not understand. Therefore, I am not incapable of teaching, and so forth.

Thus, the Yogacarabhumi says: If the alaya consciousness has been established, those abiding in the formless realm also enter the attainment of cessation, because they believe that the storehouse consciousness is not interrupted.

Alternatively, this doubt is not a doubt concerning those destined for quiescence, but rather the doubt of why the Buddha did not transform those of overweening pride: Could the Blessed One be someone incapable of teaching the Dharma? Why is this so? This is explained by saying: While I am in the world, I will certainly be able to transform them, except after my parinirvana, and so forth.

*

-Scripture: “Shariputra” to “there is only the One Buddha Vehicle.”

Commentary: The following explains the fourth doubt, namely: Previously three vehicles were taught, but now they are said to be one. A different Dharma was taught before, and a different Dharma is taught now. Why, then, is the Blessed One not guilty of false speech?

The Buddha replied: “I have realized and understood, whereas you still know nothing of this. Your practice and stage have not yet reached it. You should only single-mindedly believe what I say; because you have only now first aroused the aspiration, you should simply have faith.”

After turning their minds toward the Great Vehicle, arhats must pass through twenty thousand kalpas before reaching the initial stage of faith within the three great asamkhya kalpas. They should simply have faith and harbor no doubt. The Buddha’s words are not false; in principle there is only the One Vehicle. Because those of indeterminate lineage ultimately attain the fruit of wisdom, there is only the One Vehicle and no two vehicles.

The Prajnaparamita Treatise says that the Buddha teaches four matters without any falsehood: bodhi, predictions, the Lesser Vehicle, and the Great Vehicle. Here the Great Vehicle and predictions are taught; therefore, this does not constitute false speech.

At the beginning, this chapter praises the wondrousness of the Dharma and the wondrousness of the Dharma teacher. It includes a section Resolving Doubts. Within the section Establishing Predictions, there are these four doubts.

The first doubt arises in the subsection Bestowing Predictions: At what time was skillful means taught first, and the truth taught afterward?

The second doubt arises in the subsection Receiving Predictions: Some persons of overweening pride rose from their seats in the assembly and departed. How was this known?

According to the first interpretation, the third doubt arises in the subsection Causes of Predictions. The Buddha originally intended to teach those of the two vehicles who were not ignorant of the Dharma; hence this doubt arose: How could he be capable of teaching? According to the latter interpretation, it also arises from Receiving Predictions.

The fourth doubt arises in relation to all of these. The doubt is: Since the earlier teaching and the later teaching contradict one another, why does this not constitute false speech?

*

-Scripture: “At that time, the Blessed One” to “upasikas without faith.”

Commentary: The following contains 121 stanzas, of which:

+ The final 3 stanzas enter the fourth chapter, in the passage “encouraging them to arouse joyful minds and enabling them to know that they will become Buddhas.”

+ The first 118 stanzas versify the third prose passage, “revealing this true characteristic and disclosing that provisional gateway,” and are divided into two parts:

The first 115 stanzas versify the two kinds of prediction—Receiving Predictions and Bestowing Predictions—explained above.

The final 3 stanzas versify the refutation of the four doubts.

The first part is further divided into two sections:

a) The first 4 stanzas versify the withdrawal of evil persons during the Receiving of Predictions.

b) The following 111 stanzas versify the bestowal of predictions.

Among the first 4 stanzas:

1 stanza concerns those of overweening pride.

The following 3 stanzas concern those whose roots of transgression are deep and grave.

These four stanzas respectively concern Pride, Transgression, Concealment, and Obstruction—that is, overweening pride, violation of the precepts, concealment of offenses, and obstruction of the Dharma.

This stanza concerns pride: For those who have gone forth, realization of the path is foremost. If, having attained little, they believe they have attained much, they merely give rise to overweening pride.

Male lay followers, that is, upasakas, frequently cling to a self and harbor a mentality of reliance upon themselves and self-exaltation; therefore, self-conceit arises.

Laywomen (that is, upasikas) often give rise to lowly conceit, do not rely upon the supreme path, cling less strongly to self, but readily follow their husbands and companions, and also harbor doubts and disbelief.

*

-Sutra text: “Such members of the fourfold assembly” to “had deficiencies and transgressions in the precepts.”

Commentary: The following three verses concern the deep and grave roots of their offenses, distinguished into three kinds: violating the precepts, concealing offenses, and obstructions to the Dharma.

This passage concerns violating the precepts:

If one commits only a few violations, they are called deficiencies; if one commits many, they are called transgressions, because they are blameworthy.

Damaging the precepts is called a deficiency. Corrupting right view is called a transgression: the outflows of affliction arise, yet one neither sees nor understands this and, relying upon oneself, becomes arrogant.

In the discussion of the precepts, it was said that, apart from those of overweening pride, only those who falsely claim to have attained sainthood commit a grave offense. Therefore, this fault does not accord with sila and is impure, and thus samadhi does not manifest before them and gather them in.

Here the text speaks of the general characteristics of violating the precepts and explains the characteristics of not recognizing that one has violated them.

*

-Sutra text: “They concealed and guarded their own flaws” to “through the Buddha’s awe-inspiring virtue, they had to leave.”

Commentary: This concerns concealing offenses.

A blemish within jade is called a flaw (hà); a defect on its surface is called a fault (tì). Violations of the precepts are likewise: being censured by the world is like an external fault, while harboring wrongdoing within is like an internal flaw.

Faults of body and speech are like external faults, namely the deficiencies mentioned above. Faults within the mind are like internal flaws, namely the transgressions mentioned above.

Committing an offense that is wrong by its very nature is called an internal flaw (hà). Committing an offense against a prohibitive rule is called an external fault (tì).

For a defect on the surface of jade, the character Tì with the jade radical should properly be used. Here, however, the character Tì meaning illness is used, indicating that people within the Dharma afflicted by the illness of the afflictions are likewise like flawed jade. The analogy and the Dharma are combined in the explanation. Tì means an illness; therefore, they cover and guard it without disclosing it. This illustrates concealing one’s own offenses.

The dregs of wine are called tao; they are extremely turbid and impure. The husks of rice are called khang (bran); they are cheap and useless. These illustrate those of overweening pride, who are not merely people of little wisdom but also act willfully in opposition to the path and Dharma. Through his awe-inspiring power, the Buddha removed them from the assembly, causing them to withdraw and depart. Fearing that, after hearing the wondrous Dharma, they would slander it and thereby increase their offenses, while gaining no benefit, the Buddha compelled them through his awe-inspiring power to rise and leave.

*

-Sutra text: “These people had little merit and virtue” to “there remained only those who were genuine.”

Commentary: This concerns obstructions to the Dharma. Because in the past they created karma that deprived them of the Dharma, obstructions to the Dharma were present within them, and so they were unable to bear hearing the Dharma.

– Xian means “few.” Either of the two characters meaning “few” [鮮, ] may be used.

*

-Sutra text: “Sariputra, listen well!” to “and expound it for sentient beings.”

Commentary: The following is the second section, comprising 111 verses concerning the conferral of predictions.

The preceding prose passage had six sections; therefore, the 111 verses here are likewise divided into six sections:

1/- Six verses on the Exposition.

2/- Seven and a half verses on Causing Them to Remain.

3/- One and a half verses on Restraining.

4/- Eighteen and a half verses on “Upon What Meanings.”

5/- Seventy and a half verses on Relying upon the Dharma.

6/- Seven verses on the meaning of “causing those who have not heard to hear.”

There are differences among the six matters above. Therefore, a verse says:

Six for Exposition, seven and a half for Remaining,

Then one and a half verses for Restraining,

Eighteen and a half for Upon What,

Seventy and a half, and seven for the last two.

The first six verses on the Exposition are divided into two sections:

– Four and a half verses on the meaning of “Why is this?” The text below provides the explanation.

– One and a half verses on the meaning previously stated: “They expound according to what is appropriate, but their intent is difficult to understand.”

The first section is further divided into three:

– One verse on countless skillful means.

– Two verses on innumerable causes and conditions, analogies, and expressions. That is, analogies, causes and conditions, contemplations, and skillful means.

– One and a half verses on expounding the various dharmas.

This is the first section.

The preceding prose passage stated: “The Buddhas expound according to what is appropriate.” In the explanation it said: “I employ countless skillful means.” This verse now explains: “The Dharma attained by the Buddhas possesses the power of immeasurable skillful means.”

Thus, the preceding and following passages mutually clarify their meanings, and references to oneself and others mutually illuminate one another, without any contradiction.

*

-Sutra text: “The thoughts in the minds of sentient beings” to “causing them all to rejoice.”

Commentary: These two verses concern the many kinds of causes and conditions and so forth. They have two parts:

– The first verse concerns discerning capacities.

– The latter verse concerns causes and conditions and analogies.

The thoughts in their minds and the paths they follow are their various courses of conduct.

Their various desires are their diverse superior resolves.

Their various natures are their diverse superior dispositions.

Their good and evil karma from past lives concerns what is possible and what is impossible, as well as their own karma.

It is said that the Buddha possesses five powers of wisdom. These are the diverse contemplations, for he is able to know these five aspects of sentient beings and, using causes and conditions, analogies, expressions, and skillful means, expounds the Dharma and causes them all to rejoice.

This explains the reason for the various kinds of expressions mentioned above.

*

-Sutra text: “Or he expounds sutras” to “the Upadesa scriptures.”

Commentary: One and a half verses concern the exposition of the various dharmas. According to the passages that discuss the twelve divisions of scripture, their order is as follows:

1. Sutra: the scripture calls this Sutra.

2. Geya: the scripture calls this Geya.

3. Vyakarana: this is absent here.

4. Gatha: the scripture calls this Gatha.

5. Udana: this is absent here.

6. Nidana: the scripture calls this causes and conditions.

7. Avadana:

The three names—8. Itivrttaka: these designations are the same here.

9. Jataka:

10. Vaipulya: this is absent here.

11. Adbhuta-dharma: the scripture calls this Unprecedented.

12. Upadesa: the scripture calls this the Upadesa scriptures.

Here, distinctions are made through three approaches:

A. Discerning the Characteristics. B. Explaining the Names. C. Distinguishing the Differences.

A. Discerning the Characteristics:

1. Sutra has two characteristics:

a) General; b) Particular.

The Nirvana Sutra states: From “Thus have I heard” through “they rejoiced and faithfully practiced,” all of this is called Sutra. Since it encompasses all twelve divisions, it is called the general characteristic, because the teaching penetrates both principle and phenomena and gathers in sentient beings.

The Abhidharma-samuccaya states that prose is arranged into a text that briefly sets forth the meanings that need to be taught; this is called Sutra.

Here, only prose is called the particular characteristic. Verses are not included within Sutra in its particular characteristic.

2. Geya has two characteristics:

1) To benefit those who come later.

2) To clarify meanings not fully explained previously.

The Abhidharma-samuccaya and other texts state that when, either in the middle or at the end of a sutra, verses restate the meaning of the preceding prose passage, this is called “benefiting those who come later.”

They also state that if a scripture is not definitive in meaning, verses must be used to explain it further. Although the prose passage has already expounded it, its meaning is not yet complete; therefore, this is called “clarifying meanings not fully explained previously.”

The Nirvana Sutra explains only the first meaning.

3. Vyakarana has three characteristics:

1) Predictions concerning the causes and effects of the disciples’ birth and death.

2) Clear explanations of profound and hidden meanings.

3) Predictions that bodhisattvas will become Buddhas.

Treatises such as the Pratipaksa state: In this very place, predictions are made concerning noble disciples who have departed from the past, distinguishing the differences in their places of rebirth according to their virtues or faults. These are predictions concerning the causes and effects of the disciples’ birth and death.

It is further said: Moreover, definitive-meaning sutras are called Predictions, because predictions reveal profound and hidden meanings. This is the second type: prediction concerning profound and hidden meanings. Therefore, this treatise states: “The conferral of predictions is of four kinds: determination of mind, cause, receiving a prediction, and giving a prediction, and so forth.”

The Nirvana Sutra says: The Tathagata conferred a prediction upon a great being: “O Ajita! In a future age there will be a king named Shankha. In that age, you will attain Buddhahood and be called Maitreya.” This is a Prediction scripture. This is the third type: prediction of future Buddhahood.

4. Independent Verses:

Concerning the characteristics of Independent Verses, the Treatise on the Revelation of the Teachings and other texts state: These are passages in the sutras that are not expressed directly in extended prose but are composed into verses of one line, or are taught in two, three, four, five, six lines, and so forth. All these are Independent Verses.

5. Spontaneous Discourses:

Concerning the characteristics of Spontaneous Discourses, the Yogacara Treatise and other texts state: These are passages in which no questioner is explicitly identified. In order that the true Dharma may long endure in later times and that the authentic teaching may long remain, the teaching is delivered without being requested. All such passages are called Spontaneous Discourses.

6. Causal Occasions: these have three characteristics:

– Teaching in response to a request.

– Establishing precepts in response to a transgression.

– Teaching the Dharma in response to an event.

The Treatise on Counteraction states: “Causal occasion” means teaching in response to a request. There are also causal occasions for establishing rules of training; this is the second meaning called Causal Occasion.

The Nirvana Sutra states: These are the fundamental causes upon which the sutras and verses are based. For example, in the kingdom of Shravasti, there was a man who spread nets to catch birds and, after catching them, released them again. The Blessed One, knowing the causes and circumstances of this event from beginning to end, then spoke this verse:

Do not disdain a minor offense,

Thinking it will bring no harm;

Though drops of water may be small,

Gradually they fill the entire jar.

This is called a Causal Occasion, namely the third type: teaching the Dharma in response to an event.

7. Parables:

Concerning the characteristics of Parables, the Yogacara Treatise states: These are all the parables used to teach the Dharma in the sutras and vinaya texts.

8. Accounts of Past Events:

Concerning the characteristics of Accounts of Past Events, the Yogacara Treatise states: These are all the accounts proclaimed by the Buddha concerning persons or dharmas of former times, excluding accounts of his past lives.

The Nirvana Sutra teaches only past dharmas, as in: “The Dharma I can teach upon appearing in the world is called the Pratimoksha Sutra. During the time of Buddha Krakucchanda, it was called the Drum of Amrita. During the time of Buddha Kanakamuni, it was called the Mirror of Dharma. During the time of Buddha Kashyapa, it was called the Analysis of Emptiness.” It does not teach about persons of former times. This is understood by comprehensively examining the actual facts.

9. Accounts of Past Lives:

Concerning the characteristics of Accounts of Past Lives, the Treatise on the Revelation of the Teachings states: This means that herein are proclaimed the places in which the Blessed One, in past lives, died or was born, practiced the bodhisattva conduct, and performed practices difficult to perform. These are called Accounts of Past Lives. All teachings concerning the bodies or practices of the Buddha when he was a bodhisattva are Accounts of Past Lives.

The Nirvana Sutra speaks only of the bodhisattva’s bodies in former lives and does not teach his practices in former lives: becoming a deer, a bear, an antelope, a hare, and, in extensive accounts, even becoming a garuda, and so forth.

10. Extensive Discourses: these have two characteristics:

1) Teaching the bodhisattva path.

2) The Dharma is vast and abundant, exceedingly lofty, and extends over an immensely long and distant period of time.

This category is also shared with the shravakas, who likewise have Extensive Discourses. Here, however, the Nirvana teachings, which possess both characteristics above, are taken as primary.

11. Marvelous Events:

The characteristic of Marvelous Events is that the sutras proclaim all the shared and distinctive virtues of the Buddhas, the noble disciples, the eight classes of beings, and the most excellent, extraordinary, and wondrous phenomena. These are Marvelous Events.

The Nirvana Sutra speaks only of events in the Buddha’s life: for example, immediately after his birth, the Buddha took seven steps and emitted a great radiance that illuminated the ten directions; a monkey offered him honey; a white dog listened to the Dharma; and Mara transformed into a blue ox, entered an earthen bowl, and caused it to strike a crabapple tree without sustaining any injury. Accounts of rare events involving disciples and those who were not disciples are all called Marvelous Events.

12. Expositions: these have two characteristics:

– First, those taught by the Buddha himself.

– Second, those taught by his disciples.

The Yogacara Treatise states: This refers to the repeated investigation and examination of the matrika in the scriptures. All definitive-meaning sutras are called matrika. This means that therein the Blessed One himself extensively analyzes the characteristics of dharmas.

Moreover, after noble disciples have seen the traces of truth, they rely upon their own realization and correctly discern the essential nature of dharmas without error. This is also called matrika and is also called abhidharma. Here, for the present, the comprehensive meaning is cited in its entirety according to the scriptural text. Other distinct teachings are not cited, lest the discussion become overly lengthy.

B. Explanation of the Names.

B.1. Explanation of the General Name.

The virtuous masters of former times translated this as “the Twelve Divisions of Scripture.”

“Division” includes two meanings:

1. A division consisting of a set of books, such as the division comprising the Yogacara Treatise.

2. A categorical division, that is, a class or type. Here it means a categorical division, because the twelve categories of meaning are distinct from one another.

People in ancient times mistakenly suspected that this referred to twelve collections of scriptural books. Hence the Daoists taught thirty-six divisions, while the followers of Zhuangzi and Laozi each had one division.

We now call them the Twelvefold Teaching. “Fold” means a section, because the differences in text and meaning form twelve sections.

Furthermore, calling them “sutras” would cause confusion with the category of Sutra. They are now translated as “the Twelvefold Teaching,” thereby avoiding such confusion. This is an explanation that incorporates the number.

B.2. Explanation of the Particular Names:

The general classification is divided into three types:

1) Corresponding Verses, Independent Verses, Spontaneous Discourses, Causal Occasions, Marvelous Events, and Extensive Discourses: these six names are explained solely as dependent compounds, because they mean “verses corresponding to what was previously narrated,” through to “the extensiveness of the principles of the teaching.”

2) The single category of Exposition is explained solely as a determinative compound, because the substance of exposition is itself discussion. Alternatively, Independent Verses may also be explained as a determinative compound because they can be intoned and recited. They differ from Corresponding Verses because the latter “verses” are a teaching, while the former “verses” are words.

3) Sutras, Predictions, Parables, Accounts of Past Events, and Accounts of Past Lives: these five names admit both explanations, as dependent compounds and as determinative compounds. This is because that which is capable of corresponding is itself a sutra; a sutra corresponds with the principle of the essential nature; and a birth belonging to a past life is an account of a past life.

C. Distinctions:

1. Distinctions in essence. 2. Distinctions in teaching.

1. Distinctions in essence:

“Distinctions in essence” means that Corresponding Verses definitely do not contain Independent Verses, and Independent Verses definitely do not contain Corresponding Verses, because they differ as to whether they come after or stand independently and as to whether they are paired with prose or stand alone. Accounts of Past Events definitely do not contain Accounts of Past Lives, and Accounts of Past Lives definitely do not contain Accounts of Past Events, because the subjects differ as teacher and disciples.

These four divisions each contain only eleven categories, while the other eight divisions each possess all twelve, because they contain the distinguishing characteristics described above according to what is appropriate. The Nirvana Sutra states that everything from “Thus have I heard” at the beginning through “faithfully accepted and practiced” at the end is sutra. Therefore, sutra encompasses all twelve categories, because when no distinct characteristic is present, extended prose alone is taken as Sutra, whereas the two types of verse are not. The remaining seven teachings each possess all twelve.

From this it may be understood that Corresponding Verses contain eleven categories. The Parable Chapter states: “In a future life, Shariputra will become the Buddha Universal Wisdom, with the honored name Flower Light, and will liberate immeasurable beings.” This is a Prediction expressed in Corresponding Verses.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Spontaneous Utterance. The Skillful Means chapter says: “The Hero of the World cannot be fathomed; devas and people of the world, and all classes of sentient beings, are entirely unable to know the Buddha.” This is the Reiterated Verse of Spontaneous Utterance.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Causation. The Skillful Means chapter says: “Śāriputra, listen attentively. The Buddhas have attained immeasurable Dharmas and, through the power of skillful means, expound them to sentient beings.” This is the Reiterated Verse of Causes and Conditions, for the Dharma was taught because Śāriputra requested it.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Parable, as in the account of the elder who had a great house which, being old, had become dilapidated and was collapsing, and so forth. This is the Reiterated Verse of Parable.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Past Events. The Introductory chapter says: “After that Buddha entered extinction, the indolent one was you. The Dharma master Wondrous Light was I myself as I am today.” This is the Reiterated Verse of Past Events.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Past Lives. The Never Disparaging chapter says: “Never Disparaging at that time was none other than I myself.” This is the Reiterated Verse of Past Lives.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Extensive Teaching. The Skillful Means chapter says: “In the Buddha lands of the ten directions, there is only the Dharma of the One Vehicle; there are neither two nor three, except when the Buddhas teach through skillful means.” This is the Reiterated Verse of Extensive Teaching.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Wondrous Dharma. The Conjured City chapter says: “The Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence sat at the place of enlightenment for ten kalpas, but the Buddha-Dharma did not manifest before him, and he did not attain the Buddha Way.” This is the Reiterated Verse of Wondrous Dharma.

Within Reiterated Verse there is also Exposition. The Lifespan chapter says: “When sentient beings have become faithful and submissive, upright and honest, with gentle and pliant minds, single-mindedly wishing to see the Buddha and not begrudging their bodies or lives, then I and the assembly of monks all appear together on Vulture Peak. At that time I tell sentient beings: ‘I constantly abide here and do not pass into extinction. Through the power of skillful means, however, I manifest both extinction and non-extinction.’” This is the Reiterated Verse of Exposition.

Each of the other three teachings also contains the other eleven; by reference to this, it may be understood. Nevertheless, this sutra contains all twelve divisions. The entire work, in its general character, is Sutra. Passages restating meanings are all Reiterated Verse. All passages bestowing predictions or explaining profound and hidden meanings are Predictions. In the Conjured City chapter, Brahmā Heaven of the eastern direction speaks in verse:

The World-Honored One is exceedingly rare,

And difficult indeed to encounter;

Endowed with immeasurable merit,

He is able to rescue and protect all beings, and so forth.

These are all Independent Verses. The opening portion of the Skillful Means chapter is entirely Spontaneous Utterance. Therefore, the preceding verse says:

Without being asked, he spoke of his own accord,

Praising the path he had practiced.

Śāriputra requested three times, Maitreya requested three times, and so forth. All passages explaining the provisional and the real are Causation.

The Parable chapter and the like are all Parables.

All passages describing the past events of the disciples are Past Events.

All passages in which the Buddha himself recounts events from his own former lives are Past Lives.

All passages teaching the One Vehicle are Extensive Teaching.

All passages describing manifestations of spiritual powers are Wondrous Dharma.

In the Lifespan chapter, the Buddha himself repeatedly explains the characteristics of the three bodies; this may be called Exposition.

2. Differences among the Teachings:

“Differences among the teachings” means:

1) The Mahayana possesses all twelve divisions, while the Hinayana has only nine divisions of the teachings. This is precisely what is stated in this scriptural passage. The Hinayana alone lacks the three divisions of Predictions, Spontaneous Utterance, and Extensive Teaching. Unrestrictedly speaking, the Mahayana has twelve divisions.

2) The Hinayana possesses all twelve divisions, while the Mahayana has only nine.

The third fascicle of the Nirvana Sutra says: “Those who protect the Mahayana uphold nine divisions, omitting Causes and Conditions, Parables, and Expositions.” Unrestrictedly speaking, the Hinayana has twelve divisions.

3) The Mahayana possesses all of them, while the Hinayana has only eleven. Fascicle 38 of the Yogācārabhūmi says: “The division of Extensive Teaching exists only in the Bodhisattva Piṭaka, whereas the other divisions also exist in the Śrāvaka Piṭaka.”

4) The Mahayana has one, while the Hinayana has eleven. Fascicle 85 of the Yogācārabhūmi says: “Apart from the single division of Extensive Teaching, the other divisions are called sutras corresponding to the Śrāvaka Vehicle.”

Why does this passage, namely the Lotus Sutra, say that the Mahayana possesses all twelve divisions of the teachings, whereas the Hinayana has only nine?

Bestowing a prediction that a disciple will attain Buddhahood is called Prediction. It is said that śrāvakas have no Predictions because they had not initially sought great bodhi. It is like displaying precious objects before a foolish person, who would only laugh scornfully at them. The śrāvakas’ response upon hearing predictions would likewise be the same. Therefore, it is said that they have none; this does not mean that there are also no predictions concerning events in the disciples’ past births and deaths.

Furthermore, followers of the Śrāvaka Vehicle mostly hear shallow teachings. If the teaching were delivered at once without waiting for their request, they would become arrogant. It is therefore said that they have no Spontaneous Utterance, though in fact they do.

Furthermore, śrāvakas attain only the lesser fruit and do not attain perfect enlightenment. In principle, their realization is not ultimate, and their practice is not vast and expansive. Therefore, it is said that they have no Extensive Teaching. In fact, however, they do have it, namely the Extensive Teaching that broadly expounds the true Dharma. Thus this verse speaks of only nine divisions for the śrāvakas, though in principle all twelve divisions apply to them.

– Regarding the statement in the Nirvana Sutra that “the Hinayana possesses all of them, while the Mahayana has only nine”: precepts established in response to transgressions are taught as Causes and Conditions. Bodhisattvas do not transgress, so this division is omitted and said to be absent. This does not mean that there is no Causation in which the Dharma is taught because of a request or an event.

Upon examination, parables are taught to reveal and explain the teaching to those of middling and inferior faculties. Śāriputra, however, possessed superior and keen faculties and generally did not need to await a parable, much less did the bodhisattvas, most of whom had no need of them. It is therefore said that Parables are absent, although in principle they are still present.

Furthermore, great bodhisattvas are all of keen faculties. As soon as the main purport is presented, they understand it and do not need to ask questions before wisdom arises in their minds. It is therefore said that Exposition is absent, although in truth and principle it is not absent.

Furthermore, protectors of the Dharma are skilled in reciting the Sūtra Piṭaka. Causes and Conditions and Parables mostly belong to the Vinaya Piṭaka. Expositions are mostly included in the Abhidharma Piṭaka. Therefore, it is said that the Mahayana has only nine, although in principle it is not without all twelve divisions of the teachings.

– Regarding the statement in fascicle 38 of the Yogācārabhūmi that “the Mahayana possesses all of them, while the Hinayana has only eleven”: in the Hinayana there are also predictions concerning the past events of the disciples, and the Buddha, because his compassion is profound, also teaches without awaiting a request. It therefore possesses Predictions, Spontaneous Utterances, and so forth, making eleven divisions. It lacks Extensive Teaching because its adherents do not seek perfect enlightenment. Because it teaches shallow principles, it is said to lack this division, although in fact it still possesses it.

– The passage in fascicle 85 of the Yogācārabhūmi does not differ from the foregoing. Nevertheless, the eleven divisions of the teachings are taught to śrāvakas, while Extensive Teaching is taught to bodhisattvas by contrast. This does not mean that the Bodhisattva Piṭaka lacks the other eleven divisions of the teachings. In every case, different numbers are taught according to a single distinction in meaning. In truth and principle, both the Śrāvaka and Bodhisattva Piṭakas possess all twelve divisions of the teachings.

Here they have been distinguished only as necessary. Other extensive explanations are as set forth in the relevant chapter. This should be understood.

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—Sutra text: “Those of dull faculties who delight in lesser teachings” to “I teach nirvana to them.”

Commentary: These one and a half verses explain, in verse, that the intent behind teaching according to what is appropriate, as mentioned above, is difficult to understand.

Briefly stated, this is due to five meanings:

1) Those of dull faculties find awakening difficult.

2) They delight in the Lesser Vehicle and fear the Great Vehicle.

3) They are engrossed in birth and death and do not aspire to transcend the world.

4) Even when they encounter favorable conditions, they do not practice.

5) At present they are oppressed by various sufferings.

For these five reasons, the Buddha taught nirvana to them. Because their faculties were dull, they clung to samsara. Although they had encountered Buddhas in the past who had taught and transformed them, they did not cultivate the profound and wondrous path of the Great Vehicle. Because they committed evil, they regressed and underwent suffering. In order to exhort them to leave suffering behind, the Buddha first taught them the nirvana of the Two Vehicles.

Therefore, the Chapter on Faith and Understanding states that at first they encountered the Buddha, but then regressed and wandered in the cycle of birth and death, after which they were taught and transformed by means of the Two Vehicles. This is precisely the same as what is stated here.

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-Sutra text: “I set forth this skillful means” to “will attain and accomplish the Buddha path.”

Commentary: The following is the second passage, explaining the section on Causing Them to Abide, which is the fourth topic. It consists of seven and a half verses and is divided into four parts:

– 1 verse presenting the principle.

– 1 verse explaining it.

– 4 and a half verses reconciling the teachings.

– 1 verse exhorting them to abide.

This is the presentation of the principle.

The Two Vehicles were initially established as provisional vehicles, with the essential aim of ultimately causing their followers to enter the Buddha’s wisdom and abide in the One Vehicle.

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-Sutra text: “Therefore, it had never before been taught” to “decidedly teach the Great Vehicle.”

Commentary: This explains the preceding presentation concerning reconciliation: “Previously, your faculties had not yet matured and you had not awakened to the Great Vehicle, so it was not appropriate to teach it to you. Now your faculties and capacities have matured, and the proper time has arrived; therefore it is taught to you.” This is like the statement in the Chapter on the Conjured City: “Bhiksus! If the Tathagata himself knows that the time for nirvana has arrived, and the assembly is pure in faith and understanding, has firmly and completely comprehended the Dharma of emptiness, and has deeply entered meditative concentration, he will then gather the bodhisattvas together with the assembly of sravakas and teach this sutra to them.”

There is no such thing in the world as followers of the Two Vehicles attaining extinction. There is only the One Vehicle through which extinction may be attained.

-Sutra text: “My nine divisions of the Dharma” to “therefore I teach this sutra.”

Commentary: The following is the section on Reconciliation. It consists of four and a half verses and is divided into three parts:

a) One and a half verses clarify that the Lesser Dharma—the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle—is not the true vehicle and was taught for the sake of the Great Foundation, the foundation of the Great Vehicle.

b) One and a half verses clarify that the Great Dharma is supreme and wondrous and is taught to superior persons.

c) Two verses conclude that the persons and Dharma are supreme and wondrous, and exhort one to abandon persons and Dharma that are not wondrous. In accordance with the capacities of beginners, these nine divisions were taught to lead them into the Great Foundation; they are not the ultimate teaching. Therefore, one should abide in the Great Vehicle.

This is the first part.

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-Sutra text: “There are children of the Buddha whose minds are pure” to “teach this Great Vehicle sutra.”

Commentary: This clarifies that the supreme and wondrous Great Dharma is taught to superior persons, exhorting them to abandon inferior teachings and not become evil persons.

All bodhisattvas, whether they awaken suddenly or gradually, are called children of the Buddha. They possess five virtues:

1) Their minds are pure: they single-mindedly seek the Great Vehicle and the Buddha’s wisdom and take no delight in inferior things, because they have eliminated the two hindrances.

2) They are gentle and pliant: they humble their minds, patiently endure hardships, and are capable of undertaking great works, because they advance diligently and tirelessly.

3) Their faculties are keen: it is their nature to relieve suffering and bring happiness to others, and they wish for all beings equally to hear the Dharma and swiftly awaken and enter it.

4) For a long time they have encountered wholesome conditions in the presence of immeasurable Buddhas and have constantly cultivated themselves until they became radiant.

5) They cultivate the profound and wondrous path, cultivating both merit and wisdom, both provisional adaptation and true awakening.

The Sutra on Generating the Bodhi Mind states that there are ten kinds of Dharma whose complete possession enables one to generate the bodhi mind:

1) Drawing near to good spiritual friends.

2) Making offerings to the Buddhas.

3) Cultivating roots of goodness.

4) Resolutely seeking the supreme Dharma.

5) Maintaining a constantly gentle and harmonious mind.

6) Patiently enduring suffering when it is encountered.

7) Possessing pure and profound loving-kindness and compassion.

8) Possessing a profound mind of equality.

9) Delighting in the Great Vehicle.

10) Seeking the Buddha’s wisdom.

All ten of these teachings are included within the five virtues above:

– Purity of mind includes the two statements “Delighting in the Great Vehicle” and “Seeking the Buddha’s wisdom.”

– Gentleness and pliancy include the two statements “Maintaining a constantly gentle and harmonious mind” and “Patiently enduring suffering when it is encountered.”

– Keen faculties include the two statements “Possessing pure and profound loving-kindness and compassion” and “Possessing a profound mind of equality.”

– Encountering wholesome conditions in the presence of immeasurable Buddhas includes the two statements “Drawing near to good spiritual friends” and “Making offerings to the Buddhas.”

– Practicing the profound and wondrous path includes the two statements “Cultivating roots of goodness” and “Resolutely seeking the supreme Dharma.”

Only to those who possess these five virtues and become disciples endowed with these ten qualities is the Great Vehicle taught, so as to cause them to set forth toward it—to generate the resolve and proceed in that direction.

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-Sutra text: “I predict that persons such as these” to “therefore the Great Vehicle should be taught to them.”

Commentary: This concludes that the two kinds of supreme and wondrous things—persons and Dharma—must be accomplished, and exhorts one to relinquish the two kinds of things that are not wondrous, likewise referring to persons and Dharma.

The Buddha predicts that persons possessing the five virtues will become Buddhas in future lives because, with profound minds, they are mindful of the Buddha and observe the pure precepts.

There are two ways of being mindful of the Buddha:

a) Verbal mindfulness, using words in recollection.

b) Mental mindfulness, silently recollecting within the mind.

Alternatively, the mind may take the Buddha’s deeds as its object, praying for the Buddha’s deliverance and aspiring to accomplish the Buddha path; or wisdom may contemplate the principle of the Buddha’s body, namely the Dharma body, seeking realization and the elimination of hindrances. When concentration and wisdom are cultivated in this manner, and the pure precepts are also maintained, the three trainings are accomplished; therefore the Buddha bestows a prediction upon them. When such persons hear that the Buddha accords with their aspirations, they rejoice. The Buddha has thoroughly understood their thoughts and therefore teaches the Great Vehicle to them.

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-Sutra text: “Whether sravakas or bodhisattvas” to “will all become Buddhas; do not doubt it.”

Commentary: This is the exhortation to abide. It praises the benefit of hearing the Dharma and exhorts them to abide in the Great Vehicle.

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-Sutra text: “Throughout the Buddha lands of the ten directions” to “guide sentient beings.”

Commentary: This is the third passage, consisting of one and a half verses, versifying the sixth topic, namely Negation.

“No two” means that there is no second vehicle, the Vehicle of the Pratyekabuddhas.

“No three” means that there is no third vehicle, the Vehicle of the Sravakas.

Counting from superior to inferior, the Buddha Vehicle is the first vehicle. This is based upon the truth that there are no two ultimate vehicles, apart from the teaching of skillful means. Within the teachings of skillful means there may be three, because the three names are provisionally employed to guide sentient beings.

The nominal designations of deer cart and goat cart are used to lead sentient beings out of the burning house; these two do not actually exist. To deliver sentient beings, the nirvana and bodhi of the Two Vehicles are taught here, but none of these has real substance; they are all called nominal designations. Nevertheless, nirvana can be realized and bondage can be eliminated. Yet omniscience is not accomplished because complete awakening has not occurred. They are allowed to enter the conjured city so that they may be freed from suffering. The deer cart and goat cart, however, have names but yield no actual attainment.

Question: The three matters are called Great Parinirvana. Merely attaining liberation is called entering the conjured city. Wisdom of the twofold emptiness is called the ox cart; does merely attaining wisdom of the emptiness of persons mean that one mounts the deer cart or goat cart?

Answer: Only liberation from all suffering is called entering the conjured city. Since followers of the Two Vehicles do not possess omniscience, they do not “mount” the deer cart or goat cart. Furthermore, with regard to liberation, all three vehicles alike extinguish suffering.

Followers of the Two Vehicles also have a share in it and provisionally bear the designation of having entered. Yet perfect true wisdom in all its aspects belongs exclusively to the Buddha. Therefore, although they also partake of liberation, they are not said to “mount” a vehicle.

In principle, there is actually no difference. Furthermore, they eliminate both the causes and effects of the hindrance of afflictions, so their liberation in the conjured city is called temporary entry. But they do not eliminate the causes and effects of the cognitive hindrances, so they are not said to have attained omniscience.

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-Sutra text: “In order to teach the Buddha’s wisdom” to “and thereby ferry sentient beings across!”

Commentary: The following is the fourth passage, consisting of eighteen and a half verses, versifying the third topic, “Upon what meanings is it based?” It has two parts:

– One and a half verses versifying the presentation of the one great matter.

– Seventeen verses versifying the Opening, Revealing, Awakening, and Entering explained above.

This is the first part.

As stated above, the Buddha’s wisdom comprises five kinds in all. Here, only the two dharmas of the Buddha-fruit—bodhi and nirvana—are taught. The nature of wisdom and the functioning of insight are collectively called wisdom.

Alternatively, it refers only to true wisdom, without attachment to true suchness. The Buddha appears in the world in order to reveal this one thing and inspire sentient beings to advance toward it. This one Reality alone is the ultimate, supreme, wondrous, unsurpassed fruit. The essence of the Two Vehicles, however, is not truly ultimate, supreme, and wondrous. Therefore, in a later passage, this sutra compares the first five paramitas with this sutra. Because prajna is not taught there, the Lesser Vehicle is ultimately not used to deliver sentient beings.

Alternatively, this one matter refers only to the nature of wisdom. In the “Lion’s Roar” chapter of the Nirvana Sutra, it is said: “Buddha-nature is emptiness, and emptiness is wisdom. Therefore, the nature of wisdom is also called wisdom.” Here, however, the first interpretation is generally taken as primary, because the Two Vehicles do not possess it; hence it was said, “The Two Vehicles are not truly ultimate...”

Thus, one should understand that this is not “the refutation of the Three,” but “the convergence of the Three into the One,” meaning that all three are gathered and brought back to the One.

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-Sutra text: “The Buddha himself abides in the Great Vehicle” through “and thereby delivers sentient beings.”

Commentary: The following seventeen verses concern Opening, Revealing, Awakening, and Entering, and are divided into four parts:

a. One verse on Opening. b. Five verses on Awakening.

c. One verse on Entering. d. Ten verses on Revealing.

This is the first part.

The Great Vehicle encompasses both true principle and right wisdom. Through these, the Buddha’s body constantly and peacefully dwells in this nirvana and bodhi; this is called “abiding.”

“Abiding” means relying upon and peacefully dwelling.

That which is attained is solely the true principle of the Dharma-body.

Alternatively, the Great Vehicle takes as its basis true principle realized and united with right wisdom; this is called “abiding,” because that Dharma-body possesses the true qualities of the complete myriad virtues. Therefore, the Buddha’s Reward-body has been adorned with immeasurable samadhi and wisdom in accordance with the principle of the Dharma-body realized by the Buddha.

Samadhi is merit; wisdom is insight. All conditioned virtues are embraced and upheld. Inwardly, the true principle of nirvana has been perfected; true wisdom therefore arises. Adorned fully with merit and wisdom, bodhi is likewise perfected, and one’s own virtues are complete. Thus, the Buddha uses these two dharmas to inspire sentient beings; this is called “deliverance.” By explaining that the nature of these two is unsurpassed, he causes sentient beings to delight in them.

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-Sutra text: “Having personally realized the unsurpassed path” through “this could not be attained!”

Commentary: The following five verses concern Awakening. They are divided into three parts:

– One and a half verses explaining the principle of equality.

– Two and a half verses explaining the supreme virtues.

– One verse concerning causing beings to awaken.

This is the first part.

The unsurpassed path is right wisdom, because it is supreme.

The unsurpassed Great Vehicle is true principle, because it is supreme.

There are two meanings here:

a) “Unsurpassed” applies throughout to both instances—the path and the vehicle.

b) Both are equal, without attachment to subject or object, because there is no distinction between self and other, beings and oneself.

Furthermore, the Great Vehicle itself is the unsurpassed path, because its function is supreme. Since the Buddha has realized the equality of principle and wisdom, how could there remain the twofold distinctions of self and other, beings and oneself?

If inward wisdom were not impartial, one would grasp the Great Vehicle for oneself. If outward wisdom were not impartial, one would cause others to grasp the Lesser Vehicle. One would then fall into the fault of stinginess with the Dharma, craving fame and gain. With delusions still not exhausted, how could this be called the attainment of perfect awakening to the Great Vehicle, which carries all beings universally? This would be impossible.

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-Sutra text: “If anyone believes in the Buddha” through “and alone—has no fear.”

Commentary: The following two and a half verses explain the supreme virtues and comprise two parts:

– The first one and a half verses explain the inward virtue of freedom from defilement and absence of fear.

– The following verse explains the outward virtue of being adorned and teaching the Dharma of Reality.

This is the first part.

“If anyone believes in the Buddha” refers to the initial arousing of the aspiration. “Taking refuge in the Buddha” means subsequently cultivating right practice. The Tathagata does not refuse to transmit the Dharma of the Great Vehicle to such persons merely because they offend, deceive, or disparage him, teaching them only the Dharma of the Lesser Vehicle. Nor does he deceive them by first promising them the Dharma of the Great Vehicle and afterward withholding it.

Why is this? The Buddha does not greedily withhold the Great Vehicle and deceitfully refuse to bestow it, nor does he become jealous and fear that they will realize the Great Vehicle and therefore deceive them, because the Buddha has eradicated all evil in every dharma. Here, “evil” means afflictions, karma, and suffering, for all the evil dharmas of birth and death have been permanently eradicated. Since none of the aforementioned faults remains and right wisdom is perfect, he has no fear anywhere throughout the ten directions and utters the lion’s roar: “I am the One of All-Wisdom, the One of All-Seeing, who teaches all impartially.”

If the aforementioned faults existed, evil had not been exhausted, and the fruit of wisdom were not complete, how could he utter the fearless lion’s roar throughout the ten directions? Thus, there is a common saying: “When a father sees that his child is capable, he regrets only that he does not have more children.” How could he begrudge those other than himself? Therefore, he is neither greedy nor jealous.

*

-Sutra text: “I adorn my body with marks” through “to teach the seal of the true aspect.”

Commentary: This explains the outward virtue of being adorned and teaching the Dharma of Reality.

The major and minor marks beautify and adorn his body. The light of his body and the light of his wisdom can also illuminate the two kinds of worlds: the world as a receptacle and the world of sentient beings. Therefore, all people in the world honor me and call me the Knower of the World.

If there were inward defilement, these outward marks would not exist. The outward manifestation of these marks demonstrates the absence of inward defilement. Therefore, I now teach the seal of the true aspect.

The seal of the true aspect refers to the Great Vehicle principle of the twofold emptiness, because this seal of principle confirms the Great Teaching. The Great Vehicle is definitively supreme and real, not provisional like the three Dharma seals taught in the Lesser Vehicle to authenticate the teaching.

*

-Sutra text: “Shariputra, you should know” through “equal to me, without difference.”

Commentary: This one verse concerns causing beings to Awaken.

“You should awaken, as I have, to the true wisdom of the Great Vehicle, which you did not formerly understand. Long ago I made a vow that all sentient beings should become equal to me, without difference; I vow to cause them to awaken and understand.”

Here, “vow” means taking faith, aspiration, and resolute understanding as its nature.

*

-Sutra text: “As I vowed in the past” through “cause them all to enter the Buddha-path.”

Commentary: This one verse concerns causing beings to Enter.

Now that the fruit has been perfected and the former vow fulfilled, sentient beings are taught and delivered so that they enter the Buddha-path.

Here, “path” means cause. They are caused to enter the Eighth Stage, or the non-retrogressive First Stage; this is the cause for attaining the fruit of Buddhahood.

*

-Sutra text: “If I encounter sentient beings” through “being deluded, they will not accept the teaching.”

Commentary: The following ten verses concern Revealing. They comprise two parts:

– The first eight verses concern Revealing, where the initial intent differs.

– The following two verses concern Revealing, where the subsequent intent is again the same.

The first part is further divided into three:

– One verse revealing the differing intent.

– Six verses revealing the differing characteristics.

– One verse concluding the explanation of the difference.

This is the first part.

If only the Great Vehicle were used to teach all sentient beings:

– This would be possible for those who are wise.

– But foolish and ignorant people would study it incorrectly and act wrongly. Their minds would be confused; they would disbelieve, doubt, and slander, perversely increasing their evil all the more, and they would be unable to accept it. This is like pouring a cup of water into a hollow in the road and then placing the cup in it: the cup will run aground. Thus, the faults of foolish people would be increased even further.

Therefore, beings are not taught exclusively through the Great Vehicle.

*

-Sutra text: “I know that these sentient beings” through “because delusion and craving give rise to affliction.”

The Commentary says: Below are six verses indicating the differences in their characteristics. They are divided into two parts:

– The first part consists of one verse, explaining that because they lack goodness and possess evil, they are different.

– The latter part consists of five verses, explaining that because they possess evil and lack goodness, they are different.

This is the first part.

“Never having cultivated roots of goodness” refers to roots of goodness that serve as expedient means for transcending the world. Although such roots have arisen since beginningless time, for the most part they have been obscure and inferior, producing only mundane goodness without the causes of the unconditioned. Because beings cling to the five objects of sense and stubbornly refuse to relinquish them, taking them as conditions, delusion then gives rise to karma, while craving moistens and sustains birth. Therefore, all afflictions and painful sensations associated with the links of birth, aging, sickness, and death throughout their successive rounds of samsara increasingly grow.

Because they lack roots of goodness serving as expedient means for transcending the world, yet possess the two causes of delusion and craving, they cling to the objects of the five desires and refuse to relinquish them. The ignorance that generates karma arises largely from inward confusion. The craving that moistens and sustains birth arises largely from the five desires.

Here, with reference to the Desire Realm, the ignorance that generates karma is collectively called “attachment to desires,” because emphasis is placed on the gravest aspect.

*

-Scripture passage: “Because of the causes and conditions of desires” to “they constantly increase from life to life.”

The Commentary says: Below are five verses explaining that because they possess evil and lack goodness, they are different.

They are divided into two parts:

– The first part consists of four verses explaining that because they possess evil, they are different.

– The latter part consists of one verse explaining that because they lack goodness, they are different.

The first part is further divided into two:

a) First, one and a half verses explain that because they dwell amid worldly defilements and are engrossed in the five desires, they are different.

b) The following two and a half verses explain that because they seek a false means of escape, practice wrongly, and pursue erroneous learning, they are different.

In this first part, because of their desires, they entirely generate unwholesome karma and fall into the evil destinies. Because of mixed karma, they revolve through the six destinies and undergo every kind of suffering, for all four modes of birth involve karma, and they are oppressed by the three sufferings, the five sufferings, and the eight sufferings.

This discusses only the sufferings experienced in the present course of a single life; therefore, it says that their frail forms, conceived in the womb, constantly increase from life to life.

“Frail” here means small, inferior, weak, and feeble.

“Womb” refers to the womb, which is impure, enclosed, repulsive, and loathsome, for what is born is small, inferior, weak, and feeble.

The Yogacarabhumi says: At the beginning of rebirth, one abides in the intermediate existence. An intermediate existence lasts no more than seven days before coming to an end. At most, it abides for only seven periods of seven days, that is, 7 × 7 = 49 days.

For one who has created evil karma, the intermediate existence resembles the dimness of a black sheep or the darkness of night. For one who has created wholesome karma, it resembles the brightness of white cloth or a luminous night. According to the characteristics of the place where one will be born, one abides without obstruction and sees beings of the same kind and the place of one’s future birth.

An evildoer sees various impurities with the right eye and travels with the face downward. If destined for birth in a heaven, one travels with the face turned upward. If destined for birth in the human realm, one travels with the face looking straight ahead. If one has committed offenses through wrong livelihood and is to be born in hell, one sees former companions of the same kind, joyfully runs toward them, and is then seized and entangled. The same applies to the realm of hungry ghosts and to animals, where there is nothing but suffering.

In the case of other mixed karma, according to whether wholesome or evil karma determines the place of birth, one experiences sorrow or joy toward the future parents, depending on whether one is male or female. Because craving moistens and sustains the impending birth, one grasps the bodily residues of one’s mother and father and, in a state of infatuation, is immediately seized and bound.

During the first seven days, it is called kalala, rendered here as “mixed impurity.” It is called “mixed” because the impurities of the father and mother combine. It is called “impurity” because it is utterly repulsive and loathsome. It has already congealed like the tip of an arrow, yet remains hollow within.

During the second seven days, it is called arbuda, rendered here as “blister.” It resembles a pox, blister, or water-filled vesicle; inside and outside, it is merely like thickened milk and has not yet become flesh.

During the third seven days, it is called peshi, rendered here as “coagulation,” because it resembles slightly congealed blood. In the Western Regions, blood is called peshi. It has taken the form of flesh but remains extremely soft and flaccid.

During the fourth seven days, it is called ghana, rendered here as “thickened coagulation,” because it gradually hardens, becoming somewhat firm and capable of being touched.

During the fifth seven days, it is called prasakha, rendered here as the “stage of bodily form,” because it resembles a lump of soft clay bearing the characteristics of five parts: a single torso joined to four limbs, namely, the arms and legs. The wind element within strikes outward and produces the differentiated forms of the faculties. That is, the previous lump of flesh grows and manifests the characteristics of the various limbs.

During the sixth seven days, it is called the “stage of hair and nails,” because bodily hair and head hair grow.

During the seventh seven days, it is called the “stage of complete faculties,” because the five faculties have fully manifested and become clear and flourishing.

Over approximately the next three months, all the parts become complete, seemingly without increase or decrease. Proceeding in this manner through a total of thirty-eight periods of seven days, the fetus becomes fully developed within the womb. After another four days, its head turns downward and its feet point upward. The placenta ruptures, and it is forced down toward the birth canal, oppressed at that time by every kind of suffering.

Or, because of previous karma, if the mother eats ashes or salt, the child is born with sparse hair. Or, because of previous karma, if the mother eats very hot food, the child is born dark-skinned or ruddy. Or, because of previous karma, if the mother consumes cold things or stays near a cold room, the child is often born pallid. If the mother is habitually lustful, the child is born with many boils, miscarried lesions, scabs, and sores. If the mother frequently leaps about and lacks proper deportment, the child’s limbs may be deficient, contracted, twisted, and unsettled. A male fetus rests by the right side, leaning against the abdomen and facing the spine. A female fetus rests by the left side, leaning against the spine and facing the abdomen.

According to the defiled attachment arising toward the parents, the being first gathers the parents’ impurities to form its body, and afterward takes the mother’s impure substances to support its growth. Since the present conditions are thus, unwholesome karma brings the experience of a hundred evils, and the thirty-six impure substances constitute the body’s essence. Such a vile body is not worthy of affection. It revolves without end, and thus this is called “constantly increasing from life to life.”

*

-Scripture passage: “People of little merit and virtue” to “their flattering and deceitful minds are insincere.”

The Commentary says: These two and a half verses concern seeking a false means of escape, practicing wrongly, and pursuing erroneous learning, and therefore being different.

There are two ways of dividing this passage:

– According to the first:

– The first one and a half verses explain how the view of a self, extreme views, and wrong views arise, forming the sixty-two views.

– The final verse explains how, based on these, attachment to views and attachment to precepts arise, and how the other afflictions consequently develop.

– According to the second:

– The first verse generally explains the arising of the five views.

– The following one and a half verses separately explain the arising of the five views.

Since beginningless time, because those sentient beings have had little virtue and scant merit, they have been oppressed by suffering. Although they seek escape, they do not discern what is wrong and what is right, and mistakenly enter the heterodox views of non-Buddhist paths. Wrong practice and erroneous learning are called wrong views; all five views are wrong. This follows the second division.

It is not only the sweeping denial that nothing exists that is called wrong view. The affliction of wrong views seizes and obstructs sentient beings, making it difficult for them to escape and rendering them incapable of liberation. This is called a “dense forest.” This is the general statement concerning views; the individual views are set forth afterward.

“Whether existence, nonexistence, and so forth”: This phrase has two interpretations:

– According to the second division:

– Four of the five views pertain to existence, because they all grasp at existence.

– Wrong view pertains to nonexistence, because it largely consists in sweeping denial.

“And so forth” indicates the many kinds of afflictions.

According to the first division:

– The dense forest of wrong views is the wrong view of sweeping denial.

– If one clings to existence, one holds that one’s future body exists; this is the view of eternalism. If one clings to nonexistence, one holds that one’s future body does not exist; this is the view of annihilationism. These two are extreme views.

“And so forth” refers to attachment to the view of a self, attachment to views, and attachment to precepts and observances.

Since the sixty-two views take the two kinds—the wrong view and the extreme view—as their essence, these are set forth separately, while the other two views are taken as their retinue, with the view of a self as their basis. A detailed explanation is given in the chapter on the sixty-two views.

What are the sixty-two views? The verse says:

Two, four, and eighty kalpas;
Seeing samsara as changing or permanent;

Brahma, the rest, the great elements, and mind;
Play, anger, resentment, and partiality;

Possessing form and possessing limits, all
Within the sphere of perceptions in samsara;

One kind, small, and immeasurable;
Those with perception, including pure bliss;

Likewise possessing form and possessing limits;
Born without perception, or neither;

Through desire, the heavens of the form realm;
The four formless states, cessation and extinction;

Descending from the heaven of non-perception;
Initial and sustained thought—clinging to causelessness;

Recollecting above, below, the sides, and all;
Together with the kalpa of destruction—possessing limits;

Fearful, ignorant, and flattering;
Anxious, giving rise to evasive confusion;

Through desire, the pleasures of the desire heavens;
The four dhyanas as nirvana.

Among these views, some concern the past and former existence; some concern the future and subsequent existence; and some concern the present and extend through both periods, encompassing part of each. The views of causelessness, finitude, and evasive confusion concern former existence. The other forty-four views all concern subsequent existence.

The sutras and treatises alike state that these sixty-two views are included within the two categories of wrong views and extreme views.

Which views does each category include?

The views of universality and partiality each comprise four; the views of beings possessing perception comprise sixteen; those without perception and those neither with nor without perception each comprise eight; and the seven views of annihilation—all these are extreme views.

The two sets concerning causelessness, the four views concerning finitude, the four evasive views, and the five doctrines of present nirvana all belong to wrong views.

Because one clings to a spiritual self, the view of self arises, after which these sixty-two views arise.

Thereafter arise such doctrines as attachment to views, whereby one clings to views and so forth as a supreme cause; again arise such doctrines as attachment to precepts and observances, whereby one clings to precepts as a supreme cause. One becomes attached to these deluded doctrines and never relinquishes them. Conceited and self-righteous, one boasts and exalts oneself while oppressing and despising others. Toward those regarded as teachers, one behaves flatteringly; they praise one another and practice deceit in pursuit of fame and gain, their minds utterly insincere. Because they are thus steeped in desire and attached to wrong views, they are not fit to be taught the Great Dharma immediately.

*

—Sutra text: “Throughout thousands, tens of thousands, and kotis of kalpas” to “such persons are difficult to save.”

Commentary: This one verse concerns “Because they are not virtuous, they are dissimilar.”

Virtuous people all cultivate the four kinds of association:

1) Associating with good spiritual friends.

2) Willingly hearing the true Dharma.

3) Reflecting in accordance with principle.

4) Practicing as taught.

Yet if these evil persons, throughout thousands, tens of thousands, and kotis of kalpas, do not hear even the name of a Buddha, how could they associate with all good spiritual friends? Since they neither see a Buddha nor hear the Dharma, and since they lack the initial cause—the wisdom born of hearing—through which one enters the Dharma, how could they possibly reflect upon and cultivate it? Such persons are exceedingly difficult to save; how, then, could they be taught through the Great Vehicle from the outset?

*

—Sutra text: “Therefore, Shariputra!” to “show them nirvana.”

Commentary: This concludes the explanation of dissimilarity.

For such reasons, expedient means are established. At first, nirvana is revealed and explained to them so that their suffering may be ended.

*

—Sutra text: “Although I teach nirvana” to “reveal and explain the Dharma of the Three Vehicles.”

Commentary: It was explained above that at first they are dissimilar. These two verses show that afterward they are caused to become alike, being urged to relinquish the body of liberation and obtain the body of the Buddha-Dharma. The nirvana taught for the Two Vehicles is like the conjured city; it is not true cessation, for the Dharma has been eternally quiescent in nature since beginningless time. This is the nirvana of the intrinsically pure nature.

Its nature transcends words and discourse; the Dharma is not something that has only now come into existence. Like that Place of Jewels, it alone is true cessation. Such being the nature of true cessation, after practicing the path one subsequently realizes this cessation that is the fundamental nature of dharmas and attains the Buddha-path. Through my original wisdom, I skillfully employ expedient means: first revealing the two provisional teachings, and afterward indicating the one reality. This is collectively called revealing and explaining the Dharma of the Three Vehicles.

—Sutra text: “All the World-Honored Ones” to “there is only One Vehicle, not two.”

Commentary: Below is the fifth section, comprising seventy and a half verses, concerning reliance upon the Dharma. This fifth topic has three parts:

– One and a half verses concerning the Dharma of the Buddhas of the ten directions.

– Thirty-eight and a half verses concerning the Dharma of the Buddhas of the three periods.

– Thirty and a half verses concerning how I likewise do the same.

This is the first part: since there is only the One Vehicle and no second vehicle, how could the Three Vehicles be refuted in order to return to the One?

*

—Sutra text: “In the past, throughout incalculable kalpas” to “their number cannot be measured.”

Commentary: Below are thirty-eight and a half verses concerning the three periods, divided into three parts:

– Twenty-seven and a half verses concerning the past.

– Six and a half verses concerning the future.

– Four and a half verses concerning the present.

The first part is further divided into two:

a) The first four and a half verses concern the Buddhas’ teaching of the Dharma: first the provisional, afterward the real.

b) The following twenty-three verses concern sentient beings who hear the Dharma and ultimately all attain wisdom of all modes.

This first section is further divided into four:

+ One verse: the many Buddhas.

+ One verse: revealing the provisional.

+ One verse: manifesting the real.

+ One and a half verses: explaining the intention behind revealing the provisional and manifesting the real.

This is the first part.

*

—Sutra text: “Such World-Honored Ones” to “expounded the characteristics of all dharmas.”

Commentary: This explains the revelation of the provisional mentioned in the first part.

*

—Sutra text: “Those World-Honored Ones” to “caused them all to enter the Buddha-path.”

Commentary: This explains the manifestation of the real mentioned in the latter part.

*

—Sutra text: “And the great leaders among sages” to “helped reveal the ultimate meaning.”

Commentary: This explains the meaning of revealing the provisional and manifesting the real. Knowing clearly that sentient beings were not yet able to study the teaching of the One Vehicle immediately, and clearly knowing their faculties and aspirations, the Buddhas at first used provisional expedient means to assist in elucidating the One Vehicle, and only afterward caused them to enter the real.

Moreover, bodhisattvas are of two kinds of spiritual capacity: first, those of indeterminate capacity; second, those of determinate capacity.

For those of indeterminate capacity, the teaching is first provisional and afterward real, thereby clarifying the One Vehicle. This is expressed in the preceding two verses.

For those of determinate capacity, the sudden teaching of the One Vehicle is taught. This is the meaning of this passage.

That is, clearly knowing that the minds and dispositions of sentient beings seek immediacy, the Buddhas employ a different expedient means: without proceeding from the provisional to obtain the real, they directly assist them through the One Vehicle. The One Vehicle is ultimate truth, suchness, and so forth.

Teaching three first and one afterward is the expedient means of the provisional and the real. Teaching the One Vehicle directly is therefore called a different expedient means.

*

—Sutra text: “If there are sentient beings” to “all have attained the Buddha-path.”

Commentary: Below are twenty-three verses concerning sentient beings who hear the Dharma and ultimately all attain wisdom of all modes. They are divided into three parts:

– The first part consists of two verses concerning the time when a Buddha is present.

– The following twenty verses concern the time after a Buddha’s extinction.

– The final verse is the conclusion.

This is the first part: encountering a Buddha, hearing the Dharma, and cultivating the six paramitas, the four means of embracing, the immeasurables, and so forth are called the various kinds of merit. Since cultivating bodhisattva practices is the cause for attaining the fruit of Buddhahood, they all have attained the path.

*

—Sutra text: “After the Buddhas have entered extinction” to “all have attained the Buddha-path.”

Commentary: Below are twenty verses concerning the period after the Buddhas have entered extinction. They are divided into five parts:

a) One verse concerning loving-kindness.

b) Four and a half verses concerning the building of stupas.

c) Six and a half verses concerning the carving of images.

d) Seven verses concerning the making of offerings.

e) One verse concerning praise of the Buddha.

This is the first part: one who is good but unyielding is likewise not a bodhisattva. One whose mind is gentle but who is not good is likewise not a bodhisattva. The mind must be both good and gentle to be the mind of a bodhisattva. Therefore, by according with principle, benefiting external beings, and being exceedingly gentle and harmonious, one has planted the Buddha-cause for attaining the Buddha Way.

The passage below concerns cultivation after the Buddha’s parinirvana; because it is difficult to practice, it is a distinct practice. It does not mean that practicing these deeds while the Buddha was in the world was not a Buddha-cause; the point is simply that they were easier to cultivate then.

According to the Six Paramitas above, practices undertaken after the Buddha’s parinirvana constitute the general practice and therefore also lead to the attainment of the Buddha Way.

*

-Sutra text: “After the Buddhas have entered parinirvana” to “adorned the sites of the stupas.”

Commentary: Below are four and a half stanzas concerning attaining Buddhahood by constructing stupas. They are divided into two parts:

a) The first four stanzas explain the construction of stupas.

b) The final half-stanza is the conclusion.

The first part is further divided into three:

– The first two stanzas concern the construction of numerous stupas, splendidly adorned with the eight precious substances.

– One stanza concerns using nine materials to make stupas.

– One stanza concerns the lowest degree: playfully making stupas from inferior materials.

This is the first part.

The Treatise on the Buddha Grounds enumerates seven precious substances and does not include rose-gem. However, crystal is distinct from pearl.

“Pearl” refers to red pearl. Here, if vaiḍūrya is regarded as pearl, there are seven precious substances. Otherwise, there are eight precious substances, because vaiḍūrya is distinct from pearl.

Crystal is generally pinkish white. Mother-of-pearl has blue and white intermingled. Agate is multicolored: it may be pure white, pure blue or yellow, or have many colors intermingled. Rose-gem is red.

According to the Shuowen, it is called a “fire-matched pearl.” One explanation says that a fine and beautiful gemstone is called “mai,” while one that is round and beautiful is called “gui.” The other substances may be understood accordingly.

In the Ekottarika Agama Sutra, the Buddha said: “Bhikshus! I shall now teach the four Brahma merits. First, if faithful good men construct a stupa where none has ever been built. Second, if they repair and preserve an old monastery. Third, if they bring the noble assembly into harmony. Fourth, when the Buddha has first attained the Way, if devas, humans, and others request the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel. These are called the four Brahma merits.” A bhikshu asked the Buddha how great the Brahma merit was. The Buddha taught: “All the merit of the four continents and the six heavens of the desire realm does not equal the merit of a single Brahma king. I especially exhort you to erect stupas, for you will attain bodhi.”

*

-Sutra text: “Or some erected stone shrines” to “bricks, tiles, and clay, and so forth.”

Commentary: This stanza concerns using nine materials to make stupas.

“Stone shrines” means Buddha halls made of stone. In ancient times they were called caityas; today they are called caityas, translated as “sacred shrines.” The character should be “shrine,” meaning a shrine bearing a revered likeness.

The Baihu Tong and Yupian state that because it is the place where the revered images of one’s ancestors are enshrined, it is called a shrine.

– “Fragrant wood”: According to the Zilin, this is a kind of aromatic wood. The character for “mi” is written [ ] in the Qieyun and [ ] in the Yupian. This tree resembles the pagoda tree, but its fragrance is exceedingly sweet. After being cut, it must be left for five years before use. To obtain its fragrance, it must be ground; only after it has been kept for a long time will its scent be released.

*

-Sutra text: “If, in an open field” to “all have attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: The first stanza concerns playfully making stupas from inferior materials, which is the lowest degree. The following half-stanza serves as the conclusion.

The treatise states: Those who heaped sand into stupas for the Buddha and have attained the Buddha Way refers only to those who had aroused the aspiration for bodhi, cultivated bodhisattva practices, and whose previously cultivated roots of goodness enabled them to realize bodhi. It does not mean that ordinary beings or those of the fixed shravaka lineage who have not yet aroused the aspiration for bodhi can realize it. The same applies to the preceding passage, down through “even to the lowest degree, slightly bowing the head, and so forth.”

*

-Sutra text: “If people, for the sake of the Buddha” to “all have attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: Below are six and a half stanzas explaining the making of images. They are divided into two parts:

– The first five stanzas concern their making.

– The final one and a half stanzas form the conclusion.

The first part is further divided into four:

– One stanza concerning carving.

– Two stanzas concerning ten materials used for adornment.

– One stanza concerning painting Buddha images on colored silk.

– One stanza concerning playfully making Buddha images.

This is the first part: it clarifies that one makes images of the Buddha, not other images. Therefore, it says “for the sake of the Buddha.” Because one seeks to become a Buddha and reverently recollects the Buddha, it is called “for the sake of the Buddha.” It is also said that making images for the Buddha in order to adorn the Buddha is called “for the sake of the Buddha.”

The Sutra on the Merit of Making Images states that carving an image brings eleven kinds of fruit:

1) In life after life, one is born with clear eyes and well-formed features.

2) One is not born in an evil place.

3) One is always born into a noble family.

4) One has a beautiful body of purplish-golden color.

5) One always possesses many precious objects of enjoyment.

6) One is born into a virtuous family.

7) In a later birth, one becomes a king preeminent among kings.

8) One becomes a Golden Wheel-Turning Sage King.

9) Afterward, one is born in the Brahma Heaven with a lifespan of one kalpa.

10) One does not follow an evil path.

11) In one’s next birth, one continues to honor the Three Jewels and delights in offering fine materials to perform the meritorious deed of making images once again.

One Brahma merit is ten times greater than the great oceans of the four continents.

*

-Sutra text: “Or made them from the seven precious substances” to “all have attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: These two stanzas concern using ten ornamental materials to make images.

– The Qieyun states that lead is tin. One explanation says that tin is a substance intermediate between silver and lead. The Yupian states that it is a blue-green metal.

*

-Sutra text: “Painting and making images of the Buddha” to “all have attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: This stanza concerns painting images of the Buddha.

*

-Sutra text: “Even children at play” to “painted images of the Buddha.”

Commentary: This stanza concerns playfully making images of the Buddha.

*

-Sutra text: “People such as these” to “liberated immeasurable multitudes.”

Commentary: This is the conclusion. Those endowed with the mind of Great Compassion, whatever good deed they may perform, must necessarily carry it out with a compassionate mind in order to reach “the other shore”; therefore, they attain the Buddha Way.

*

-Sutra text: “If people at stupas and shrines” to “made offerings with reverent hearts.”

Commentary: Below are seven stanzas explaining offerings. They are divided into two parts:

The first five and a half stanzas explain offerings.

The final one and a half stanzas form the conclusion.

The first part is further divided into five:

+ One stanza concerning offerings of four kinds of objects.

+ One and a half stanzas concerning offerings of music.

+ One stanza concerning offerings of chanting, that is, reciting sutras and verses.

+ One stanza concerning offerings of flowers.

+ One stanza concerning offerings through bodily action, the practice of reverence.

This is the first stanza of the first part:

The Sutra on Arousing the Aspiration for Bodhi states: “Those who give flowers attain the flower of the seven factors of awakening; those who give incense attain the fragrance of the fivefold Dharma body; those who give banners attain the dharani that turns away all evils; those who give canopies attain the four immeasurables with which to shelter sentient beings.”

The Sutra on the Differences in Karmic Retribution states: “Each kind of giving brings ten virtues.”

*

-Sutra text: “If they caused people to perform music” to “offered all of these as offerings.”

Commentary: This concerns offerings of music.

– The character “music” [樂] is pronounced nhạo because it causes people to experience delight. It is also pronounced lạc. In the time of the Yellow Emperor, Ling Lun created music and used this character for it.

The Shuowen says that this is the general designation for the five notes and eight sounds.

The Book of Rites says: “Shields, axes, feathers, and plumes used in dance—these are called music.”

Zheng Xuan says: “When the eight sounds are harmonious, it is called music.”

“Gu” (drum) means to move or to strike so as to resound. In general, anything that produces sound when struck is called a drum. Here, a wooden body is covered with hide and sounds when struck; this is called a drum.

“Jiao” (horn): a curved musical instrument resembling an animal’s horn.

“Bei”: a conch shell. The Nirvana Sutra says: “Blow the conch to announce the time.”

“Xiao”: a wind pipe, that is, a flute.

– The Yupian says: “Small pipes are joined together and blown.” The character Xiao is also written [ ].

“Di”: it has seven holes. It is also called “Yue,” and is commonly called “Zhi.”

– The Yupian mentions a five-holed bamboo flute. The Qiang flute has three holes.

“Qin” (zither): it means restraint, for the noble person maintains upright conduct and restrains himself. The qin was fashioned by Emperor Shennong.

“Konghou”: its shape resembles a pipa, as may readily be understood.

“Qing”: it is like the ling, but larger.

– The Yupian says that it is a kind of small gong.

According to military regulations, a squad of ten Liang carried cymbals. Five men constituted one Wu, and five Wu—that is, twenty-five men—constituted one Liang. The Liang’s sima officer carried a wooden clapper. Cymbals were made of two bronze pieces that produced sound when struck together.

– The character Ba is sometimes written [鈸]; its origin is unknown. It is also written [跋 ].

The Sutra on Arousing the Bodhi Mind says: “Music and feminine beauty must not be given to others, for they will disturb sentient beings.” Here, however, they are offered to the Buddha, so there is no transgression, just as in the musical offering of Jin Zang, a Tibetan from the state of Jin.

*

—Sutra text: “Or with a joyful mind” to “all have attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: This refers to making offerings through chanting songs and praises, whereby one will acquire the voice and sounds of a Great Being.

In Sanskrit it is called Po-ce. Here it is called praise. The transcription Bei-ni is an erroneous transcription.

In ancient times, King Chensi of Chen ascended Mount Yushan and heard the sound of sutras being chanted issuing from a rocky cavern. The clear, melodious tones reverberated through the distant valley. He imitated those sounds and thereby established Fanbei chanting. Thus it is now commonly called Yufan, and it tacitly accords with the three cadences and seven tones of the Western Regions established by Wenjudi’er and others.

*

—Sutra text: “If persons with distracted minds” to “gradually behold innumerable Buddhas.”

Commentary: This concerns offerings of flowers.

How do offerings of flowers differ from the preceding four kinds of offerings? In those cases, the mind was wholly wholesome; here, the mind is distracted. Thus, there is no contradiction. Only offerings to painted images are mentioned in passing, but offerings to other images are also permissible.

*

Sutra text: “Or there are those who bow in worship” to “or merely incline their heads slightly.”

Commentary: This explains offerings through bodily karma: the practice of reverence. The chanting of songs and praises mentioned above is verbal karma, while the capacity to arouse the mind is mental karma. All the others are offerings of external wealth. These are offerings made through the practices of the three kinds of karma.

*

—Sutra text: “Using these to make offerings to images” to “like a fire extinguished when its fuel is exhausted.”

Commentary: This is the conclusion concerning offerings.

*

—Sutra text: “If persons with distracted minds” to “all have attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: This says that those who invoke the Buddha in praise will attain Buddhahood. If even invoking the Buddha once enables one to attain Buddhahood, how much more so invoking him many times. As the Sutra of the Medicine King and Supreme Medicine Bodhisattvas says: “I constantly invoked the names of fifty-three Buddhas, and therefore I have now attained Buddhahood.” This refers precisely to this matter.

*

—Sutra text: “In the presence of the Buddhas of the past” to “all attained the Buddha Way.”

Commentary: Within the verses concerning sentient beings who hear the Dharma and attain omniscience, this is the third section, the conclusion: attaining the Buddha Way.

*

—Sutra text: “The future World-Honored Ones” to “also expound the Dharma through skillful means.”

Commentary: The following six and a half verses concern the Dharma of the future age and are divided into two parts:

– First, three and a half verses clarify that the Dharma of the future age will be the same as that of the present: the teaching of Reality.

– Next, three verses further explain the foregoing meaning.

The first part is further divided into three:

+ One verse clarifies that, as at present, skillful means will be taught first.

+ One and a half verses clarify that afterward the teaching becomes the teaching of Reality.

+ One verse explains the reason for the foregoing.

This is the first part.

*

—Sutra text: “All the Tathagatas” to “there is no one who does not attain Buddhahood.”

Commentary: This verse clarifies that afterward the teaching becomes the teaching of Reality, enabling all who hear the Dharma to attain Buddhahood. It speaks of the Buddhas and sentient beings together.

*

—Sutra text: “The original vows of all Buddhas” to “also attain this Way together.”

Commentary: This explains the foregoing reason: it is due to their original vows.

*

—Sutra text: “The Buddhas of future ages” to “in reality, there is only the One Vehicle.”

Commentary: The following three verses further explain the preceding meaning and are divided into two parts:

– First, one verse clarifies that the skillful means taught at the beginning are all for the sake of the One Vehicle.

– Next, two verses clarify that this is so because the Buddhas have realized the direction toward which the dharmas of the three natures tend.

This is the first part.

*

—Sutra text: “The Buddhas, Honored Ones Perfect in the Twofold Merit” to “the Guiding Teachers expound through skillful means.”

Commentary: This clarifies that, because the Buddhas have realized the direction toward which the dharmas of the three natures tend, they first teach the provisional vehicles and afterward teach the One Vehicle. The Buddha has realized and known the wondrous principle of true suchness, whose essential nature abides eternally.

The two selves of person and dharmas, grasped through the imagined nature, are essentially nonexistent. Because the Buddha has realized the principle of non-self, he also knows that this nonexistence pertains to the delusive grasping of ordinary beings.

“The Buddha-seed arises from conditions” means that the seed of the Reward-body Buddha, which is undefiled and dependently arisen, is born through causes and conditions, arises from conditions, and is accomplished through cultivation. By realizing the true principle, one eliminates the defiled portion of the dependently arisen mind that performs the grasping and clearly knows that what is grasped is nonexistent. One then cultivates the Buddha-seed through the causes and conditions of the pure portion of the dependently arisen nature; this is the One Vehicle. Why is this so? Because the One Vehicle repeatedly reveals that the eternal Dharma is precisely the perfectly accomplished nature.

“The abiding of dharmas in their Dharma-positions”: true suchness abides within all dharmas, and its essential nature is eternally existent; this is called the abiding of dharmas. Dharmas have defiled and pure aspects. When defilement is abandoned, purity is attained and its stage becomes manifest; this is called their Dharma-position.

“Characteristic”: here it indicates the essential nature that is the basis of the world, namely, the eternally abiding true suchness and real nature. This is the essence of the One Vehicle.

“Having known this at the place of enlightenment, the Guiding Teachers expound through skillful means”: this means that, seated upon the vajra seat at the place of enlightenment, they realize the fundamental nature of all dharmas. Dharmas originally have no names or characteristics, yet the Guiding Teachers skillfully employ names and characteristics to expound the Dharma.

All dharmas, in brief, are of two kinds: first, nonexistent; second, existent.

Nonexistent dharmas have no distinctions and are collectively assigned one nature, called the imagined nature.

Existent dharmas have distinctions and are divided into two kinds: first, permanent; second, impermanent. What is permanent is called the perfectly accomplished nature. What is impermanent is the dependently arisen nature.

The dependently arisen nature is further divided into two: first, contaminated; second, uncontaminated. The contaminated is the dependently arisen nature. The uncontaminated is the perfectly accomplished nature.

Here, according to the former approach, the impermanent is dependently arisen. All contaminated dependent arising is completely eliminated. Within it, only the uncontaminated, impermanent, pure portion of the dependently arisen nature is adopted; upon reaching its ultimate, fully perfected stage, it becomes bodhi.

Therefore it is said: “The Buddha-seed arises from conditions.” This means that only by being capable of realizing the eternally abiding Dharma-nature of true suchness and realizing the principle of selflessness can one clearly know that the two kinds of self are empty; relying upon spiritual friends, cultivating wisdom, and following the Dharma of dependent origination, one brings awakening to fulfillment and realizes the wondrous principle of true suchness of the One Vehicle.

The wondrous principle is: “These dharmas abide in their Dharma-position; the characteristics of the world constantly abide.” Having already realized and known the Great Parinirvana at the place of enlightenment, the Buddha now, for the sake of sentient beings, expounds that Dharma through skillful means, causing them also to aspire to realize it.

Here, the dependent nature is bodhi, while the perfectly accomplished nature is nirvana; together they constitute the One Vehicle. Because the perfectly accomplished nature is supreme, it alone is specifically called the One Vehicle.

By severing the contaminated dependent nature, eliminating the imagined nature, one realizes these two fruits.

Because the dependent and imagined natures had to be comprehended, the Agamas were taught first, and Prajnaparamita was taught afterward; these were teachings solely concerning existence and emptiness, and are therefore called skillful means.

Now all three natures are taught, and so this is called the true teaching. The meaning of the three natures has been explained in another chapter.

*

-Sutra text: “Receiving offerings from gods and humans” to “also expound the Dharma in this way.”

Commentary: Below are four and a half stanzas concerning the present. They are divided into three parts:

– The first one and a half stanzas introduce the subject.

– The next stanza discloses the provisional and reveals the real.

– The final two stanzas clarify the intention.

This is the first part.

*

-Sutra text: “Knowing the supreme quiescent cessation” to “in reality, there is only the One Vehicle.”

Commentary: This is the first part, disclosing the provisional and afterward revealing the real.

*

-Sutra text: “Knowing the practices of sentient beings” to “accordingly expound through skillful means.”

Commentary: This clarifies the intention behind first teaching the provisional and afterward the real.

“The practices of sentient beings” is the general phrase, referring to the characteristics of their mental activity.

What follows consists of specific phrases, or else refers to their resolute understanding.

“What their minds contemplate” refers to conduct tending toward various destinations.

“The power of karma” refers to one’s own karma.

“The power of aspiration” indicates resolute understanding.

“The power of disposition” indicates the various elements.

“The power of diligence” indicates what is possible, what is impossible, and so forth.

Alternatively, the essence of diligence and so forth is itself the power of disposition, because the essence of spiritual disposition consists precisely of the five faculties. The word “power” below applies throughout to all the preceding terms (the sutra text reads: “the powers of aspiration, disposition, and diligence”).

“Faculties keen or dull” means that faculties differ in whether their power is superior or inferior. The Buddha possesses the power of knowledge that knows these things; therefore, he first teaches the provisional and afterward the true.

The preceding section stated that future Buddhas, through awakening to the three natures, first teach skillful means and afterward the truth. Here it states that present Buddhas, because they know the equality of sentient beings and how they mutually influence one another, first teach skillful means and afterward expound the truth.

*

-Sutra text: “Now I am also thus” to “cause them all to rejoice.”

Commentary: Below are thirty and a half stanzas explaining that Shakyamuni is likewise: “Now I am also thus.”

They are divided into two parts:

– The first two stanzas introduce the subject.

– The following twenty-eight and a half stanzas explain it extensively.

This is the first part: the first stanza clarifies that what is taught now is real; the following stanza clarifies that what was taught in the past was provisional. Both cause beings to rejoice and gradually enter the path.

*

-Sutra text: “Shariputra, you should know” to “poor and destitute, lacking merit and wisdom.”

Commentary: What follows is the extensive explanation. It is divided into two parts:

– Twenty-one and a half stanzas explain how, at the outset, the skillful means of the Three Vehicles were employed to guide and entice beings. This corresponds to the prose passage: “Knowing that sentient beings have many desires to which their innermost minds are deeply attached, the Buddhas therefore accord with their fundamental natures and employ various causes and conditions, similes, expressions, and the power of skillful means to expound the Dharma to them.”

– Seven stanzas explain the intention behind now teaching the truth. This corresponds to the prose passage: “All of this is so that they may attain the knowledge of all aspects of the single Buddha Vehicle.” That is, these stanzas explain the meaning of first teaching the provisional and afterward the real.

The first passage is further divided into four parts:

a) The first three and a half stanzas explain seeing the dangers and hardships of the realm in which beings dwell.

b) The next three stanzas explain wishing to rescue them but being unable to do so.

c) The following eleven and a half stanzas explain reflecting upon and devising the skillful means of the provisional vehicles.

d) The final three and a half stanzas explain the actual teaching of the Three Vehicles to transform beings.

The first part is further divided into two:

+ One stanza: lacking goodness.

+ Two and a half stanzas: possessing evil.

This is the first part.

– The Prajnaparamita Sutra states that the Buddha has five kinds of eyes:

1) The fleshly eye: It does not arise from the cultivation of meditative concentration but is produced by the four great elements. Whether nourished or resulting from maturation, its nature is pure material form.

2) The divine eye: Its obstruction to meditative concentration has been severed, and it is accomplished through cultivation. It is only nourished, is produced by the four great elements, and its nature is pure material form.

3) The Dharma eye: the wisdom that contemplates phenomenal existence.

4) The wisdom eye: the wisdom that contemplates the principle of emptiness.

5) The Buddha-eye: when the causal practices have accumulated and the fruit is perfected, all four preceding kinds constitute its essence.

– Nagarjuna explains: The four great rivers flow into the celestial lake and are collectively called the great ocean. Likewise, the four eyes flow into the fruit of Buddhahood and are collectively called the Buddha-eye.

The first two have material form as their essence, while the following two have cognition as their essence. The final one encompasses both.

– It is also said: Humans and so forth possess the fleshly eye. Gods and so forth possess the divine eye. Those of the Two Vehicles possess the wisdom eye. Bodhisattvas possess the Dharma eye. Buddhas possess the Buddha-eye. Therefore, five are enumerated.

– The Yogacarabhumi, fascicle 14, states that there are three kinds of eyes:

1) The fleshly eye: It illuminates manifest forms that are unobstructed.

2) The divine eye: It illuminates concealed as well as manifest forms, whether obstructed or unobstructed.

3) The wisdom eye: It illuminates all kinds of form as well as the formless.

Because the Dharma eye has wisdom as its essence, it is combined with the wisdom eye as one. The forms differ, and the objects of the eyes may be concealed or manifest; these are omitted here and not discussed.

The Buddha-eye is precisely the preceding four kinds of eyes. Since only the cause and not the fruit is being discussed, it is omitted and not treated.

– The Avatamsaka Sutra speaks of ten kinds of eyes:

1) The fleshly eye: sees all forms.

2) The divine eye: sees beings die here and be born there.

3) The wisdom eye: sees the distinctions among the faculties of sentient beings.

4) The Dharma eye: sees the ultimate meaning of all dharmas.

5) The Buddha-eye: sees the Buddha’s ten powers.

6) The knowledge eye: clearly distinguishes all kinds of dharmas.

7) The luminous eye: sees the Buddha’s radiant light.

8) The eye that transcends birth and death: sees the Dharma of nirvana.

9) The unobstructed eye: sees all dharmas without obstruction.

10) The universal eye: sees the Dharma-gate of the equality of the Dharma-realm.

– The first of these ten eyes is the first of the preceding five eyes, because it sees forms.

– The second here is the second above.

– Five eyes—the third, fifth, sixth, seventh, and ninth here—correspond to the preceding Dharma eye.

– The fourth and eighth here correspond to the preceding wisdom eye, because they see ultimate truth.

– Alternatively, three eyes—the fourth, eighth, and ninth here—correspond to the preceding wisdom eye, because they all see the principle.

– The tenth eye, the universal eye, corresponds to the preceding Buddha-eye, because it universally sees the nature of equality throughout the Dharma-realm.

“To contemplate with the Buddha-eye” means to contemplate with the Buddha-eye among the Five Eyes, because the Buddha-eye among the Ten Eyes does not see sentient beings but sees only the Ten Powers.

Since beginningless time, sentient beings in the six destinies have not cultivated the two causes of merit and wisdom and have not attained the seven noble treasures and seven Dharma treasures of humans and gods. These are: generosity, morality, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, wisdom, and skillful means. Therefore, they lack merit and wisdom.

*

-Sutra text: “Entering the perilous path of birth and death” to “blind and unable to see anything.”

Commentary: The following two and a half stanzas explain the possession of evil.

They are divided into two parts:

– The first one and a half stanzas explain beings presently submerged in suffering while their afflictions increase.

– The following stanza explains that, although they wish to seek liberation, they engage in wrong practices.

This is the first part.

The yak in the world, because it cherishes its own tail, conceals its body while guarding its tail. People covet its tail and therefore kill it. Sentient beings are likewise: because they crave and cling to the five desires, they conceal themselves; then, through craving and attachment, they bring ruin upon themselves, suffer harm and distress, and fall into the evil destinies.

“Self-harm”: harming oneself. Some editions read “self-concealment.” Concealment means obstruction or covering.

Just as the yak, because it cherishes its tail, harms its own mind and even loses its life, sentient beings are likewise: craving and attachment cover and obscure their minds.

– “Yak”: the Shuowen explains it as a kind of long-haired ox found among the southwestern tribes.

In some places, the character for ox is written as [ 貓 ], “cat,” the animal that catches mice among humans, but this does not accord with the meaning here. Elsewhere it is written as [ 貓 描 ]; its source is unknown.

*

-Scripture text: “They do not seek the Buddha of Great Might” to “because of suffering, they wish to cast suffering aside.”

Commentary: They wish to seek liberation, yet they practice deviant conduct. The Buddha possesses spiritual powers and majestic might, as well as the Dharma that employs wisdom to eradicate suffering, yet they do not seek him. Instead, they fall into the net of the wrong views of non-Buddhist paths. They cultivate bodily ascetic practices in order to cast aside the suffering of birth and death, but this cannot succeed.

Therefore, even after six years of eating only sesame and barley, one still cannot realize bodhi. How could sitting and lying upon thorns lead to attainment of the fruit of the path? It is like a dog chasing a clod of earth—the clod only rolls farther. How could this compare with a lion, which chases the person rather than the clod?

*

-Scripture text: “For these sentient beings, the Buddha aroused a mind of great compassion.”

Commentary: Below are three verses describing how he reflected on saving them but was unable to do so. They are divided into three parts:

a) The first half-verse concerns reflection on arousing the causal practice.

b) One verse concerns the fruit already attained upon which he reflected.

c) One and a half verses concern his reflection on wishing to save them but being unable to do so.

This is the first part: seeing that sentient beings possessed these two conditions, he aroused a compassionate mind, resolved to cultivate the practice, and reflected on how to save them.

*

-Scripture text: “Formerly, I sat at the place of enlightenment” to “reflecting upon this matter.”

Commentary: This concerns his reflection after attaining the fruit.

After the Buddha attained the path, he walked in meditation beneath the tree and gazed upon it, rejoicing that his path had been perfectly accomplished. As he walked and reflected, he wished to benefit beings other than himself.

Again gazing upon the tree, his mind became absorbed in the wondrous principle; as he walked in meditation, he contemplated teaching and transforming sentient beings.

Again gazing upon the tree, he wished to provide cooling shade to shelter sentient beings; as he walked in meditation, he contemplated bestowing merit and wisdom upon them.

The scriptures differ concerning the time when the Buddha taught the Dharma after attaining enlightenment:

– This scripture says it was after three periods of seven days.

– The Mahishasaka Vinaya says, “Seven days in samadhi,” in agreement with the Sutra of the Ten Stages. He did not teach the Dharma for seven days in order to show that he himself was experiencing the bliss of the Dharma and to cause sentient beings to increase their reverence and esteem.

– The Vinaya and the Sarvastivada account say that he taught the Dharma after six periods of seven days, that is, after forty-two days, because Brahma came to request him and the faculties of Kaundinya and the others had matured.

– Another teaching says that only after the rains retreat did he liberate the five men.

– The Sutra of the Twelve Journeys says that two years after attaining enlightenment, he liberated the five men.

– The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that he did not teach the Dharma for fifty periods of seven days.

These differences all arise because the views of the various schools cannot be reconciled. However, present-day Mahayana commentators take the Lotus Sutra as authoritative.

Because this teaching generally concerns the turning of the Dharma wheel of the Four Noble Truths, it took place after three periods of seven days. If only the Mahayana Dharma wheel is meant, then the Ten Stages is authoritative, and the teaching of the Ten Stages occurred during the second period of seven days.

*

-Scripture text: “The wisdom I have attained” to “How could they possibly be saved?”

Commentary: This concerns his reflection on wishing to save them but being unable to do so, for four reasons:

1. The Dharma was profound and difficult to understand. 2. Their faculties were dull, making them difficult to save.

3. Their attachment to pleasures was difficult to abandon. 4. In their ignorant blindness, they were difficult to awaken.

How, then, could they possibly be saved?

*

-Scripture text: “At that time, the Brahma kings” to “requested me to turn the Dharma wheel.”

Commentary: Below are eleven and a half verses in which they asked the Buddha to be mindful of them and to establish expedient provisional means.

These are divided into four parts:

– Two verses: the devas request him to teach.

– Three verses: he manifests the sign of reflection.

– Four and a half verses: in teaching and transforming beings, he encounters wholesome conditions.

– The final two verses: out of compassion, he guides them by provisional means.

This is the first part.