大方便佛報恩經

Fascicle Six

CHAPTER EIGHT: UPALI

At that time, the great assembly surrounded the Blessed One, making offerings to him, revering, honoring, and praising him.

Then Venerable Ananda perceived that doubts had arisen in the minds of everyone. He rose from his seat and addressed the Buddha:

“Blessed One, why did the Blessed One permit Upali, a man of lowly station, to follow the Buddha and leave the household life? This brings humiliation upon the Buddha’s disciples and causes the various clans to become disrespectful, thereby diminishing the field of merit. It also caused Bhiksu Nanda, the son of King Suddhodana, to give rise to contempt and arrogance.”

The Buddha told Venerable Ananda and the great assembly: “Listen carefully! You may say that the Tathagata has no impartiality, no mind of great compassion, no five kinds of wisdom, and no right concentration, but you must not say that Upali is a lowly person who cultivates lowly practices, makes lowly vows, or exercises lowly diligence.

“You may say that the Tathagata still has afflictions and is mutable and impermanent, but you must not say that Upali is a lowly person who left the household life.

“The Tathagata speaks these truthful words with true, all-pervading wisdom; therefore, you should trust and follow the Buddha’s words.

“When the Tathagata clearly perceived birth and death to be a calamity and, awakening by himself, attained Buddhahood, Upali also followed the Buddha into the monastic life and attained the three knowledges, the six superknowledges, and the complete eight liberations. The assemblies of devas and humans all came to admire him.

“Upali is foremost among those who uphold the Vinaya. He preserves the true Dharma and is worthy of receiving offerings, enabling sentient beings to accomplish three kinds of wondrous fruit: rewards in this life, in the next life, and throughout many subsequent kalpas. Therefore, you should know that Upali is a bodhisattva of great compassion who cultivates wondrous practices. In remote past kalpas, within the teaching of Buddha Sakyamuni, Upali was likewise foremost in upholding the Vinaya.”

When Bhiksu Nanda heard the Buddha praise Venerable Upali’s hidden practices, he gave rise to a reverent mind. He immediately stood, approached, and bowed to Venerable Mahakaundinya, and then bowed in turn to the other disciples. But when he came to Venerable Upali, Nanda merely lowered his head, then raised it again and stood gazing with his palms joined. At that time, the Tathagata spoke this verse for Nanda:

Nanda, you should understand:

Do not despise the poor and destitute;

Do not rely upon your wealth and high station;

Among those who leave home, there are no distinctions.

Hearing the Buddha’s beneficial instruction, Nanda rejoiced. He immediately adjusted his robes, bowed his head, and paid homage at Venerable Upali’s feet. At that moment, heaven and earth both trembled. Nanda felt refreshed and light and immediately attained the fruit of arhatship, entering the stage of one beyond further training.

The Buddha then told Venerable Upali: “You should expound the Dharma and clearly explain the distinctions concerning the Three Jewels, the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths, householders and monastics, and the seven assemblies. That is, you should clearly explain the Three Refuges, the Five Precepts, and all the precepts; the precepts that benefit sentient beings, the precepts that eliminate afflictions, the precepts that regulate body and mind, the precepts of meditative concentration, the undefiled precepts, and so forth, so that the Three Jewels may flourish.”

Venerable Upali then addressed the Buddha: “Blessed One, relying upon the Tathagata’s awesome spiritual power to guide, protect, and remain mindful of me, I wish to ask the Blessed One about several matters that I do not understand.”

Having said this, he reflected to himself: What are the Three Jewels—the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha?

If the Three Jewels have no intrinsic nature, how can distinctions be made and spoken of? The Dharma and the Sangha also differ from one another; thus, if one takes refuge in the Three Jewels, how should one practice accordingly? Furthermore, if the Three Refuges are only one, they cannot be said to be three. If they are called the Three Refuges, why are there distinctions among the seven assemblies?

Having reflected in this way, Venerable Upali addressed the Buddha: “Blessed One, in what does one take refuge for it to be called taking refuge in the Buddha?”

The Greatly Awakened Blessed One then told Venerable Upali: “A Buddha is one who has awakened and thoroughly comprehended both the ‘nature’ and the ‘characteristics’ of all dharmas. Moreover, all sentient beings are sunk in delusion within the three realms. The Buddha has attained the eye of the Way; having awakened himself, he also awakens those sentient beings who remain sunk in delusion. Therefore, he is called the Awakened One.

“The Buddha has thoroughly comprehended all dharmas and is able to explain every dharma.”

Venerable Upali asked the Buddha:

“What does it mean to say that the Buddha teaches all dharmas? Does the Buddha teach according to circumstances, adapting his teaching to the assembled congregation and teaching only particular groups of people?”

The Buddha replied:

“The Buddha teaches the dharmas according to the capacities and dispositions of sentient beings and in accordance with the occasion.

“In the future, when the disciples compile the treasury of the Dharma, they will divide it into separate collections and categories.

“After the Buddha attained the Way, he set forth the precepts and Vinaya for his disciples. There are minor and major precepts, those for offenses entailing a remainder and those for offenses entailing no remainder. These were compiled as the Vinaya Pitaka.

“When the Tathagata taught cause and effect, transgression and merit, the various bonds and afflictions, and the karma of body, speech, and mind, these teachings were compiled as the Abhidharma Pitaka.

“For devas and humans, the Tathagata taught the Dharma at appropriate times to encourage them in cultivation, thereby expounding the Ekottara Agama.

“Later, for intelligent sentient beings, he taught profound dharmas, called the Madhyama Agama, so that those of keen faculties might cultivate in accordance with them.

“Afterward, he taught methods of seated meditation for those who cultivated meditative concentration, and thus the Samyukta Agama came into being.

“Finally, to refute wrong views and non-Buddhist teachings, he expounded the Dirgha Agama.

“All four of these categories were later compiled as the Sutra Pitaka.”

Venerable Upali asked:

“If the Buddha taught all dharmas, why did the Buddha one day, while sitting beneath a tree, pick up a handful of leaves and ask his disciples whether there were more leaves in the Buddha’s hand or upon the tree? All the disciples replied that there were more leaves upon the tree.

“At that time, the Buddha told his disciples that all the dharmas he had thoroughly comprehended were as numerous as the leaves upon the tree, whereas the dharmas he had taught were only like the leaves in his hand. How, then, can it be said that the Buddha taught all dharmas?”

The Buddha replied:

“All dharmas have their ‘particular characteristics’ and their ‘general characteristics.’

“When the Tathagata says that he has taught all dharmas, he is referring to their ‘particular characteristics,’ not their ‘general characteristics.’

“It is not that the Tathagata is unable to teach their ‘general characteristics,’ but if the Tathagata were to teach their ‘general characteristics,’ sentient beings would be unable to comprehend them.

“You should know that the Tathagata has thoroughly comprehended all dharmas, but has taught only the ‘particular characteristics’ of the dharmas and has not yet taught their ‘general characteristics.’”

Venerable Upali asked:

“If the Buddha knows and is able to teach, then the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas, based upon what they know and understand, are also able to teach.

“Why, then, can they not be called Buddhas?”

The Buddha replied:

“They cannot. This is because the Buddha fully knows and can teach both the ‘nature’ and the ‘characteristics’ of all dharmas, whereas the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas, although they also know and can teach, cannot completely explain the ‘nature’ and ‘characteristics’ of every dharma.

“Moreover, the Buddha thoroughly understands the dharmas and can assign names to them, whereas sravakas and pratyekabuddhas cannot do so.

“Moreover, the Buddha has realized boundless dharmas and can teach them endlessly, whereas those of the Two Vehicles cannot.

“Moreover, there are ‘shared’ and ‘unshared’ dharmas. Whatever those of the Two Vehicles have attained, the Buddha also possesses; but what the Buddha possesses has not yet been attained by those of the Two Vehicles.

“What the sravakas have realized is known by all three vehicles; what the pratyekabuddhas have realized is also known by the sravakas and bodhisattvas.”

But that which the Buddha has realized cannot be known by those of the Two Vehicles; only the Buddha himself knows it.

Furthermore, a large casket requires a large lid; a great Dharma likewise has immeasurable characteristics.

The Buddha’s wisdom is boundless; therefore, the Buddha alone can thoroughly penetrate and elucidate all dharmas. The wisdom of those of the Two Vehicles is limited, so they cannot thoroughly penetrate the “nature” and “characteristics” of all dharmas.

Furthermore, the Buddha has attained wisdom that knows things as they truly are. This means that the Buddha clearly understands, just as they truly are, the “nature” and “characteristics” of all dharmas. Those of the Two Vehicles do not understand dharmas completely and have not penetrated to the source of their “nature” and “characteristics”; therefore, they cannot be said to have attained wisdom that knows things as they truly are.

On the basis of the meanings explained above, one should know that those of the Two Vehicles cannot be called Buddhas.

Moreover, the word “Buddha” cannot be conveyed through speech, nor can it be comprehended through meaning.

What, then, is meant by “Blessed One”? It means one who can know all the antidotal dharmas.

Furthermore, because languages differ throughout the world, worldly people cannot understand one another. The Buddha, however, understands them all; therefore, the Buddha is called the Blessed One.

Furthermore, as Bhikkhu Lặc said, ordinary beings and those of the Two Vehicles claim that they have attained various dharmas—perhaps delighting in secluded places, taking pleasure in meditative concentration, or practicing other dharmas—but they keep them secret. The Buddha is not like this. Whatever dharmas the Buddha realizes, he compassionately teaches to others.

Furthermore, because the Buddha has eradicated greed, anger, and delusion, he is called the Blessed One.

Venerable Upali asked:

“Those of the Two Vehicles have also destroyed greed, anger, and delusion. Why, then, can they not be called Blessed Ones?”

The Buddha replied:

“They cannot, because those of the Two Vehicles may still regress from the Mahayana mind, whereas the Buddha never regresses. There are three kinds of regression:

“First, regression after attaining the fruit;

“Second, regression before attaining the fruit;

“Third, regression after reaching the point of application.

“Regression after attaining the fruit refers to a shravaka who has attained the third fruit but may still regress.

“Only the fourth fruit, the fruit of arhatship, is beyond regression.

“As for those of the Middle Vehicle, if they have cultivated for a full hundred kalpas, thoroughly penetrated the twelve links of dependent origination, and become pratyekabuddhas, they likewise no longer regress.

“But if one belongs to the Lower Vehicle, attains the third fruit, and becomes a pratyekabuddha, one may still regress.

“Once a Buddha has attained the fruit, however, he never regresses.

“Regression before attaining the fruit refers to people of the Three Vehicles who regress before attaining the fruit. If they cultivate the three karmas of a bhikkhu but are indolent, or practice various dharmas without diligence, this is called regression before attaining the fruit.

“Regression after reaching the point of application refers to those who have realized various dharmas but do not apply them when the occasion arises. For example, of the Buddha’s ten powers or the ten knowledges of the Lesser Vehicle, they apply only one; or although they are supposed to recite one hundred thousand words of scripture, they do not recite them. All these are called regression after reaching the point of application.

“Shravakas may regress before attaining the fruit; those of the Vehicle of Conditions and solitary realizers may also sometimes regress before attaining the fruit, but the Buddha never does so.

“In all practices of cultivation, the Buddha is never indolent.

“Those of the Two Vehicles may regress after reaching the point of application, whereas the Buddha’s application is not fixed.

“For example, if one uses only one of the ten powers and sets aside the other nine, this is called regression.

“Or suppose that twenty myriad words of scripture must be recited. An ordinary person of feeble strength may need one or two days to finish the recitation, but the Buddha can complete it immediately.

“The ten powers are the same: whenever they are to be used, they are used at once, without obstruction.

“Therefore, with the Buddha there is no setting aside through failure to apply. It is like a person wearing the ni-huan-seng robe: it is not that he does not wear it when the time is inappropriate, as worldly people do. Whatever the Buddha does is done for the benefit of sentient beings. If something is beneficial, he does it; if it is not beneficial, he sets it aside. It is not that he sets aside what is beneficial, nor is it because he is incapable of doing it. Therefore, the Buddha does not regress through failure to apply.

“Although the Buddha thoroughly understands all dharmas, his teaching is not fixed, for the Buddha’s intent is profound and cannot be conceived or measured.”

Venerable Upali asked:

“Why may a shravaka who has attained the fruit of anagamin still regress, while one who has attained the fruit of arhatship does not regress?”

The Buddha replied:

“The fruit of anagamin has been attained before, and thus one may regress from it; the fruit of arhatship has never previously been attained, and therefore one does not regress from it.

“It is like a hungry person who receives a delicious feast and never forgets it. The meaning of the fruit of arhatship is likewise so.

“Furthermore, an arhat takes patient acceptance as the unobstructed path and wisdom as the path of liberation. An anagamin takes wisdom as the unobstructed path and also takes wisdom as the path of liberation; therefore, the anagamin may still regress.

“Furthermore, an arhat takes understanding things as they truly are as the path and therefore does not regress. An anagamin takes contemplation as the path and therefore may still regress.

“Because an anagamin must still extinguish all deluded thoughts and completely eliminate greed, anger, delusion, craving, wrong views, and ignorance, the anagamin is still oppressed by contemplation.

“An arhat, however, investigates the path as it truly is and therefore is not oppressed. Clearly seeing the ‘false’ aspect is itself seeing the ‘true’ principle. Since contemplation is no longer necessary, the arhat is not oppressed and therefore does not regress.

“Furthermore, an arhat’s wisdom of investigation is strong and mighty, like beams and pillars supporting all things, and therefore does not regress. An anagamin’s wisdom of contemplation is small and weak, and therefore may still regress.

“Furthermore, an arhat uses patient acceptance and wisdom to eradicate the nine grades of delusions of thought in the desire realm and the seventy-two grades of binding fetters in the form realm; therefore, the arhat no longer regresses.”

On the basis of the meanings explained above, one should know that those of the Two Vehicles cannot be called Blessed Ones; only a Buddha may be called the Blessed One.

Furthermore, the Buddha has entirely eliminated habitual tendencies, whereas those of the Two Vehicles have not yet severed all fetters.

For example, Bhikkhu Gavampati habitually chewed like an ox because, during five hundred previous lives, he had fallen into existence as an ox. Although he had now attained a human body, his habitual tendency to chew like an ox had not yet ceased.

Or consider another bhikkhu who, although he had attained the fruit of arhatship, habitually delighted in looking into a mirror because in previous lives he had possessed the body of a courtesan.

Likewise, another bhikkhu habitually clung to railings, swinging, leaping, and capering because in previous lives he had fallen into existence as a monkey.

Therefore, those of the Two Vehicles cannot be called Blessed Ones.

Venerable Upali asked:

“At the beginning of the sutras there commonly appears the phrase, ‘Thus have I heard...’ These were Ananda’s words, indicating that while the Buddha was still in the world teaching the Dharma, he had heard it in this way.

“Yet Ananda did not follow the Buddha into the monastic life until twenty years after the Buddha attained enlightenment.

“Thus, during the twenty years in which the Buddha taught the Dharma, Ananda did not hear those teachings.

“Why, then, after the Buddha entered nirvana, when the Dharma Treasury was compiled, did he say, ‘Thus have I heard...’?”

The Buddha replied:

“When Ananda followed the Tathagata into the monastic life, he requested four things:

“‘First, I ask that the Buddha not give me the Buddha’s old robes;

“‘Second, I ask that the Buddha not tell others to invite me to attend their meal offerings. I attend upon the Buddha because I seek the Dharma and revere the Buddha, not for the sake of food or clothing.’”

“Third, morning and evening, whenever the bhikkhus wish to see the Buddha, they may simply enter; I need not first go in and announce them.”

“Fourth, during the twenty years when the Buddha taught the Dharma, I was unable to hear it. I ask the Buddha to repeat it all for me.”

In accordance with the fourth request, the Tathagata had to command the devas to repeat the teachings for Ananda to hear. At other times, the Tathagata used the mind of samadhi to transmit to Ananda what he had heard again from other bhikkhus.

Venerable Upali then asked:

“The Buddha taught the Dharma for twenty years. How could all of it possibly be repeated?”

The Buddha replied:

“The Tathagata possesses the wisdom of skillful means; therefore, within a single sentence he can expound immeasurable teachings, and the immeasurable teachings can be summarized in a single sentence. Because Ananda had keen faculties, the Buddha needed only to state the main outlines of the eighty thousand teachings, and Ananda understood them all completely.

“Just as a tree comprises roots, trunk, branches, and leaves and is called one tree, so all the teachings spoken by the Buddha for the sake of sentient beings, from first to last, are called one collection. In this manner, they are called the eighty thousand teachings.

“Again, whenever the Buddha sat in one place and taught the Dharma, that was called one collection; in this manner there were eighty thousand teachings. Again, sixteen characters constitute half a verse, and thirty-two characters constitute one verse; in this manner as well, they are called the eighty thousand teachings.

“Again, whether long or short, a verse may contain forty-two characters and is still one verse; in this manner as well, they are called the eighty thousand teachings.

“Again, the recitation of the precepts once every half-month is also called one collection; in this manner as well, there are eighty thousand teachings.

“Again, the Buddha himself spoke sixty-six thousand verses, which are also one collection; in this manner as well, they are called the eighty thousand teachings.

“Again, as the Buddha said, there are eighty thousand defilements, and therefore there are eighty thousand Dharma collections to counteract them. Thus they are called the eighty thousand Dharma collections.”

Venerable Upali then asked:

“Why do the Sutras and Treatises not place the Buddha at the beginning, while only the Vinaya Pitaka places the Buddha at the beginning?”

The Buddha replied:

“Because the Vinaya is supreme, and only the Buddha can establish the Vinaya.

“In the Sutras, disciples also sometimes taught the Dharma. At other times, devas, nagas, and the beings of the eight classes taught the Dharma in response to questions from the Buddha. For example, Shakra, Lord of the Devas, himself said that generosity is foremost, because through the merit of generosity he became king of the heavenly realm, obtained all things according to his wishes, and the Buddha also affirmed that this was correct.

“At other times, the Buddha manifested transformation-buddhas to teach the Dharma.

“The Vinaya, however, is not like this. All rules of discipline were taught by the Buddha; therefore, the Buddha is placed at the beginning.

“Furthermore, in the Sutras, the place where the Dharma was taught is regarded as definitive, but the Vinaya is not like this. If a rule is violated inside a dwelling, guilt may not be formally determined there at once; one must go outside to determine it.

“If someone commits a violation in the home of a layperson, they must appear before the assembled Sangha to have the offense determined. If a rule is violated within a village, one must likewise appear before the assembled Sangha to have the offense determined. If someone among the five assemblies of monastics commits a violation, they must appear before the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis to have the offense determined. For this reason, the Buddha is placed at the beginning.”

Venerable Upali asked:

“What constitutes the nature of the Three Refuges?”

The Buddha replied:

“The nature of the Three Refuges may consist in following another’s instruction, or it may consist in not following another’s instruction. This means that when one receives the Three Refuges, kneels, joins one’s palms, and recites the Three Refuges after the officiant, both body and speech follow another’s instruction. Therefore, this is called taking the following of another’s instruction as their nature. If, with wholehearted sincerity and reverence, one personally proclaims the Three Refuges without following another, this is called taking the non-following of another’s instruction as their nature.

“Furthermore, the nature of the Three Refuges consists of body, speech, and mind—the three karmic actions. Or the Three Refuges are the five wholesome skandhas: the five wholesome skandhas of sentient beings are the Three Refuges, and the Three Jewels are that to which they return for refuge. ‘That to which one returns for refuge’ is spoken of in the sense of rescue and protection. It is like a person who has committed an offense against a king and flees to another country to seek protection.

The king of that country says, ‘If you wish to receive protection, you must not leave my realm, nor may you disobey my commands.’ Sentient beings are likewise: originally belonging to Mara’s lineage and bearing the transgressions of birth and death, they return to the Three Jewels to seek rescue and protection.

“If they sincerely place their faith in the Three Jewels, trust in no other refuge, and do not disobey the Buddha’s teachings, the evil Mara King can do nothing to them.

“Once, a pigeon was pursued by a hawk. It flew into the shadow of Venerable Shariputra for shelter, yet it remained afraid.

“Afterward, it flew into the Tathagata’s shadow for shelter and became calm and unafraid. Even if the great ocean could have shifted from its place, that bird would have remained unmoved.

“This was because the Buddha possessed the virtue of great loving-kindness and great compassion, while Venerable Shariputra had not yet attained such great loving-kindness and compassion. The Buddha had exhausted all habitual tendencies, while Venerable Shariputra still retained them.

“The Buddha had cultivated the bodhisattva practice for three asamkhya kalpas, whereas Venerable Shariputra had cultivated ascetic practices for only sixty kalpas. Therefore, when the pigeon took shelter in Venerable Shariputra’s shadow, it remained afraid, but when it took shelter in the Buddha’s shadow, it was calm and unafraid.”

Venerable Upali asked:

“If it is said that taking refuge in the Three Jewels eradicates evil karma and brings peace and happiness to the mind, why did Devadatta, who also took refuge in the Three Jewels, renounced the household life with faith, and received full ordination, nevertheless commit the three grave offenses and consequently fall into the Avici hell?”

The Buddha replied:

“To speak of rescue and protection means rescuing only those who can still be rescued. Devadatta’s evil karma was too deep and grave; moreover, because it was fixed karma, he was difficult to save.”

Venerable Upali asked:

“If the Buddha cannot save those with grave offenses, then those without offenses do not need the Buddha to save them. Why, then, is it said that the Three Jewels possess the power of rescue and protection?”

The Buddha replied:

“Although Devadatta took refuge in the Three Jewels, his mind was not sincere, and his Three Refuges were incomplete. He constantly coveted fame and gain, considered himself omniscient, and contended with the Buddha. Therefore, although the Three Jewels possess great power, they could not save him.

“King Ajatashatru, although he committed a grave offense and deserved to fall into the Avici hell, was utterly sincere and knew to seek the Buddha and repent. Therefore, his punishment in Avici was reduced, and he had to fall only into the Black Rope Hell. Like other offenders, after only seven days he was released from punishment. This was due to the rescuing and protective power of the Three Jewels.”

Venerable Upali then asked:

“If Devadatta’s offense could not be remedied, why does a sutra say, ‘Whoever takes refuge in the Buddha will not fall into the three evil destinies’? What does this mean?”

The Buddha replied:

“Because he had taken refuge in the Three Jewels, although Devadatta had to enter the Avici hell, part of his extreme suffering was alleviated, and at times he was granted temporary respite.

“Again, if people are in mountain forests or frightening wildernesses, and they recollect the virtues of the Buddha, their terror will disappear.

“Thus, taking refuge in the Three Jewels is not without benefit.”

Venerable Upali asked:

“Among the Four Noble Truths, which truth do the Three Jewels represent?

“Among the twenty faculties, which faculties do the Three Jewels represent?

“Among the eighteen dhatus, which dhatus do the Three Jewels represent?

“Among the twelve ayatanas, which ayatanas do the Three Jewels represent?

“Among the five skandhas, which skandhas do the Three Jewels represent?”

The Buddha replied:

“Among the Four Noble Truths, the Three Jewels represent the Truth of Cessation and part of the Truth of the Path.

“Among the twenty-two faculties, the Three Jewels represent three faculties: the faculty of one who does not yet know, the faculty of one who knows, and the faculty of one who wishes to know.

“Among the eighteen dhatus, the Three Jewels represent the mind-faculty dhatu, the mind-consciousness dhatu, and the mental-object dhatu.

“Among the twelve ayatanas, the Three Jewels represent the mind ayatana and the mental-object ayatana.

“Among the five skandhas, the Three Jewels represent the five uncontaminated skandhas.”

Among the Four Truths, the Buddha-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the Truth of the Path; the Dharma-Jewel corresponds to the Truth of Cessation; and the Sangha-Jewel also corresponds to a portion of the Truth of the Path.

Among the twelve faculties, the Buddha-Jewel corresponds to the faculty of one who is to know; because the Dharma-Jewel is the unconditioned Truth of Cessation, it does not correspond to any faculty. The Sangha-Jewel corresponds to the three undefiled faculties.

Among the eighteen dhatus, the Buddha-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the mind-faculty dhatu, the mind-consciousness dhatu, and the mental-object dhatu; the Dharma-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the mental-object dhatu; and the Sangha-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the mind-faculty dhatu, the mind-consciousness dhatu, and the mental-object dhatu.

Among the twelve ayatanas, the Buddha-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the mind-faculty ayatana and the mental-object ayatana; the Dharma-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the mental-object ayatana; and the Sangha-Jewel also corresponds to a portion of the mind-faculty ayatana and the mental-object ayatana.

Among the five skandhas, the Buddha-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the five undefiled skandhas. The Dharma-Jewel does not correspond to the five skandhas, because the five skandhas are conditioned, whereas the Dharma-Jewel is unconditioned. The Sangha-Jewel corresponds to a portion of the five undefiled skandhas.

Does taking refuge in the Buddha mean taking refuge in Buddha Shakyamuni, or taking refuge in the Buddhas of all three times? The Buddha replied:

—Take refuge in the Buddhas of the three times, because the Dharma-bodies of the Buddhas are of one essence. Therefore, taking refuge in one Buddha is itself taking refuge in all the Buddhas of the three times.

Upali asked:

—If it is said that one takes refuge in all the Buddhas of the three times, why does each of the celestial beings declare himself a disciple of one of the Seven Buddhas? For example, one identifies himself as a disciple of Buddha Kashyapa, while another identifies himself as a disciple of Buddha Krakucchanda, and so forth. If that is so, it should be said that one takes refuge in a single Buddha, rather than in all the Buddhas of the three times.

The Buddha replied:

—It should not be said so. Why? Because the Vaishravana Sutra states: “When Vaishravana, the Heavenly King, takes refuge in the Three Jewels, he takes refuge in all the Buddhas of the past, present, and future.” According to this meaning, it must be said that one takes refuge in all the Buddhas of the three times.

Upali asked:

—If that is so, what does it mean that each of those celestial beings identifies himself as a disciple of one particular Buddha?

The Buddha replied:

—The words spoken by celestial beings cannot be taken as establishing a definitive meaning.

The celestial beings say that they take refuge in one Buddha, but in truth they take refuge in all the Buddhas of the three times; they merely cite one Buddha who has appeared in the world as testimony.

Upali asked:

—Toward what does one turn for it to be called taking refuge in the Buddha?

The Buddha replied:

—Taking refuge in the Buddha means returning to one’s own true-suchness nature, complete with wisdom and merit.

Upali asked:

—If so, does one take refuge in the physical body or in the Dharma-body?

The Buddha replied:

—One takes refuge in the Dharma-body, not in the physical body.

Do not suppose that the physical body is the Buddha; it is merely an illusory body.

Upali asked:

—If the physical body is illusory and is not the Buddha, why did Devadatta incur the offense of immediate retribution when he caused the Buddha’s body to bleed?

The Buddha replied:

—Although the physical body is illusory, it is the support of the Dharma-body; that is, the Dharma-body must rely upon the physical body. Therefore, harming the physical body is itself harming the Buddha’s body, and for that reason it constitutes an offense of immediate retribution.

Upali asked:

—Upon what does one rely for it to be called taking refuge in the Dharma? The Buddha replied:

—To eliminate all desires and turn toward nirvana is called taking refuge in the Dharma.

Upali asked:

—If so, does one take refuge in one’s own freedom from desire or in another’s freedom from desire?

The Buddha replied:

—Taking refuge in one’s own freedom from desire and in the freedom from desire of others is called taking refuge in the Dharma.

Upali asked:

—Toward what does one turn in taking refuge in the Sangha?

The Buddha replied:

—Taking refuge in the Sangha means turning toward the excellent field of merit; that is, turning toward the stages of the training and beyond-training shravakas who are complete in merit. This is called taking refuge in the Sangha.

Upali asked:

—Then does one take refuge in the conventional Sangha or in the Sangha of ultimate meaning?

If one takes refuge in the Sangha of ultimate meaning, why, when the Buddha conferred the Three Refuges upon the two merchants Trapusha and Bhallika, did he instruct them: “When the Sangha comes into being in the future, you should take refuge in it”? Why did the Buddha not say: “The Sangha of ultimate meaning always abides in the world; you should take refuge in it”?

The Buddha replied:

—Because the conventional Sangha is the support of the Sangha of ultimate meaning, the Tathagata said that when the Sangha came into being in the future, they should take refuge in it. The Tathagata also said this because he wished to honor the conventional Sangha.

The Venerable Upali asked:

—The Buddha is also Dharma, the Dharma is also Dharma, and the Sangha is also Dharma. Thus there is only one Dharma; what distinction is there among them?

The Buddha replied:

—Although there is one Dharma, distinctions exist when it is discussed according to meaning. For example, in speaking of the Three Jewels, wisdom acquired without a teacher, the fruition of beyond-training, and all merits constitute the Buddha-Jewel; the unconditioned Truth of Cessation constitutes the Dharma-Jewel; and the merit and wisdom of the stages of the training and beyond-training shravakas constitute the Sangha-Jewel.

Speaking in terms of dharmas, wisdom acquired without a teacher and the dharmas of beyond-training constitute the Buddha-Jewel; the unconditioned Truth of Cessation, which is neither a dharma of training nor a dharma of beyond-training, constitutes the Dharma-Jewel; and the training and beyond-training shravakas constitute the Sangha-Jewel.

Speaking in terms of faculties, the Buddha is the faculty of one who has realized knowledge; the Dharma has no faculty; and the Sangha is the three undefiled faculties. Speaking in terms of the Four Truths, the Buddha is the Truth of the Path, the Dharma is the Truth of Cessation, and the Sangha is a portion of the Truth of the Path.

Speaking in terms of the fruits of the shramana, the Buddha is a shramana, the Dharma is the fruit of the shramana, and the Sangha is also a shramana.

Speaking in terms of brahmins, the Buddha is a brahmin, the Dharma is the fruit of a brahmin, and the Sangha is also the fruit of a brahmin.

Speaking in terms of the holy life, the Buddha is the holy life, the Dharma is also the fruit of the holy life, and the Sangha is also the holy life.

Speaking in terms of cause and effect, the Buddha is the cause, the Dharma-Jewel is the effect, the Sangha is the cause, and the Dharma-Jewel is also the effect.

Speaking in terms of the path and its fruit, the Buddha is the Path, the Dharma-Jewel is the fruit, the Sangha is the Path, and the Dharma-Jewel is also the fruit. The Buddha takes the Dharma as his teacher; the Buddha is born from the Dharma; the Dharma is the mother of the Buddha; and the Buddha abides in reliance upon the Dharma.

Upali asked:

—If the Buddha takes the Dharma as his teacher, why is the Dharma not named first among the Three Jewels?

The Buddha replied:

—Although the Dharma is the teacher, without the Buddha the Dharma could not be widely propagated. Thus it is often said, “The Way is propagated by human beings.” For this reason, the Buddha stands first among the Three Jewels.

At that time, the Venerable Upali again asked the Buddha: “Blessed One, when receiving the Three Refuges, may one name the Dharma-Jewel first and the Buddha afterward?”

The Buddha replied:

—If an ignorant person recites them out of order, that person incurs no offense and still accomplishes the Three Refuges. But if a knowledgeable person deliberately recites them in the wrong order, that person incurs an offense and cannot accomplish the Three Refuges.

Upali asked:

—If one names only the Buddha and the Dharma, but not the Sangha, does one accomplish the Three Refuges? Or if one names the Dharma and the Sangha, but not the Buddha, does one accomplish the Three Refuges?

Or if one names only the Buddha and the Sangha, but not the Dharma, does one accomplish the Three Refuges?

The Buddha replied:

—None of these accomplishes the Three Refuges, because the Three Jewels are incomplete.

Upali asked:

—If one does not receive the Three Refuges but directly receives the Five Precepts, is that permissible?

Or if one does not receive the Three Refuges but directly receives the Eight Precepts, is the ordination valid?

Or may one receive the Ten Precepts without receiving the Three Refuges?

If the fourfold jñapti-karman is not proclaimed, may one receive full ordination?

The Buddha replied:

—None of these is permissible. If one wishes to receive the Five Precepts, one must first receive the Three Refuges.

Only after receiving the Three Refuges may one receive the Five Precepts. The names of the five precepts must be stated so that the recipient may clearly know the names of the precepts, just as the karman must be proclaimed four times before one may receive full ordination.

The four requisites, the four offenses entailing expulsion, and the thirteen offenses entailing an initial and subsequent meeting of the Sangha must also be explained so that the recipient of the precepts may clearly understand them.

After taking the Three Refuges, the precepts against killing and so forth are explained; only then are the precepts obtained.

If one can uphold a single precept, one can also uphold all five precepts. Therefore, it is said that one precept encompasses all five.

Furthermore, because the five precepts are clearly distinguished, one should personally make the vow to receive all five precepts.

It is said that the precepts are obtained after receiving the five precepts. Yet in all the teachings stated above, one should first take the Three Refuges and only afterward receive the five precepts; only thus is the meaning correct.

Upali asked:

“If an upasaka has previously taken the Three Refuges and later wishes to receive the five precepts, the eight precepts, or the ten precepts, must he take the Three Refuges again?”

The Buddha replied:

“He need not take the Three Refuges again and may still obtain those precepts, because he has already taken the Three Refuges.”

Upali asked:

“If one has not previously taken the Three Refuges but proceeds directly with the Fourfold Karman proclamation, can one obtain the full ordination precepts?”

The Buddha replied:

“If one receives the five precepts, the eight precepts, or the ten precepts, one must first take the Three Refuges and then receive those precepts; only then are the precepts established.

“But if one receives the full ordination precepts, the Fourfold Karman proclamation must be performed for the precepts to be established; it is not necessary to take the Three Refuges first. This is because the merit of the full ordination precepts is extremely profound and abundant. Without relying upon the strength of many other conditions, these precepts cannot be established.

“Therefore, the Three Refuges alone are insufficient. There must be three preceptors and seven venerable witnesses, and the Fourfold Karman proclamation must be performed; only then can the full ordination precepts be established.

“As for the five precepts, the eight precepts, and the ten precepts, their merit is lesser. Therefore, taking the Three Refuges is sufficient to establish them, and the strength of many other conditions, as required for the full ordination precepts, is unnecessary.”

Upali asked:

“Why, after one has received the full ordination precepts, are only the four offenses and the thirteen Sanghavasesa offenses explained, while the other precepts are not?”

The Buddha replied:

“These two classes of precepts are the gravest. If one violates even one of them, it is difficult to regain purity.

“Although purity may be restored, the method of repentance is extremely difficult.

“One who commits such an offense must undertake the practices of parivasa and manatta, and must afterward repent before twenty members of the Sangha before purity can be restored.

“These precepts are extremely difficult to uphold, whereas the other precepts are easier to uphold and therefore need not be explained.

“For this reason, only the two classes—the Four Parajikas and the Thirteen Sanghavasesas—are explained, while the other classes are not.”

Upali asked:

“Are these Pratimoksha precepts undefiled precepts or meditative-concentration precepts?”

The Buddha replied:

“They are neither undefiled precepts nor meditative-concentration precepts. Only when a Buddha appears in the world are there Pratimoksha precepts; when no Buddha appears in the world, they do not exist.

“However, meditative-concentration precepts and undefiled precepts always exist, whether or not a Buddha appears in the world.

“The Pratimoksha precepts must be taught by another person, whereas meditative-concentration precepts and undefiled precepts are not taught by another person.

“The Pratimoksha precepts must be transmitted by another person, whereas meditative-concentration precepts and undefiled precepts require no one to transmit them.

“Whether one is asleep or awake, and whether the mind is wholesome, unwholesome, or neither wholesome nor unwholesome, the Pratimoksha precepts are always present. Meditative-concentration precepts and undefiled precepts, however, are present only in a mind of meditative concentration or an undefiled mind; they are absent from all other minds filled with deluded thoughts.

“The Pratimoksha precepts exist only in the human realm, whereas meditative-concentration precepts and undefiled precepts exist in both the human and heavenly realms.

“The Pratimoksha precepts exist only in the Desire Realm, whereas undefiled precepts and meditative-concentration precepts can be perfected in both the Desire Realm and the Form Realm.

“Only disciples of the Buddha possess the Pratimoksha precepts. Meditative-concentration precepts, however, are possessed not only by disciples of the Buddha but also by followers of non-Buddhist paths.”

Upali asked:

“Among the five precepts of an upasaka, which are intrinsically blameworthy offenses, and which are offenses prohibited by precept?”

The Buddha replied:

“The four precepts against killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech concern intrinsically blameworthy offenses, while drinking intoxicants is an offense prohibited by precept. Because drinking intoxicants can lead one to violate the other four precepts, it was established as the fifth precept.

“Drinking intoxicants is the source of heedlessness and unruly conduct, and can easily lead one to violate the other four precepts.

“For example, during the time of Kasyapa Buddha, there was an upasaka who, because he became intoxicated, committed adultery with another man’s wife, seized and killed another person’s chicken, and, when asked why he had done so, denied having done anything at all. Because of intoxication, he violated all four precepts in a single occasion. Moreover, because of intoxication, one may also commit four of the rebellious offenses; only the offense of causing a schism in the harmonious Sangha cannot be committed in this way.

“Although drinking intoxicants is not an offense arising from past karma, one must nevertheless undergo the retribution of derangement. Because of drinking intoxicants, the mind becomes deluded and confused, like that of an insane person.

“Moreover, because of intoxication, one neglects proper duties such as sitting in meditation, reciting sutras, or assisting with the work of the community.

“Therefore, although drinking intoxicants is not intrinsically blameworthy, it is no different from an intrinsically blameworthy offense.”

The Venerable Upali again asked the Buddha:

“Among the five precepts of an upasaka, do prohibitions against transgression apply only in relation to sentient beings, or do they also apply in relation to beings said not to be sentient, such as devas, nagas, ghosts, spirits, and so forth?

“Furthermore, do these prohibitions apply only in relation to sentient beings who can be killed, robbed, subjected to sexual misconduct, or deceived by false speech?

“Or do they also apply in relation to devas, nagas, ghosts, and spirits, who are said not to be sentient beings and cannot be killed, robbed, subjected to sexual misconduct, or deceived by false speech?”

The Buddha replied:

“In relation to sentient beings, there are the first four precepts; in relation to what is not a sentient being, there is the fifth prohibition.

“Yet, speaking broadly, whether sentient beings can or cannot be killed, can or cannot be robbed, can or cannot be subjected to sexual misconduct, and can or cannot be deceived by false speech, prohibitions against transgression apply in every case.

“From the Avici Hell below to the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception above, throughout the three-thousandfold great-thousand world system, and even up to the Tathagata, the prohibitions against transgression apply in relation to every living being. At the very moment one receives the precepts, one vows not to kill, not to steal, not to engage in sexual misconduct, and not to speak falsely in relation to any of them. Therefore, the prohibitions apply in relation to all sentient beings.

“Thus, whenever the precepts are to be received, they must first be explained to the recipient. They must be presented and interpreted so that the recipient understands them and may assess whether he is capable of accepting them. If he is able to do so, aspiration will arise within him, and he will then bring forth a mind of diligence to cultivate and uphold them.

“As for the method of receiving the precepts, all sentient beings are related to the four precepts, and each of these four precepts is further differentiated, forming twelve precepts.

“For example, one must not kill, steal, engage in sexual misconduct, or speak falsely. Violations of these four precepts arise from three causes: first, greed; second, anger; and third, delusion.

“Thus, every person has twelve unwholesome courses of conduct. By acting contrary to those twelve unwholesome courses, one establishes twelve wholesome precepts.

“All species of sentient beings are likewise. Even if a million or ten million arhats enter nirvana, from the first arhat to the last, every one of them attains the fruition of the path through the merit of upholding the precepts.

“Yet do not imagine that once the arhats have realized fruition, the precepts cease to exist.”

For example, having undertaken the precept “not to drink intoxicants,” one refrains from drinking intoxicants for the rest of one’s life, because when undertaking the precept one made a vow that, even if there were all kinds of intoxicants throughout the three-thousandfold world-system, one would never drink them again.

Even supposing that no one were left who made intoxicants, the precept would still continually be upheld and would not thereby be lost.

The Venerable Upali asked:

-Before undertaking the precepts, a man does not commit sexual misconduct with any woman; but afterward he takes a wife. Does he thereby violate the precept against sexual misconduct?

The Buddha replied:

-He does not violate it. This is because he must not engage in sexual misconduct with any woman; but since this woman is his own wife, it is not sexual misconduct, and therefore he does not violate that precept.

By reasoning from this principle, the same applies in every case.

It is likewise so with the eight precepts and the ten precepts, and with the precepts received by sentient beings, devas, nagas, ghosts, and spirits. Within the two hundred and fifty precepts, all sentient beings receive the seven precepts.

When distinguished according to their meaning, these seven precepts become twenty-one precepts.

For example, a sentient being may commit three evils with the body and four with the mouth, making seven evils. When committing those evils, three factors must be present: first, they may be committed out of greed; second, out of anger; and third, out of delusion. Because these seven evils are caused by those three factors, three times seven makes twenty-one unwholesome precepts.

If one acts contrary to those twenty-one unwholesome precepts, they become twenty-one wholesome precepts. Just as one sentient being receives twenty-one such characteristics of the precepts, so too do all other sentient beings.

Reasoning from this, one may receive immeasurable precepts in a single moment, but one cannot violate all the precepts in a single moment. One can, however, relinquish all the precepts in a single moment.

As for the manner in which the precepts are broken, if one violates any of the four grave precepts, the precepts are considered lost. After breaking the precepts, even if one undertakes them again, one does not receive them. For example, if one has broken a grave precept among the Eight Fasting Precepts and afterward again undertakes the eight precepts, the five precepts, the ten precepts, the two hundred and fifty precepts, the meditative precepts, or the undefiled precepts, none of them is received.

If, while observing the five precepts, one breaks all four grave precepts and afterward undertakes the eight precepts, the ten precepts, the Full Ordination Precepts, the undefiled precepts, or the meditative precepts, none becomes established as precepts.

If one has broken all five precepts and wishes to relinquish the five precepts in order to undertake the ten precepts, one can no longer receive them.

If one has broken and relinquished the five precepts, the eight precepts, the ten precepts, the Full Ordination Precepts, the undefiled precepts, or the meditative precepts, none of them can be received.

If one has broken the grave precepts among the ten precepts or the Full Ordination Precepts and, wishing to receive the precepts again, relinquishes them in order to undertake them anew, the meaning is the same as stated above concerning the five precepts: they cannot be received.

The Venerable Upali asked:

-Of the meditative precepts, the undefiled precepts, and the Pratimoksha, which of these three kinds of precepts is supreme?

The Buddha replied:

-The Pratimoksha is supreme. This is because these precepts exist only when a Buddha appears in the world, whereas the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts exist at all times.

Only human beings can undertake and uphold the Pratimoksha precepts, whereas both humans and devas can receive the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts.

One must give rise to compassion for all sentient beings before one can undertake the Pratimoksha precepts, whereas the meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts can be received even without compassion.

The Buddhadharma is preserved because of the Seven Assemblies, and the fruits of the paths of the Three Vehicles remain forever in the world without ever coming to an end, all because they are founded upon the Pratimoksha.

The meditative precepts and the undefiled precepts are not like this. Therefore, throughout the three realms, the Pratimoksha precepts are the most honored and precious.

When one is about to undertake the precepts, after the motion and three proclamations have been made, the characteristics of the precepts are fully established. The first thought directed toward the characteristics of the precepts is called wholesome karma and is also called the karma of the Path.

But if there is an initial thought and only afterward the characteristics of the precepts arise, it is merely wholesome karma and is not yet the karma of the Path.

This is because the initial thought concerning the characteristics of the precepts fully contains the two aspects of intention and vow, and for this reason it is called the intentional karma of the Path.

First the precepts are taken as the cause, and afterward the characteristics of the precepts arise naturally. Therefore, it is called wholesome karma rather than the karma of the Path.

For example, in the very first thought concerning the precepts, there are the “characteristics of the precepts” and the “nature of the precepts.” Afterward, the precepts arise successively, but they possess only the nature of the precepts and not their characteristics. Therefore, the initial thought concerning the precepts is also called the precepts, wholesome conduct, or moral restraint. The precepts that continue to arise afterward are understood according to the same principle.

Upali again asked the Buddha:

-Among the three periods of time, in which period are the precepts received?

The Buddha replied:

-In the present, the precepts are received in a single thought-moment. The past and the future are dharmas rather than sentient beings, and therefore cannot receive the precepts. A single thought-moment in the present is a sentient being, and therefore receives the precepts.

Upali asked:

-Then are the precepts received in a wholesome state of mind, in an unwholesome state of mind, in a karmically indeterminate state of mind, or in a state without mind?

The Buddha replied:

-They may be received in all such states.

First, one must with a wholesome mind pay homage to the Sangha, request an ordination preceptor, and ask to undertake the higher ordination. Kneeling with palms joined, one completes the motion and three proclamations. If the wholesome mind continues until the characteristics of the precepts are fully established, this is called receiving the precepts in a wholesome state of mind.

If at first one follows each procedure in succession, continually giving rise to a wholesome mind while listening to the transmission of the precepts, but during the motion and three proclamations gives rise instead to lust, anger, and other unwholesome thoughts, and if at that time the characteristics of the precepts become fully established, this is called receiving the precepts in an unwholesome state of mind. This is because the precepts are received through the power of the wholesome mind, not through the power of the unwholesome mind.

If at first one listens with a wholesome mind to instruction concerning the Vinaya, but during the motion and three proclamations becomes drowsy, and if the characteristics of the precepts arise while one is asleep, this is called receiving the precepts in a karmically indeterminate state of mind.

If at first one listens with a wholesome mind to the transmission of the precepts, but during the motion and three proclamations enters the attainment of cessation, and if at that very time the characteristics of the precepts become fully established, this is called receiving the precepts in a state without mind.

The Venerable Upali again asked the Buddha:

-If a layperson does not undertake the five precepts, but upon going forth immediately undertakes the ten precepts, are the precepts thereby established?

The Buddha replied:

-In such a case, two kinds of precepts are received at once: the precepts of an upasaka and the precepts of a shramanera. If one does not undertake the five precepts or the ten precepts, but immediately undertakes the two hundred and fifty precepts, then three kinds of precepts are received at once.

Upali again asked:

-If, upon undertaking the two hundred and fifty precepts, one simultaneously receives three kinds of precepts, why is it necessary to follow the sequence of first undertaking the five precepts, next the ten precepts, and only then the two hundred and fifty precepts?

The Buddha replied:

-Although one may simultaneously receive three kinds of precepts, if one wishes to become thoroughly imbued with the Buddhadharma, one must follow the proper sequence. First one undertakes the five precepts to discipline oneself and gradually increase one’s faith. Next one undertakes the ten precepts, thereby deepening one’s wholesome roots. Only afterward does one undertake the two hundred and fifty precepts.

If one follows this sequence, one becomes deeply imbued with the Buddhadharma, one’s faith becomes firm and enduring, and one becomes difficult to turn back. It is like entering the great ocean and gradually reaching its profound depths. Entering the ocean of the Buddhadharma is likewise so.

If one immediately undertakes the two hundred and fifty precepts all at once, one not only disregards the proper sequence but also violates dignified conduct. Moreover, some people attain the fruit of the Path merely by undertaking the five precepts, while others attain the fruit of the Path through undertaking the ten precepts.

Because of these distinctions, the Tathagata established an order of succession.

If one first receives the five precepts and next receives the ten precepts, then upon receiving the ten precepts one also fulfills two kinds of precepts: the five precepts and the ten precepts.

After receiving the ten precepts, if one subsequently receives the two hundred and fifty precepts, then upon receiving the two hundred and fifty precepts one also fulfills three kinds of precepts: the five precepts, the ten precepts, and the full precepts.

Among the procedures for conferring the precepts upon the seven assemblies, only the precepts conferred through the karma of one motion and three proclamations must be received successively at three stages before they are obtained. The other six assemblies obtain the precepts by receiving them at a single stage and need not follow the succession of three stages.

If one has received three kinds of precepts and later wishes to relinquish them, should one say, “I am a sramanera, not a bhikkhu,” one loses the full precepts and retains only two kinds of precepts: the five precepts and the ten precepts.

If one says, “I am an upasaka, not a sramanera,” one loses the ten precepts and retains only the five precepts.

If one says, “I relinquish all the precepts of both household and homeless life. I am merely an upasaka who has taken refuge,” one simultaneously loses all three kinds of precepts, but the Three Refuges remain.

The Venerable Upali asked:

“If, when receiving the precepts, one obtains the three kinds of precepts in succession, must one also relinquish them in succession? For example, if one first received the upasaka precepts and later left home and received the ten precepts, must one first relinquish the five precepts?”

The Buddha replied:

“They need not be relinquished. One loses only the designation ‘upasaka’ and the status of a householder, but does not lose the five precepts. One loses the designation ‘upasaka’ and acquires the designation ‘sramanera’; one loses one’s place in the order of householders and acquires one’s place in the order of those who have left home.”

Upali asked:

“When a sramanera receives the full precepts, does he lose the ten precepts and the five precepts?”

The Buddha replied:

“He loses only his designation and place in the order, but does not lose the precepts.

“He loses the designation ‘sramanera’ and acquires the designation ‘bhikkhu’; he loses his place in the order of sramaneras and acquires his place in the order of bhikkhus. Before and afterward, there are still three kinds of precepts, but their names change according to the occasion.

“It is like the leaves of a tree: in spring and summer they are green, in autumn they are yellow, and in winter they are white. Although their colors differ, the leaves remain the same.

“The precepts are likewise. They are always the same precepts, but they have different names according to the occasion. It is also like milk that, when left for a long time, becomes cream and afterward becomes condensed milk. Although it differs according to the stage, it is still milk.

“The precepts are the same: although there are three different kinds, the precepts remain one.”

Upali again asked the Buddha:

“When receiving the upasaka precepts, if a person lacks the strength to receive all five precepts and receives only one, two, or four precepts, is this permissible?”

The Buddha replied:

“It is not permissible.”

Upali again asked:

“If it is not permissible, why do the sutras speak of ‘an upasaka in a minor part’ and ‘an upasaka in a major part’? What does this mean?”

The Buddha replied:

“This is said to distinguish whether the merit of observing the precepts is great or small. It does not mean that the precepts may be received in such a manner.”

Upali again asked the Buddha:

“May the five precepts be received and observed for only one day, two days, or ten days?”

The Buddha replied:

“No. The precepts established by the Buddha each have a prescribed duration. If one receives the five precepts, one must observe them throughout one’s life; if one receives the eight precepts, one must observe them for one day and one night. Therefore, this is not permissible.

“All precepts conferred through the karma of one motion and three proclamations have superior, intermediate, and inferior grades. The five precepts are of the inferior grade; the ten precepts are of the intermediate grade; and the two hundred and fifty precepts are of the superior grade.

“Within the five precepts there are also three grades. If one arouses a lesser resolve when receiving the precepts, one obtains the inferior grade. If one arouses an intermediate resolve when receiving the precepts, one obtains the intermediate grade. If one arouses a great resolve when receiving the precepts, one obtains the superior grade. The ten precepts and the two hundred and fifty precepts likewise each have three grades, just as explained above concerning the five precepts.

“If one arouses a lesser resolve and obtains the five precepts, then later arouses an intermediate or great resolve and receives the ten precepts, one still possesses the same five precepts received before; they are neither increased nor made superior.

“From the sixth precept through the precept of ‘not eating after the prescribed time’—that is, those beyond the five precepts—one is said to obtain ‘the enhancement of the five precepts.’

“If one first arouses a lesser resolve and obtains the five precepts, one still obtains only the five precepts of the inferior grade. Likewise, if one first arouses a lesser resolve and receives the five precepts, then later arouses an intermediate or great resolve and receives the two hundred and fifty precepts, one still possesses only the same five precepts received before; they are neither increased nor made superior.

“Apart from the five precepts, the other precepts are the same in this respect. If one’s resolve increases when receiving the precepts, one obtains enhanced precepts. From this it may be inferred that the Pratimoksha precepts are not easily obtained.

“Speaking according to their sequence, the five precepts are of the inferior grade, the ten precepts are of the intermediate grade, and the two hundred and fifty precepts are called the superior grade.

“By reasoning from this principle, it may also be said that if one arouses a great resolve and receives the five precepts, one obtains precepts of the superior grade; if one arouses an intermediate resolve and receives the ten precepts, one obtains precepts of the intermediate grade; and if one arouses a lesser resolve and receives the two hundred and fifty precepts, one obtains precepts of the inferior grade.

“From this one knows that, according to whether the resolve is great, intermediate, or lesser, the precepts obtained are likewise superior, intermediate, or inferior. They are not all alike and are not fixed.

“If one has invited a preceptor, but the preceptor is absent when the ten precepts are received, one still obtains the precepts.

“If, while the ten precepts are being received, the preceptor dies, or if one learns that he has died, the conferral is invalid and the precepts are not obtained. If he has died but one does not know it, the precepts are obtained through the conferral. If, during the karma of one motion and three proclamations for receiving the full precepts, the preceptor is absent, one cannot receive the precepts, because the required quorum of the Sangha is lacking. If the required quorum of the Sangha is present and someone acts on behalf of the preceptor, one may receive the precepts.”

The Venerable Upali again asked the Buddha:

“May an upasaka who has received the five precepts engage in trade?”

The Buddha replied:

“He may engage in trade, but he must not pursue the following five occupations:

1. He must not make a livelihood by trading in animals. If, before receiving the precepts, his household raised animals, he may sell them, but he must not sell them to a butcher.

2. He must not make a livelihood by trading in bows, arrows, knives, swords, firearms, or ammunition. If he possessed such things before receiving the precepts, he may sell them.

3. He must not make a livelihood by selling intoxicating liquor. If he possessed liquor before receiving the precepts, he may sell it.

4. He must not press oil in a manner that kills insects. The method of pressing oil in India and Kashmir is to pound hemp seeds, bury them in the ground for several days, and, after many worms have arisen, remove and press them so as to obtain more oil. However, if a region does not employ this method, pressing oil does not violate the precepts.

5. He must not make a livelihood by dyeing with the five principal colors, because this requires killing many insects. The methods of dyeing colors in the lands of Laksha and elsewhere require killing many insects; therefore, the occupation of dyeing is prohibited.”

Upali again asked the Buddha:

“The observance of the Eight Precepts prohibits eating after noon. Yet abstaining from eating after noon is the ninth precept. Why, then, is it not called the ‘Ninefold Observance,’ but instead the ‘Eightfold Observance’?”

The Buddha replied:

“The essence of the fasting observance is abstaining from eating after noon. The eight precepts together support and establish the ‘essence’ of the fasting observance; therefore, it is called the ‘Eight-Branched Fasting Observance.’ Thus, one speaks of eight precepts rather than nine.”

Upali asked:

“To which of the seven assemblies do those who receive the Eight Precepts belong?”

The Buddha replied:

“Although they do not receive precepts to be observed throughout their lives, because they observe the precepts for one day and one night, they may also be called upasakas.”

Upali again asked:

“Apart from the seven assemblies, are there Pratimoksha precepts?”

The Buddha replied:

—There are the Eight Fasting Precepts. From this it may be inferred that those who receive the Eight Fasting Precepts do not belong to the seven assemblies. The procedure for receiving the Eight Fasting Precepts merely states that one must not kill living beings for one day and one night; it does not impose this prohibition beyond that period. Therefore, they should not be confused with the precepts observed for an entire lifetime.

Upali asked:

—May the Eight Fasting Precepts be received at one time for two days, three days, or even ten days?

The Buddha replied:

—The Buddha established these precepts for one day and one night, so that period must not be exceeded. If one has the strength to receive them, then after one day has ended, one may receive them again in succession. In this way, one may continue for as many or as few days as one’s strength permits, but one must not designate a fixed number of days in advance. In general, to receive the Dharma of the Eightfold Fast, one must receive it according to the instruction of another person.

Upali asked:

—From whom should one receive it?

The Buddha replied:

—One should receive it from a member of the five assemblies of monastics. After receiving the Eight Precepts, if one beats or harms living beings, one does not attain purity. Even if one does not beat or harm them on the day the precepts are received, but does so the following day, one still does not attain purity.

In brief, if one’s body, speech, or mind engages in conduct contrary to proper deportment, then although one may not have violated the precepts, one nevertheless loses purity. If body and speech are pure, but thoughts of sensual desire, anger, or harm arise in the mind, one likewise does not attain purity.

Even if the three karmic activities of body, speech, and mind are all pure, if one does not cultivate the six recollections, one still loses purity.

Only after receiving the Eight Precepts and diligently cultivating the six recollections may one be said to observe the fasting Dharma in purity.

Suppose one became the king of Jambudvipa, wealthy and sovereign, lacking neither gold, silver, nor precious treasures. Although one possessed such merit, if it were divided into sixteen parts, the merit of the king of Jambudvipa would not equal even one part of the merit gained by observing the Eight Fasting Precepts in complete purity.

If a person intends to receive the Dharma of the Eightfold Fast but, before receiving it, indulges in wanton activities—such as sensual pleasures, instrumental music, singing, eating meat, drinking alcohol, and arranging all manner of entertainment—allowing the mind free rein in these activities and only afterward receiving the Eight Fasting Precepts, then whether before or afterward, the fasting precepts are not established.

If a person had no intention in mind to receive the Eight Fasting Precepts and engaged in those wanton activities, but later encountered a spiritual friend who instructed them and immediately received the Eight Fasting Precepts, then whether before or afterward, the fasting precepts are established.

If a person wishes to receive the Eight Fasting Precepts but encounters many difficulties and obstacles and lacks freedom to do so, yet later resolves those difficulties and then receives the Eight Fasting Precepts, then whether before or afterward, the fasting precepts are established.

Venerable Upali asked:

—If a person wishes to receive them for only a limited period—for example, observing the fasting Dharma only during the day and not at night, or only at night and not during the day—does that person obtain the Eight Precepts?

The Buddha replied:

—No. The Buddha established the fasting Dharma to be received for one day and one night. Since this period has been fixed, it must not be altered.

Upali asked:

—If that is not permitted, why does the Leather Treatise state: “When Yi’er was in a desolate wilderness, he often saw hungry ghosts undergoing all manner of painful retribution. Some enjoyed blessings by day and suffered punishment by night; others enjoyed blessings by night and suffered punishment by day. This was because, when they had formerly been human beings, they received the precepts by day but committed evil deeds by night, or received the precepts by night but practiced unwholesome conduct by day”? What is the meaning of this?

The Buddha replied:

—As a general rule, matters involving causes and conditions from past lives cannot be established on the basis of such words. The Leather Treatise is neither sutra nor Vinaya, and therefore it cannot be relied upon to determine the true meaning of these matters. It may have been that Katyayana, wishing to deliver Yi’er, manifested these appearances as a skillful means to transform him; they were not actual events.

After receiving the fasting precepts, if one wishes to relinquish them, one need not seek out members of the five assemblies to do so. When one wishes to eat, one need only tell another person, “Today I relinquish the fast.” The fast is thereby relinquished.

Among the five destinies, only human beings can receive the Pratimoksha precepts; beings in the other four destinies cannot.

For example, heavenly beings are too deeply absorbed in pleasure and therefore cannot receive the precepts. Formerly, on one occasion, because a disciple had fallen ill, Mahamaudgalyayana had to ascend to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three to seek the physician Jivaka and bring him down to administer treatment.

When Maudgalyayana arrived, he saw the heavenly beings amusing themselves in the Garden of Delight. Although he stood beside the road, no one paid him any attention. Later, Jivaka turned around and saw Maudgalyayana. He raised his hand in greeting and then continued riding straight ahead in his carriage. Maudgalyayana thought to himself: “This man was formerly my disciple. Now he enjoys blessed recompense in the heavenly realm, but because he is so deeply absorbed in pleasure, he no longer remembers me.” Having thought this, he used his spiritual power to stop the carriage. Jivaka descended and bowed to Maudgalyayana.

Maudgalyayana then reproached him in many ways. Jivaka said: “Venerable Maudgalyayana, because I was formerly your disciple in the human realm, I raised my hand in greeting. But have you seen any of the other heavenly beings do even that? All who are born in the heavenly realm have minds absorbed in pleasure and therefore lack freedom and self-mastery. That is why they behave in this way.”

Maudgalyayana then asked Jivaka:

—I have a disciple who has fallen ill. How should he be treated?

Jivaka replied:

—Fasting would be the best treatment.

On another occasion, Maudgalyayana admonished King Shakra Devendra, saying: “It is difficult to encounter a Buddha appearing in the world. Why do you not remain constantly near him, making offerings and requesting to hear the true Dharma?”

King Shakra wished to understand Venerable Maudgalyayana’s meaning, so he sent someone to summon a messenger. Yet although the messenger was called two or three times, he did not come, for he had a wife and a singing maiden and was engrossed in sensual desire. Thus, although he was a heavenly being, he could not tear himself away. In the end, however, he could no longer delay and had to come.

When he arrived, King Shakra asked him why he had delayed. The messenger answered truthfully that he had been so deeply absorbed in pleasure that he could not come at once.

King Shakra then said to Maudgalyayana: “That man has only one wife and one singing maiden, yet he is so engrossed in pleasure that he cannot tear himself away. How much more so the King of the Heavenly Realm, who has countless palaces, innumerable heavenly maidens, heavenly foods of a hundred exquisite flavors, and hundreds of thousands of singers! So immersed and engrossed in pleasure is he that, looking toward the east, he forgets the west. How could he tear himself away? Therefore, although I know that it is difficult to encounter a Buddha appearing in the world and difficult to hear the true Dharma, I am bound by these pleasures and have lost all freedom and self-mastery. What can I do?”

In general, to receive the precepts, one must possess a courageous and resolute mind and vow to sever all entangling conditions. Only then can one obtain the precepts.

The beings in the heavenly realms are deeply attached to sensual pleasures, while the strength of their wholesome minds is weak. How, then, could they obtain the precepts? Hungry ghosts suffer from hunger and thirst, their bodies and minds scorched. Beings in the hells undergo all manner of punishment and excruciating pain; their minds are afflicted and confused. They likewise have no means of obtaining the precepts.

As for animals, their karmic obstructions are deep and heavy, and they are foolish, ignorant, and without understanding or knowledge; therefore, they too cannot receive the precepts.

Although certain teachings state that dragons also observe the fasting Dharma, this refers only to the wholesome mind. That is, by observing the Eight Precepts for one day and one night, they gain the merit of a wholesome mind, but they do not obtain the Eight Precepts themselves because of their karmic obstructions.

Regarding the four continents, only three—the continents of Jambudvipa, Aparagodaniya, and Purvavideha—and the people dwelling on the islands in the seas between those three continents can receive the precepts. In the continent of Aparagodaniya, the Buddha sent Pindola to propagate the Way and establish the fourfold assembly.

In the continent of Purvavideha, bhiksus also carry out the Buddha’s work, and there too exists the fourfold assembly. Only the continent of Uttarakuru is without the Buddha-Dharma and, naturally, without the precepts. Because the blessings and pleasures there are too abundant and the people are foolish, they are unable to receive the Buddha-Dharma.

Furthermore, there are four classes of persons: males, females, pandakas, and hermaphrodites. Of these four, only two classes—males and females—can receive the precepts. The other two, pandakas and hermaphrodites, cannot receive them.

Yet among males and females, anyone who has killed their father or mother, killed an arhat, caused the body of a Buddha to bleed, disrupted the Sangha, violated a bhiksuni, extinguished all roots of goodness, or falsely impersonated a monastic, as well as those who cannot be delivered—all such persons cannot receive the precepts.

More broadly, all who esteem the Buddha-Dharma—whether devas, nagas, ghosts and spirits, inhabitants of Uttarakuru, pandakas, hermaphrodites, or any other nonhuman beings—may receive the Three Refuges.

Upali asked:

“Do the Buddhas of the three times deliver equal numbers of sentient beings through receiving the precepts, or are there differences among them?”

The Buddha replied:

“They are not equal. When speaking of the precepts, only sentient and insentient beings can serve as the objects in relation to which the precepts are acquired. When a Buddha appears in the world, he delivers innumerable asamkhyeyas of sentient beings into the realm of nirvana without remainder.

“When the next Buddha appears in the world, none of those sentient beings can again serve as objects in relation to which the precepts are acquired. From this it may be known that the objects in relation to which the precepts are acquired under the Buddhas are not the same. For example, the Buddha Kasyapa delivered innumerable asamkhyeyas of sentient beings into the realm of nirvana without remainder, and he enabled all those sentient beings to become objects in relation to which the precepts were acquired.

“But under Buddha Sakyamuni, none of those sentient beings can again serve as objects in relation to which the precepts are acquired.

“Nevertheless, all Buddhas are alike in three respects:

“First, they accumulate the same meritorious practices.

“Second, their Dharma bodies are the same.

“Third, they deliver sentient beings equally.

“All Buddhas cultivated the bodhisattva practices throughout three asamkhyeya kalpas. All perfectly fulfilled the Fivefold Dharma Body, the Ten Powers, the Four Fearlessnesses, and the Eighteen Distinctive Qualities; and all delivered innumerable asamkhyeyas of sentient beings into the realm of nirvana without remainder.”

Upali asked:

“The sutras often state that when one Buddha appears in the world, he delivers ninety nayutas of sentient beings into nirvana without remainder. Yet it is now said that innumerable asamkhyeyas of sentient beings are delivered. What does this mean?”

The Buddha replied:

“When the sutras say that a Buddha appearing in the world delivers ninety nayutas of sentient beings, they refer only to those beings who are delivered directly by the Buddha. Other sentient beings may be delivered through the Buddha, through the Buddha’s disciples, or through the Buddha’s teachings.

“Thus, the ninety nayutas of sentient beings are only those delivered directly by the Buddha himself. In summary, through the Buddha, through his disciples, or through his teachings, innumerable asamkhyeyas of sentient beings are delivered into the realm of nirvana without remainder.

“The Buddhas of the three times are alike in these three respects, but their ways of delivering sentient beings and enabling them to acquire the precepts differ.”

Upali asked:

“Can both sentient and insentient beings serve as the objects in relation to which the precepts of evil conduct are received?”

The Buddha replied:

“Only sentient beings can serve as the objects in relation to which the precepts of evil conduct are received; insentient beings cannot. In other words, only beings capable of being killed can serve as such objects, while those incapable of being killed cannot. Yet it may also be said that both sentient beings who can be killed and sentient beings who cannot be killed can serve as the objects in relation to which the precepts of evil conduct are received.

“For example, a butcher who slaughters sheep constantly harbors the intent to kill. His mind is always occupied with slaughtering sheep. Suppose there are beings in the human or heavenly realms who do not engage in killing as an occupation. Because they must continue transmigrating through the cycle of rebirth, they may at some time fall into rebirth as sheep. Therefore, all sentient beings can serve as the objects in relation to which the precepts of evil conduct are received.

“The same applies to the twelve occupations governed by evil conduct. The twelve are:

1. Butchering

2. Selling fermented meat rolls

3. Raising pigs

4. Raising chickens

5. Fishing

6. Hunting

7. Trapping birds

8. Catching pythons

9. Trapping dragons

10. Serving as a prison guard

11. Engaging in banditry

12. Serving as a hired fighter

“These are the twelve occupations governed by evil conduct. Those who raise silkworms are likewise people who cannot remain apart from evil conduct.

“There are three occasions on which the precepts of evil conduct are relinquished: first, at death; second, upon receiving the precepts of proper conduct; and third, upon receiving the Three Refuges. On the first occasion, the evil precepts are abandoned; on the second and third occasions, one acquires what are called the wholesome precepts.”

Upali asked:

“When a person undertakes the evil precepts, at what point does that person relinquish the wholesome precepts and acquire the evil precepts?”

The Buddha replied:

“The first time one declares, ‘I am a butcher,’ one loses the wholesome precepts. Upon declaring for the second and third times, ‘I am a butcher,’ one immediately acquires the evil precepts.

“In other words, one acquires the evil precepts at the very moment one relinquishes the wholesome precepts.

“If a person who observes the wholesome precepts has not yet declared himself a butcher but, out of greed for profit, joins a butcher in the work of killing, he has already violated the wholesome precepts at that moment.

“If one wishes to relinquish the wholesome precepts and seek the evil precepts, it is sufficient to make the vow oneself; there is no need to receive instruction from another.

“If one wishes to receive the precepts of evil conduct for one day and one night, for as many as ten days, or for one year or two years, one may do so for whatever length of time one’s mind desires, whether long or short. Because evil dharmas accord with the current of samsara, one acquires them merely by acting accordingly; they are unlike the precepts of wholesome conduct.”