般若波羅蜜多心經贊

The explanation of the Prajnaparamita Sutra is now divided into four sections:

1. First, teaching the causal conditions for the Dharma

2. Discussing the doctrinal purport and substance of the sutra

3. Explaining the sections and headings

4. Critical assessment

1. First, the Buddha’s teaching concerning causal conditions: The teachings begin with what is shallow and proceed to the profound principle, utterly deep and remote, where neither existence nor nonexistence can be perceived. The profound Dharma-characteristics (Dharma-nature) are transcendent and cannot be expressed in language.

Yet their true import is inexhaustible; it was therefore necessary to open the two repositories and establish teachings with a basis, and so the Buddha manifested the three bodies. It may be said that when hostile forces stirred, the celestial drum sounded of itself; it was like the moon appearing in limpid spring water. Yet the Buddha had to respond to beings at the appropriate time and guide them according to their capacities.

Therefore, the Buddha turned the Dharma wheel three times, directing those who had not yet understood toward the true source. Thus, at the Deer Park in Varanasi, the Buddha initially taught the causes and effects of samsara and nirvana. In the first turning, the Buddha expounded the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths to eliminate attachment to self and to direct those who understood toward the Mahayana.

On Vulture Peak, the Buddha taught the scriptures comprising sixteen assemblies, among which were the Prajnaparamita Sutras. The Prajnaparamita Sutras constitute the second teaching, the Dharma of signlessness, through which attachment to the existence of dharmas is gradually severed; yet attachment to emptiness had still not been severed. Therefore, in the Lotus Treasury, during the third turning, the Buddha taught about pure and defiled realms and expounded the profound and esoteric meaning of the Mahayana, in which the principles of both existence and nonexistence are complete.

Yet beings still clung to one side apart from the two dharmas of existence and nonexistence, and so the Buddha taught this Dharma of causal conditions.

2. Discussing the doctrinal purport and substance of the sutra: As for doctrinal purport and substance, “substance” refers generally to the clear and lucid teaching, while “purport,” or that which is revered, illuminates the particular points taught. However, the various schools do not agree concerning the substance of the Buddha’s teaching.

The Sarvastivada school takes sound as its substance, regarding sound, when compared with what is morally indeterminate, as wholesome. According to the Sautrantika, however, the various teachings continuously provisionally employ sound; since apart from sound there is nothing distinct, it is therefore called a comparative expression. The Mahayana schools are not unanimous: some scriptures take sound alone as their substance, as in the Vimalakirti Sutra, or in certain Buddha lands where sound performs the Buddha’s work; some scriptures take names alone as their substance, as in the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only.

Since dharmas do not obstruct wisdom, names are taken as its object, while sound and names are jointly combined, as in the Sutra of the Ten Grounds. Teaching those who listen must depend upon these two matters; how, then, should sound and names be understood? The schools differ on this point.

On the basis of the real, the provisional is established; proceeding from the real, sound and names are taken as the essential nature. Yet each portion of the Buddha’s teaching is based upon a particular meaning, and so they do not contradict one another. Why is this?

Because by provisionally relying upon the real and taking names as the substance, names are not distinct from sound. Taking substance from function, names are taken as the substance, thereby revealing the distinctions in the intrinsic nature of dharmas. These two bases provisionally combine with the original true characteristic as their substance; if either is lacking, it cannot be established.

Therefore, because objects follow the mind, consciousness is taken as the substance. The sutras state that dharmas are not separate from consciousness; therefore, by subsuming the false into the true, suchness is taken as the substance. The Sutra of the Benevolent Kings elucidates the revealed nature of dharmas.

The doctrinal purports may broadly be divided into three kinds: distinct teachings presented according to beings’ faculties and ailments; the distinct doctrinal purport of each sutra; and the establishment of doctrinal purports according to the periods of teaching. 1) Distinct doctrinal purports taught according to beings’ faculties and ailments means that, because of ignorance, sentient beings give rise to greed, hatred, delusion, and the eighty-four thousand afflictions.

The Tathagata therefore prescribes medicine according to the illness, teaching the skandhas, ayatanas, and so forth—the eighty-four thousand Dharma gates. Through these dharmas, each illness is treated as appropriate; thus the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth are the points through which the doctrinal purport is revealed. 2) Each sutra has its own distinct doctrinal purport: although each sutra contains many approaches, each approach penetrates deeply into an import that differs according to the particular sutra.

Thus, the Lotus Sutra takes the One Vehicle as its doctrinal purport; the Nirvana Sutra takes Buddha-nature as its doctrinal purport; the Vimalakirti Sutra takes the Dharma of nonduality as its doctrinal purport; and the Avatamsaka Sutra takes the causes and fruits of sages and worthies as its doctrinal purport. It should be understood that the other schools may accordingly be assessed by the foregoing standard. 3) Establishing doctrinal purports according to the periods of teaching: Although there are many kinds of sacred scriptures, their doctrinal purports ultimately do not go beyond three kinds.

These three are the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths, signlessness, and the ultimate meaning of the Mahayana, as in the Samdhinirmocana Sutra. Thus, the essential point here is that, among these doctrinal systems, this sutra takes signlessness as its doctrinal purport.

3. Explanation of the title: “The Buddha Speaks the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra.” In the title, “The Buddha Speaks” indicates the principal teacher. “Buddha” is a Sanskrit word, translated into Chinese as “Awakened One.” One who fully possesses the wisdom of ultimate and conventional truth, is self-awakened, awakens others, and has perfected the practice of awakening is called a Buddha.

The Buddha reveals the subtle and wondrous Dharma gates so that sentient beings may clearly understand; this is therefore called “speaking.” “Prajnaparamita” is the Dharma that is taught; it is translated into Chinese as “reaching the other shore”—the shore of liberation. “Heart Sutra” signifies the essential meaning of the teaching that is to be illuminated. In the method of realizing the Way, the mind-king (1) is uniquely preeminent with respect to prajna.

This teaching is supremely exalted; its name is established through a metaphor, and it is therefore called the “Heart.” The word “sutra” has two meanings: threading together and embracing and preserving. It threads together words in harmony and embraces and preserves those who are taught and delivered. Based principally upon agent and object, it elucidates the Dharma and establishes the title through metaphor; hence, “The Buddha Speaks the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra.”

4. Commentary and explanation: As for Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Prajnaparamita Sutra as a whole consists of three parts: first, it illuminates the wisdom that contemplates; the following section, beginning with “Sariputra,” then discusses the object contemplated; thereafter, by means of non-attainment, it further reveals the fruit attained. The sutra has neither an introductory section nor a concluding section because, with regard to prajna, it presents the essential point concisely.

Thus, it contains only the main doctrinal section and lacks the introduction and conclusion found in the Avalokitesvara Sutra; therefore, it does not possess all three sections. The passage on Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara focuses on the first and middle portions, which are the two principal sections. The first indicates the person capable of contemplation; the next discusses the wisdom by which contemplation is performed.

This first section clarifies the person capable of contemplation. According to ancient texts, he was called “Avalokitesvara,” the Perceiver of the Sounds of the World, because he contemplates all worldly dharmas and, when beings call the Bodhisattva’s name aloud, saves them from suffering and calamity. For this reason, he is known as Avalokitesvara.

Because this does not yet express the contemplation and illumination of bodily and mental karma, this sutra calls him Avalokitesvara, the Lord Who Contemplates Freely. In realizing the two kinds of emptiness, Avalokitesvara contemplates the three karmas without relying upon deliberate effort, remaining unhindered and sovereign; hence he is called Avalokitesvara. This Bodhisattva is indeed one who is bound to attain Buddhahood in one more lifetime; yet if he has already become a Buddha, it would seem that something is lacking!

If he is a Bodhisattva, how can this accord with the Avalokitesvara Samadhi? The Avalokitesvara Samadhi Sutra states that the Buddha told Ananda: “I now expound guidance in accordance with reality—true and not false. I recall that Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara attained Buddhahood before me and was named the Tathagata Illumination of the True Dharma, Worthy of Offerings, Perfectly and Completely Awakened, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Persons, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.

At that time, I was his disciple, practicing austerities under that Buddha.” If he is a Buddha, how can this accord with the prediction of Avalokitesvara’s future Buddhahood? That sutra states: “Good man, the lifespan of Amitabha Buddha will endure for a hundred thousand kotis of kalpas before finally coming to an end, whereupon he will enter nirvana. Furthermore, good man, after the true Dharma of Amitabha Buddha has ceased, at midnight, when the radiant stars appear, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara will sit in meditation beneath the seven-jeweled bodhi tree and attain Buddhahood.

He will be named the Tathagata King of the Mountain of Universal Light and Merit, fully endowed with the ten epithets of a Buddha”; and it continues through the name of his land and its adornment with precious treasures. The Infinite Life Sutra also says: “Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara practices the bodhisattva conduct in that land and, at the end of his life, is born by transformation in that Buddha’s realm.” Explanation: “Avalokitesvara” is the same name borne by different persons.

The one of the distant past and the one discussed here are never mutually contradictory, just as in the Lotus Sutra various Buddhas share the same name, the same date of attaining awakening, and so forth. Further explanation seems necessary: Avalokitesvara is of two kinds: first, the true embodiment; second, a manifested embodiment. 1. Avalokitesvara in his true embodiment, as taught in the Avalokitesvara Sutra. 2.

His transformation body, as taught in the Infinite Life Sutra. The commentary on the Lotus Sutra states that, although there are two different explanations of Sakyamuni Tathagata’s attainment of Buddhahood, upon later understanding them in accordance with the sacred scriptures, there is no contradiction or discrepancy.

Second: An explanation of the wisdom capable of contemplation: “When practicing the profound prajnaparamita,” within which there are two points to discuss: first, the essence of wisdom is clarified; afterward, the function of wisdom is discussed. We shall now discuss the essence of wisdom. “Practicing” means cultivating and advancing, and pertains to the wisdom capable of contemplation.

“Profound” means deep and subtle. Profundity is of two kinds: 1. Profound practice: inward wisdom, free from discrimination, realizes the two kinds of emptiness of dharmas and abandons every discrimination.

Since it does not perceive either an agent or object of practice, nor apprehend the characteristic of practice, it is called profound practice. The Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “Neither seeing practice nor seeing non-practice is the bodhisattva’s practice of profound prajna.” 2. Profound object: the two kinds of emptiness are free from the characteristics of both existence and nonexistence; all conceptual proliferation is extinguished, and nondiscriminating wisdom is realized.

Because this is a profoundly deep object, it is called profound practice. “Prajna” is a Sanskrit word translated as “wisdom.” “Para” means “the other shore,” and “mita” means “reached.” In proper order, it should therefore be rendered “the wisdom that reaches the other shore”—the shore of liberation. Thus it is said that wisdom attains liberation.

Because wisdom completely severs the hindrances and thereby realizes nirvana, it is called the wisdom that reaches the other shore. “Time” means a temporal division. As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: temporal divisions are provisionally designated in dependence upon conditioned dharmas, yet time is not included among such categories of dharmas as the skandhas and ayatanas.

The Treatise on the Wondrous Gate gives the same explanation, holding that time is provisionally named in dependence upon dharmas and that, apart from dharmas, there is no distinct time. The Yogacara scriptures state that temporal divisions are provisionally established as units according to the earlier and later phases of conditioned dharmas. Non-associated dharmas are included within the formation skandha.

The Buddha-Bhumi Sutra likewise accords with this doctrine, stating that non-associated temporal units are established either provisionally or through their appearance as images in the mind; this explanation applies generally to the meaning. Prajna is of three kinds: literary prajna, contemplative prajna, and prajna of true reality. To reveal contemplative prajna and distinguish it from true reality, the text says “practicing profoundly.” The phrase “at the time of prajnaparamita” should therefore clarify the three kinds of prajna.

Contemplating and seeing that the five skandhas are all empty: this discusses the function of wisdom. Its function is twofold: benefiting oneself and benefiting others. Here, clarifying the contemplation of emptiness is precisely self-benefit.

In explaining this passage, one must thoroughly understand the method of contemplation and then follow the preceding contemplation. The passage of the sutra above is explained as follows: in discussing the various contemplations of the Dharma, although the Buddha-Dharma is exceedingly profound, it is originally of but one flavor. Because practitioners have not yet awakened, the Buddha taught it in different ways.

Therefore, in the Buddhabhumi Sutra, the Blessed One taught: “O Diệu Sanh, it is also like many streams of water, large and small: before they flow into the great ocean, each differs according to its volume, although the water itself neither increases nor decreases. Bodhisattvas are likewise. Before they realize and enter the pure dharmadhatu of the Tathagata, which is undifferentiated like the great ocean, the basis upon which wisdom depends is without differentiation, wisdom neither increases nor decreases, and their experience and enjoyment blend into one flavor—the flavor of liberation.” Master Thân Quang explained that during the first thousand years the Buddha-Dharma had only one flavor, and after those thousand years there was nothing mutually contradictory.

One thousand years after the Buddha’s nirvana, in the land of Kiện Chí in southern India, two bodhisattvas appeared in the world at the same time: the first was Master Thanh Biện, and the second was Master Hộ Pháp. Wishing to enable sentient beings to understand the Buddha-Dharma profoundly, they established the School of Emptiness and the School of Existence, both in accord with the Buddha’s intent. 1) Bodhisattva Thanh Biện established emptiness and rejected existence in order to eliminate attachment to existence; Bodhisattva Hộ Pháp established existence and rejected emptiness in order to eliminate attachment to emptiness.

Yet emptiness does not contradict existence, for the principle of emptiness is not mere nothingness; and existence does not contradict emptiness, for form is established in itself. Both empty and existent, they accordingly form two aspects. Truth is not mere nothingness, and nonexistence accords with the Middle Way.

Is this not where the essential meaning of the Buddha-Dharma lies? It may be asked: Does the discussion of existence and nonexistence accord with the essential meaning of the Buddha-Dharma? The answer is: It would be better to cling to a self than to engage in reasoning that truly contradicts the sacred scriptures.

Moreover, the Buddha wished to lead bodhisattvas to liberation; how, then, could these two bodhisattvas, whose teachings mutually influenced one another, have caused people to misunderstand the Buddha’s intent? Because of this doubt, the two methods of contemplation must be briefly explained here: 1. Master Thanh Biện, relying upon the Prajnaparamita teachings and the tenets of Master Long Mãnh, established a method of contemplation.

Through the course of contemplating the characteristics and images of all dharmas as empty, he maintained that all dharmas are empty, neither arising nor ceasing, originally quiescent, and naturally serene in their own nature. Therefore, the Diamond Sutra teaches: “All conditioned dharmas are like dreams and illusions, like bubbles and foam, like dew and lightning; thus should they be contemplated.” The Tư Ích Sutra likewise teaches: “To discriminate dharmas with the mind is entirely erroneous; not to discriminate dharmas with the mind is correct.” Moreover, the Madhyamaka Treatise states: “If there were something not empty, then emptiness would necessarily exist.” If even what is not empty is empty, how much more so what is empty!

The Madhyamaka Treatise also states: “The Buddhas sometimes speak of a self and sometimes speak of non-self, yet in the true characteristics of all dharmas, there is neither self nor non-self.” Such citations are not limited to these alone. Therefore, Master Thanh Biện, following the Chưởng Trân Treatise, stated: “The true nature of conditioned dharmas is empty, like an illusion, because they arise through conditions; unconditioned dharmas are not truly existent and do not arise, like illusory flowers in empty space.”

2. Bodhisattva Hộ Pháp, relying upon the Samdhinirmocana Sutra and the tenets of Bodhisattva Maitreya, established a method of contemplation. Because consciousness obscures its objects, he discussed the contemplation of emptiness and advanced the thesis that all dharmas encompass both existence and emptiness.

The imagined nature exists in deluded cognition but is nonexistent in principle; the dependent nature exists through causes and conditions; while the absolute nature—the perfectly accomplished nature—exists in principle and is not empty. Therefore, the Samdhinirmocana Sutra teaches: “It is with reference to the dependently conceived that all dharmas are said to be without self-nature.” The Ratnakuta Sutra also states: “If one repudiates all dharmas as having no nature, I declare that person to be incurable.” The Yogacara Treatise cites the scriptural teaching that it is with reference to the dependent nature as it is grasped that all dharmas are said to be without self-nature.

The Madhyantavibhaga Treatise contains the verse: “Because of false discrimination, there is existence; within it, the two are both nonexistent. Within emptiness there is only emptiness, and within the former there is also the latter.” Thus it is known that all dharmas are neither nonexistent nor not nonexistent—both existent and nonexistent—and therefore accord with the Middle Way. The cited treatises are not limited to these alone.

Thus the Treatise in Twenty Verses on Consciousness-Only states: “Failing to understand the emptiness of all the various kinds of dharmas, one nevertheless enters the Dharma of selflessness; yet when a foolish person falsely establishes and clings to distinct self-natures of dharmas, the emptiness of such dharmas is termed entry into the Dharma of selflessness.”

3. Next is an explanation of the headings. The five skandhas comprise the skandha of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.

These five categories encompass the faculties, their objects, and dharmas. Form refers to the physical body and spatial location; because it is perceptible materiality, it is called form. Feeling includes suffering, pleasure, and neither suffering nor pleasure; because it receives circumstances whether adverse or favorable, it is called feeling.

Perceptions such as the characteristics of male and female arise because consciousness apprehends and discriminates its objects. Formations are activities produced when the mind thinks about and conditions itself upon dharmas, bringing them into consciousness and creating what is wholesome or unwholesome; hence they are called formations. Eye-consciousness—the awareness of the eye—ear-consciousness, and so forth discriminate their objects and are therefore called consciousness.

The five factors above all carry the meaning of accumulation and are therefore called skandhas, or aggregates. Thus the five skandhas are divided into three groups: 1) According to the imagined nature (the universally imagined and apprehended nature), they exist in deluded cognition but are nonexistent in principle. 2) According to the dependent nature (the other-dependent nature), the five skandhas exist through the provisional combination of causes and conditions. 3) According to the absolute nature (the perfectly accomplished nature), the five skandhas truly exist in principle.

Therefore, the Madhyantavibhaga Treatise states that there are three kinds of skandhas: a) apprehended skandhas, b) categorical skandhas, and c) skandhas of Dharma-nature. According to the new translation, the Treatise on the Eighteen Kinds of Emptiness likewise presents the argument above and further offers proof that there are also three kinds: a) discrimination, b) categories, and c) suchness. Each part of the five skandhas within these three kinds contains the Dharma of the two kinds of emptiness; hence they are all said to be empty, so that one may awaken to the principle of emptiness.

The first two kinds of emptiness are divided into two and explained on the basis of these forms of emptiness. According to the tenets of Master Thanh Biện, there are two explanations: 1) Among the three natures, two remain after the perfectly accomplished nature is excluded. The Madhyamaka Treatise states: “Dharmas arise through causes and conditions; this is what is meant by emptiness.” 2) All three natures and all five skandhas are empty.

The Chưởng Trân Treatise also states: “The unconditioned is not truly existent and does not arise, just like illusory flowers.” This should therefore be taken as the standard regarding the remaining absolute nature. According to the tenets of Master Hộ Pháp, among the three kinds of skandhas, only the apprehended skandhas are discussed as empty in nature; the relevant sutras and treatises have already been cited fully above.

Some editions also read: “Contemplating and seeing that the five skandhas are all empty.” Although two versions exist, the latter edition is correct. Examination of the Sanskrit text shows that it contains this wording; therefore, what follows should be understood according to it.

Passing beyond all suffering and calamity: this is the second section, elucidating the benefiting of others. Its function has three points: 1) Suffering itself is also a calamity, and therefore it is called “suffering and calamity.” Among the six modes of interpretation, this is explained as karmadharaya (bearing the action), for among conditioned, outflowing dharmas there is none that is not suffering; therefore the Blessed One taught that all three realms are suffering.

This suffering, however, may be summarized under three kinds: the suffering of suffering, the suffering of decay, and the suffering inherent in formations. In detail, these are further divided into the eight sufferings: birth, aging, illness, death, the suffering of encountering those one hates, the suffering of separation from those one loves, the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks, and the suffering of the flourishing of the five factors constituting the physical body….

More broadly, within the suffering of suffering there are also twenty-five realms of existence inhabited by sentient beings, and all undergo birth, abiding, change, and destruction. Together, these four conditioned characteristics constitute one hundred kinds of suffering. The twenty-five realms of existence comprise the four human realms, four realms of evil destinies, four heavens of the formless realm, four dhyana realms, one Brahma heaven, six heavens of the desire realm, the Heaven of Non-Perception, and the realm of the anagamin.

The foremost point deserving attention is suffering and calamity; these are the four yokes: desire, existence, views, and ignorance. These four yokes bind sentient beings and cause them to undergo innumerable sufferings, like the yoke of a cart drawn by oxen or horses. If explained on this basis, they are called “suffering and calamity” because calamity arises from suffering; therefore, among the six modes of interpretation, this is the principal one.

The first point states that suffering and calamity separately contain the categories explained above as two parts; thus, among the six modes of interpretation, this is contrary to the preceding interpretation.

– Sariputra: from this point onward begins the second section, discussing the objects contemplated. It contains two parts: a) following the four lines of verse that discuss the nature of emptiness, and employing six meanings to elucidate the characteristics of emptiness. The preceding part contains two points: a) identifying the person being instructed; b) discussing the Nature of Emptiness. In part a), the representative recipient of the instruction is Sariputra. In Sanskrit, this is rendered Lợi Phú Đa La or Xá Lợi Phất Đa La. The Chinese translate Xá Lợi as “Autumn Crane,” while Phất Đa La means “son.” His mother’s eyes were keen and brilliant like those of an autumn crane; thus, because of her eyes, her name was bestowed upon her son, who was called “Son of the Autumn Crane.” The Sutra on the Perfection of Wisdom calls him “Son of Śyena” or Upatissa, a name given to him after his father. The old translation “Son of the Body” is erroneous.

Question: The prajna taught here is the Dharma of bodhisattvas. Why, then, did the Buddha address Sariputra rather than a bodhisattva?

– Answer: According to the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Sariputra possessed ten thousand gates of samadhi and, among the disciples of all Buddhas, was foremost in wisdom. The Blessed One taught that, apart from the Buddha, the wisdom of all sentient beings could not compare with Sariputra’s wisdom and vast learning. Therefore, throughout the Buddha’s sixteen assemblies of teaching, no one could equal Sariputra. Moreover, when Sariputra was only eight years old, his reasoning was already grounded in firm principles, surpassing all others. At that time, the masters of debate praised this as unprecedented; the lowly and the wise, the great and the small, all submitted to his abundant talent. Such were the causes and conditions described in the treatise. Therefore, the Buddha addressed Sariputra here because he wished to guide those of lesser wisdom toward the Mahayana.

– Form is not different from emptiness; emptiness is not different from form; form itself is emptiness; emptiness itself is form: these four statements are employed to discuss the nature of emptiness. Here, emptiness is treated in two parts: a) the four statements are discussed through the form skandha; and b) each of the remaining four skandhas likewise has these four statements. First, the four statements are discussed through the form skandha, and these four statements are explained. To begin, the nature of emptiness, as distinguished above, is divided into two kinds: 1. emptiness of beings; 2. emptiness of dharmas. Most notably, the emptiness of beings has four further kinds: a) the emptiness that negates attachment to a self, within which emptiness certain dharmas are included. As the Bodhisattva-bhumi Chapter of the Yogacara Scripture states: “Conditioned and unconditioned dharmas are called existent; the absence of self and what belongs to self is called nonexistent.” b) Emptiness of beings is posited to reveal the emptiness of true suchness; because that is what is intended to be elucidated, it too is called emptiness. c) The truth of suffering encompasses the distinct emptiness of contaminated phenomena; that is, the functioning of contaminated phenomena takes the five skandhas as its substance. The Cheng Weishi Lun, fascicle six, states that distinct emptiness, which is not self, belongs to the truth of suffering. d) The emptiness that universally encompasses all dharmas as not-self; that is, the functioning of all dharmas takes their nature as its substance. Therefore, the scriptures state that all dharmas are without self. Although there are four kinds, when grounded in the three natures their principle encompasses three emptinesses: 1) emptiness of the imputationally constructed; 2) emptiness of the dependently arisen; 3) emptiness of the absolute. In the foregoing order, the three natures are taken as the substance of the four kinds of emptiness. Although this does not correspond exactly to the wording, when inferred through principle it clearly accords very well with the four statements above. It should be known that the emptiness of dharmas has the three kinds described above. If analyzed extensively, there are eighteen emptinesses, as explained and cited in the Treatise on the Eighteen Emptinesses. According to the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra, there are sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, or twenty kinds of emptiness; consult that sutra for a more complete account. We shall now explain the four statements according to the three natures. Of these four statements, the first two set forth the principal thesis, while the latter two dispel doubts: “form is not different from emptiness” indicates that the conventional is not different from the ultimate; “emptiness is not different from form” clarifies that the ultimate is not different from the conventional. Doubts are then set aside, as an outsider might raise the question: Since one is the basis of the other, are they not different? Because of their characteristics, they are said not to be different, thereby establishing this teaching. “Form itself is emptiness; emptiness itself is form”: they are not called nondifferent merely because one characteristic depends upon the other; because they are not separate characteristics, they are called nondifferent. On this point, the Western logicians themselves analyzed the matter in two ways: 1. According to Master Bhavaviveka, form is of three kinds: that which is apprehended, the apprehension that lacks efficacy, and the remaining aspect, whose essential nature is not the three natures. When it is now said that form itself is emptiness, this discusses how the imputational nature is originally empty and is therefore said to be emptiness; yet, from the standpoint of the reality of this emptiness, it is itself not empty. The Madhyamaka Treatise states: “If there were something that was not an empty dharma, it should accord with empty dharmas. In truth, if emptiness were not an empty dharma, how could there be any nonempty dharma?” The emptiness of the other two natures is then discussed, and this should be taken as the standard: dharmas are said to be empty in order to eliminate attachment to existence. The dependently arisen nature is like an illusion; being formed through conditions, it resembles a flower seen in the sky, and its own substance is empty. According to the Existence School, there is yet another explanation: between the first two natures there is no absolute nature. Both schools transcend the characteristics of existence and nonexistence and bring all conceptual proliferation to an end. If asked about the characteristic of form and emptiness, could one answer that they are different? To say that a single substance and characteristic is immediately one is to cling to a single substance; to say they are different is to cling to different substances; to cling that they are both the same and different, or conversely to say that they are neither the same nor different, becomes conceptual proliferation. Upon careful analysis, the four statements above admit two interpretations: 1. Non-Buddhist schools and the Hinayana mostly rely upon affirmative predication of dharmas, using the tetralemma to speak of existence and nonexistence, and thus become confined by the two dharmas upon which they rely. The Mahayana states quite clearly that both existence and nonexistence are obstructive, and maintains that all dharmas are ineffable. Nevertheless, every dharma has two characteristics: its particular characteristic and its common characteristic. A particular characteristic can be apprehended only by direct cognition and cannot be expressed through conceptual cognition. If conceptual cognition is used to explain what has been apprehended, it has already become a common characteristic. For example, when one speaks of shoots, green leaves, and so forth, the characteristics of each are distinct and can be apprehended only through direct perception. Conceptual cognition and names are borrowed merely to indicate greenness as a common characteristic. Yet when greenness is asserted, yellow and so forth must be excluded; thus one merely says “green” without being able to express greenness exactly. It must be said that the manifest nature is concealed. On the basis of what conceals the manifest, two teachings are distinguished: a) Master Bhavaviveka’s tenet argues that the essential nature of the path cannot be named through names or characterized through characteristics. It refutes without clinging and preserves without asserting, in order to guide beings rightly into the Dharma; this should be understood according to the standard above. b) Master Dharmapala’s tenet argues that, according to the principle of conventional and ultimate truth, real existence is wholly beyond words and names. Within this, the true nature is taught in relation to the conventional; hence the true nature is said to be not nonexistent in order to reveal it. Concerning Master Bhavaviveka’s tenet, one teacher has spoken in a way similar to the explanation given here. Therefore, the Dharmapala school refutes the Bhavaviveka school, arguing that if the emptiness of dharmas is asserted on the basis of the true nature, it becomes an extremely coarse characteristic and is thereby lost. There is thus a difference because the Bhavaviveka school retains the dependently arisen nature, which the Dharmapala school does not address. For this reason, within the principle of the path, explanations of existence, nonexistence, and so forth all conceal what is manifest, while departing from either alternative becomes conceptual proliferation. The explanation of the passage according to Master Bhavaviveka’s tenet is now complete. 2. According to Master Dharmapala’s tenet, the four statements are explained as follows: form is threefold, namely, the three natures; the emptiness of form is likewise divided into three substances, namely, those same three natures. In the Madhyantavibhaga, Bodhisattva Asanga says that emptiness is of three kinds: 1. emptiness as absence of nature—the nature does not exist; 2. emptiness as otherness of nature—it is different from the falsely apprehended self-nature; 3. emptiness as self-nature. The two revealed emptinesses are self-nature. When the imputational nature is taken as the basis, form in relation to emptiness yields three kinds within the four statements: 1. The four statements are discussed by relating apprehended form to imputational emptiness. According to the deluded attachment involving faculty and object, form is not different from the apprehended emptiness of its originally empty nature. Therefore, form itself is said to be emptiness. The emptiness of essential nonexistence nevertheless exists according to deluded cognition; hence it is said that emptiness itself is form. Here, the sameness of nature and characteristic is represented, and the two exemplary statements above should be taken as the standard.

2. The four statements are discussed by relating apprehended form to the emptiness of the dependently arisen nature. When appended to the dependently arisen nature, real form is not different from the unreal emptiness of dependent arising. Therefore, one comes to understand that form itself is emptiness. Yet deluded cognition, in relation to that apprehended emptiness, clings to the real existence of form; hence it is said that emptiness itself is form. Here, the two statements should be understood as representative standards, while the nature and characteristic remain distinct.

3. The apprehension of form in relation to the ultimate nature of emptiness, discussed through the four propositions. With regard to the ultimate nature, truly existent form is apprehended as not differing from its own emptiness; with regard to self-nature, emptiness is not apprehended as truly existent form.

Therefore, it is said, “Form is precisely emptiness; emptiness is precisely form.” These two statements are presented as the standard, and this should be understood. As for the dependent nature, its distinct characteristic and essence are dependently arisen form in relation to the existence and nonexistence of a distinct nature within the four propositions. This means that dependently arisen form does not differ from the other-dependent nature, which is precisely the emptiness of a distinct nature.

Yet this empty nature is itself material obstruction; therefore, it is said that form is precisely emptiness and emptiness is precisely form. Here, nature and characteristic are regarded as identical, as represented by the two statements in the sutra; this should be understood. It is further explained that dependently arisen form of the dependent nature relates to the two positions of existence and nonexistence among the four propositions.

Regarding a distinct nature, it does not differ from the explanation given above; regarding the emptiness of self-nature, it also falls within the four propositions. That is, dependently arisen form takes suchness in its function as its essence. Yet that empty nature does not differ from the dependent nature.

Therefore, the Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only states: “Thus, this nature and the dependent nature are neither different nor not different, like impermanence and the other characteristics.” The Madhyantavibhaga also states: “Therein, solely because that is empty of this does this exist.” Hence, the dependent nature and the ultimate nature are mutually inseparable; therefore, it is said that form is precisely emptiness and emptiness is precisely form.

It is not because dependently arisen things are nonexistent that their characteristics are said not to be so; to hold this would contradict and lose the fundamental purport. This is the characteristic of distinct nature represented by the two statements as the standard, and it should be understood. The ultimate nature, with respect to emptiness and existence among the four propositions, means that the ultimate nature is dependent form and, because it is true nature, is called form.

Because the twofold emptiness of self and dharmas is revealed, the ultimate nature is emptiness. On this principle, it is said that form is precisely emptiness and emptiness is precisely form. Here, nature and characteristic are regarded as identical, as represented by the two statements in the sutra; this should be understood.

– Feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are also like this: This is the second explanation. These four skandhas are each included within the four propositions, and the four propositions presented above should be understood as the standard. Furthermore, it should be understood that the Prajnaparamita Sutra has two versions: one version is as explained above, while another reads, “Feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are also like this.” The expression “and so forth” is used because, according to the sutra passage below, there are six skillful methods: the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, bodhi, and nirvana. Here, the four skandhas are mentioned; apart from them, the other five dharmas are all included within the four propositions, and therefore the words “and so forth” are used. These six methods have distinct meanings, which will surely be differentiated more carefully below.

– O Sariputra, all dharmas are empty of characteristics: they are neither born nor extinguished, neither defiled nor pure, neither increasing nor decreasing: From here onward, the second section relies on six meanings to clarify the characteristic of emptiness. This point has two aspects: first, it approaches the six meanings to reveal the characteristic of emptiness; afterward, relying on the characteristic of emptiness, it sets forth the six skillful approaches. These six characteristics are revealed to Sariputra, whose essential significance has been explained above. The six characteristics are: neither born nor extinguished, neither defiled nor pure, neither increasing nor decreasing. In the Western Regions, however, there are two explanations of these six characteristics: a) the explanation according to Master Bhavaviveka; and b) the explanation according to Master Dharmapala. According to Master Bhavaviveka’s tenet, characteristics are fundamentally empty. What presently acquires a name is called birth; what provisionally exists and then returns to nothingness is called extinction. The Yogacarabhumi Treatise states that a defiled and impure nature is called defilement, while freedom from defilement is called purity, as taught in the Buddha’s sutras. To apprehend dharmas as having function is called increase; the disintegration of dharmas is called decrease. As in the Mahayana-samgraha, these three divisions in relation to the six characteristics are expressed in three different ways. This passage is discussed broadly in three aspects: because true emptiness is not apart from characteristics, before cultivation one must abandon the agitations of birth and extinction; while practicing the Path, wisdom must not be mistaken regarding defilement and purity; and after realizing the Path, one must completely relinquish every essence and function, increase and decrease. 1. The preceding passage discusses this in terms of nature under three headings: a) the imagined nature (parikalpita-svabhava) has fundamentally never existed and therefore is neither born nor extinguished; b) the dependent nature (paratantra-svabhava), because it arises according to conditions, is neither defiled nor pure; c) the ultimate nature (parinispanna-svabhava), because it is unmoving, neither increases nor decreases. This first point is presented in relation to the three natures and the six characteristics. Each characteristic applies throughout all stages, while all natures are generally encompassed within the three natures, beyond which there is nothing else. Of these three natures, the last is supreme and accords with the fundamental school. According to Master Dharmapala’s tenet, the true principle is without characteristics and has many meanings; it is not any single alternative such as existence or nonexistence. As the sutra teaches, the three natures in relation to the six characteristics of birth and extinction constitute the general characteristics of conditioned phenomena, ending with defilement and purity. In discussing the self-nature of all dharmas, increase and decrease are set forth to reveal the meaning and function of dharmas and the true principle. The emptiness of the three natures pervades the six characteristics of existence, while the sutra’s intent is to reveal the emptiness of self-nature: the twofold emptiness of beings and dharmas reveals the true principle that serves as the common basis of delusion and awakening.

– Therefore, in emptiness there is no form, no feeling, perception, formations, or consciousness: From here onward, relying on the second section concerning the characteristic of emptiness, the meanings of the remaining six dharmas are set forth. These six remaining dharmas are divided into six; this is the first, setting forth the dharma of the five skandhas. This means that all dharmas, being empty, fully possess the six characteristics. Therefore, within emptiness there are no five skandhas, whose distinct meanings have already been explained above. Here, the six characteristics are mentioned to reveal generally the common and distinct objects of the two vehicles. The preceding three approaches conclude by revealing the Dharma-nature; therefore, they are said to constitute the common object of the Three Vehicles. Based on the Dharma-nature above, dependently arisen dharmas are taught separately according to the capacities of beings; hence, the latter three approaches are called distinct objects. The Lotus Sutra teaches that, for sravakas, the Buddha expounds the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths; for pratyekabuddhas, he expounds the Dharma of dependent origination; and for bodhisattvas, he expounds the Dharma of the Six Paramitas.

– No eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind; no form, sound, odor, taste, touch, or dharmas: this sentence repeats the latter half of the twelve ayatanas. Therefore, it seems necessary here to explain the twelve ayatanas, dividing the explanation into three approaches: a) First, to set forth two terminological explanations concerning the three natures. The teaching presented here contains both meanings and is therefore called entry into the two dharmas: the emptiness of persons and the emptiness of dharmas. Regarding realization of the emptiness of persons, the Treatise on the Twenty Verses on Consciousness-Only states: “On the basis of this, the twelve ayatanas are taught for the sake of instruction. If one clearly understands that, through the two groups of six dharmas—the six faculties and six objects—the six consciousnesses arise and operate, and that there is neither seeing nor even knowing, one can then clearly understand that sentient beings are without self.” Entry into the emptiness of dharmas is shown here by repeating the twelve ayatanas to illuminate the principle of emptiness. The differing doctrines transmitted by Bhavaviveka and Dharmapala, as discussed above, must be carefully considered. b) Next is the explanation of the term “twelve ayatanas,” first generally and then individually. First comes the general explanation of the twelve ayatanas. “Twelve” indicates their number, while ayatana means a place of arising and growth; that is, the six faculties and six objects give rise to and nurture all principal minds (the eight consciousnesses) and mental factors(2), and are therefore called ayatanas. Of the six modes of interpretation, this one explains the term by means of its number. Next comes the individual explanation of the terms. The third fascicle of the Yogacarabhumi Treatise states: “Furthermore, because it repeatedly observes forms—observing and then relinquishing them—it is called the eye. That to which various sounds are conveyed and can be heard is called the ear. That by which odors are smelled is called the nose. That which can dispel hunger and thirst, and through which speech, discussion, and invitations are expressed, is called the tongue. That which suitably responds to the accumulated demands of the faculties is called the body. In the darkness of night, foolish people adorn the body with jewels, take it to be themselves, and think of it as ‘I’ and ‘mine.’ People of the world likewise conventionally fabricate all manner of things and conceive them through perception. Because sentient beings are born with living bodies and must seek a livelihood and satisfy other natural needs, it is called mind. What can be displayed before the eyes and is increasingly obstructed by impediments is called form. What is agreeable in some instances and ceases in others because of many objections is called sound. That which, apart from its substance and hidden shape, may be carried away by the wind is called odor. What the tongue tastes, commonly including pungent, bitter, salty, and bland, is called flavor. Whatever contact can cause the body to experience sensation is called touch. That which can undergo transformation yet remain sustained, and is discriminated and known by the mind, is called dharma.

c) Revealing their external substances: the eye faculty is the faculty of sight. As the treatises explain, it is produced from the four great elements, serves as the support of eye-consciousness, and has pure subtle form as its substance. As with the eye faculty, so through the ear faculty: it is produced from the four great elements, serves as the support of the ear’s cognition, or ear-consciousness, and has pure subtle form as its substance.

The mind faculty universally takes the eight consciousnesses as its substance. Regarding form, as the treatise explains, after the four great elements produce the eye faculty, it apprehends twenty-five kinds of form and grasps them as possessing intrinsic nature. The twenty-five kinds of form are: blue, yellow, red, white, long, short, square, round, coarse, fine, high, low, level, slanting, spectral color(3), light, darkness, cloud, smoke, dust, mist, extremely abbreviated form (material dharmas analyzed to the point of extreme minuteness, like motes of dust), manifest form, reflected form, and the form of empty space.

There are twelve kinds of sound: sound (a general designation for the various sounds that are the objects heard by ear-consciousness), agreeable sound, disagreeable sound, neutral sound, sounds produced by sentient beings, sounds produced by insentient things, sounds produced jointly by sentient beings and insentient things, conventional speech (provisionally established), speech of the Buddha, speech of non-Buddhists, speech expressing the sacred teachings, and echoes.

There are six kinds of odor: fragrant odor, foul odor, odor that is neither fragrant nor foul, odor naturally produced from a substance, artificially produced odor, and odor produced through transformation. There are twelve kinds of taste: bitter, sour, pungent, sweet, salty, bland, agreeable taste, disagreeable taste, neutral taste, taste naturally produced from a substance, compounded taste produced through preparation, and taste produced through transformation.

There are twenty-six kinds of touch: earth, water, wind, fire, smoothness, roughness, lightness, heaviness, softness, relaxation, urgency, cold, hunger, thirst, impurity, satiety, strength, weakness, sorrow, itching sores, fatigue, breathing, vigor, illness, old age, and death. These five sensory objects are exceedingly extensive and truly boundlessly complex. The points of agreement and disagreement set forth by the various commentators are treated in a separate chapter.

The dharma ayatana is the sphere of activity of the hundred dharmas, of which eighty-two dharmas take it as their intrinsic nature; this means that form is one among the fifty-one mental factors. It is called the dharma ayatana because there are twenty-four non-associated formations and six unconditioned dharmas, just as stated in the various treatises. To take eighty-eight dharmas as its intrinsic nature means that it includes the four forms belonging to the dharma ayatana and the two unconditioned dharmas, in full accordance with what has been stated.

The remaining extensive analysis is found in the separate chapter.

– No eye dhatu, up to and including no mind-consciousness dhatu: this is the third section, dealing with the eighteen dhatus. It is divided into three approaches: 1) elucidating the Buddha’s teaching; 2) explaining the terminology; and 3) setting forth their essential nature.

1. Elucidating the teaching means that, because those of inferior faculties grasp form and mind as a self, the Buddha taught the eighteen dhatus. 2. Explanation of the terminology: first generally, then individually.

Generally speaking, concerning the eighteen dhatus, “eighteen” is the number, while dhatu means category and distinct nature. All dharmas comprise eighteen categories, each with its own distinct nature. Thus, it should be understood that the representative number given above is taken as the standard.

Next, their individual characteristics comprise the six faculties and six sensory objects, as already discussed in the section on the ayatanas, together with the six consciousnesses. Their individual names have two meanings. When named according to their objects, they are called form-consciousness and, successively, dharma-consciousness; because their names follow their objects, the meaning is readily understood.

When named according to their faculties, they are called eye-consciousness through mind-consciousness, their names following the faculties from which they arise, including all five faculties. This is the consciousness of form and is therefore called form-consciousness; up to the consciousness belonging to mind, which is called mind-consciousness. Thus, among the six modes of interpretation, this accords with the primary mode.

A complete analysis is given in the fifth fascicle of the Cheng Weishi Lun. After determining their substances clearly, the eye and so forth are as explained in the discussion of the twelve ayatanas. Eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, and the other six consciousnesses are themselves included among the hundred dharmas; eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, and the other six consciousnesses are taken as their intrinsic natures.

For the other sections, see the extensive explanations already given.

– There is no ignorance and also no extinction of ignorance, up to and including no aging and death and also no extinction of aging and death. This is the fourth section, explaining the Dharma of dependent arising. Dependent arising itself, however, is of two kinds: 1. cyclic continuation; 2. return and cessation. Through ignorance, formations arise, and so forth, up to birth serving as the condition for aging and death; beings consequently revolve through the five destinies and four modes of birth, like the rim of a wheel, unable to know this for themselves. Within emptiness there is no such cyclic continuation; therefore, the Sutra states that there is no ignorance, up to and including no aging and death. Through the power of contemplation, ignorance is brought to cessation. Because ignorance ceases, formations also cease, and so forth, up to aging and death also ceasing because birth ceases. This was previously likened to a wheel turning back toward nirvana and is therefore called return and cessation. Within the nature of emptiness there is no return and cessation; therefore, the Sutra also says: “There is no extinction of ignorance, up to and including no extinction of aging and death.” Why does this sutra present dependent arising in the same manner as the Lotus Sutra? The Dharma of dependent arising is taught for those seeking the fruit of a pratyekabuddha, but it is mentioned here only to elucidate emptiness. This teaching of dependent arising, however, is not explained in the customary manner. The present abbreviated explanation distinguishes three points: the interpretation of the terms, the clarification of their essential nature, and the grounds for inclusion or omission. The interpretation of the terms is first given generally and then individually. In the general explanation, the designation “twelve” indicates the total number, as in the Sutra on Dependent Arising. Thus, because each constituent arises continuously through the harmonious conjunction of conditions, without anything lacking, it is called dependent arising. According to the Yogacarabhumi, the cause is named after its result: a pratyekabuddha is “one arisen through conditions.” Here the number is stated to clarify the purport; thus, among the six modes of interpretation, this is interpretation by substituting the number. Next, the individual names are presented across the three periods. When an ignorant person encounters objects and cannot discern them, this is called ignorance. The flowing activity created through the three kinds of karma by a person of merit is called formations. The eight consciousnesses—the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mental, manas, and alaya consciousnesses—which clearly discern their objects, are called consciousness. The characteristics of form and so forth that are drawn together to constitute material form are called name-and-form. The six faculties—the eyes, ears, and so forth—which develop, together with the heart and so forth, are the six ayatanas (six entrances). Awareness of suffering, pleasure, neither suffering nor pleasure upon encountering a present object is contact. The three feelings, whether agreeable or disagreeable, are called feeling. Becoming personally affected by and attached to all reflected forms is craving. Desire that clings firmly to the four kinds of appropriation or grasps at objects is clinging. Formations and consciousness capable of inducing arising are called becoming. When consciousness and the other four faculties, previously nonexistent, suddenly come into being, this is called birth. The decline, transformation, and dissolution of the five faculties is death. Second, the essential nature is revealed in three senses: 1. distinctions according to causal induction and production; 2. disclosure according to the proper intrinsic nature; 3. distinctions according to manifest activity and category.

1) Distinctions according to causal induction and production: ignorance and formations possess the function of induction and can lead consciousness to take birth in the five destinies. Consciousness and the other four are induced by the preceding ignorance and formations, which guide the way for craving, clinging, and becoming. These three are named “birth,” “being born,” and “to be born,” namely birth, aging, and death. Birth and aging-and-death are that which is produced, for through craving, clinging, and becoming one must undergo birth.

2) Disclosure according to the proper intrinsic nature: this means that the factor of ignorance is precisely that which can properly initiate the experience of the three kinds of meritorious karma, while what it initiates is the factor of formations in the present body and the subsequent body. The seed of the eighth consciousness (alaya) is the substance of the consciousness factor. Apart from the latter three causes, all the remaining causes constitute the substance of form, corresponding respectively to those latter three causes.

The last three kinds are expressly designated as form, which in general includes the five consciousnesses as their intrinsic nature. Within this, four distinct kinds are established according to what is predominant. That is, alaya consciousness itself is the consciousness factor that takes form apart from the other three consciousnesses.

They are called the six ayatanas (six entrances) because they can moisten the six kinds of seeds. Sensual desire is craving; with craving as a condition, craving again gives rise to desire and so forth. The four kinds of appropriation are attachment to the body.

Regarding these four appropriations, however, fascicle 10 of the Yogacarabhumi states that, in due order, they concern sensual objects and the other four kinds of appropriation. The sensual desire that arises through adherence to false precepts and wrong views is appropriation of the body. Sutras and treatises that discuss dependent arising agree in some places and differ in others.

As has been seen, formations and consciousness within the six kinds of seeds are impelled onward and subsequently transformed into becoming. Consciousness and the other four factors produce their results; from this point, when actual existence has arisen without yet declining, it is called birth. Its subsequent decline, alteration, and deterioration are collectively called aging; the dissolution of the body and termination of life are called death.

3) Distinctions according to manifest activity and category have two senses: a) based upon truth and correct principle; b) characteristics established through provisional designation. According to characteristics established through provisional designation, each and every factor includes both seeds and manifest activity. The Treatise on the Ten Grounds holds that ignorance has two aspects: a) the factor as seed; b) the factor as result.

Up to and including aging and death should also be understood in the same way. Based upon truth and correct principle, birth, aging, and death are only manifest activities, not seeds. Consciousness and the other five factors are only categories and are not manifest activities, whereas ignorance together with formations, and the factors of craving and clinging, include both seeds and manifest activities.

3) The section on inclusion and omission contains three meanings: 1. determination of the grounds for inclusion or omission. Thus, fascicle 8 of the Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only raises the question: Why is the stage of aging not established as a separate factor? Answer: Because its occurrence is not fixed, it is subsumed under death and established as a factor.

Question: Why is illness not established as a factor? Answer: Because it does not invariably occur. Aging is not fixed but is universal, and therefore it is established as a factor, except among beings born in certain realms and destinies, such as demons, whose ending is a deterioration of formations.

Question: Since name-and-form is not universal, why is it established as a factor?

– Answer: Because its stage is fixed, it is established as a factor. For womb-born beings, egg-born beings, moisture-born beings, and transformation-born beings, when the six ayatanas (six entrances) are not yet complete and their stage is fixed, they are designated name-and-form. Moreover, the factor of name-and-form is also universal throughout states possessing material form. Although transformation-born beings possess all five faculties when they first take birth, these faculties are not yet functioning; at that time they are not yet called the six entrances. When beings are first born in the formless realm, although they possess the mental faculty, it is not yet distinct, so it cannot yet be called the mental ayatana.

Question: Since craving is not universal throughout becoming, why establish it as a separate factor? When one is born in an evil realm, one certainly does not cherish it, does one?

– Answer: Because its stage is fixed, it is established separately. Without seeking it, one could not be born in a good realm; therefore, craving certainly exists.

Question: If so, would this not again be consistent with there being no craving?

– Answer: Although it does not arise at that very moment, the type is determined according to the object of attachment. Moreover, craving universally produces birth in the evil destinies, and craving is also present with regard to the objects now manifest. According to that which one does not desire, craving gives rise to birth in the evil destinies. When the Sutra says that it does not exist, this does not mean that it is entirely absent.

2. The analysis of expansion and contraction of the links has two parts: a) discussing expansion and contraction with reference to the process of taking birth; b) discussing expansion and contraction with reference to the process of outflow. Regarding the process of taking birth, as explained in the treatise, why are birth and aging-and-death established according to the conditions of arising?

In describing the taking of birth, consciousness and the other links are separately established as five links because their distinctive characteristics can readily be discerned. Thus, with reference to the result that is to be experienced, five links are established separately and completely, as taught in the treatise. Since the distinctive characteristics of the resultant states are easy to discern, two links are established collectively to reveal the three kinds of suffering, just as their separate initiation and pervasive maturation have been described in the cited treatise.

Why is ignorance, which activates karma, established collectively, while the moistening of karma is distinguished as craving and grasping? Although all afflictions are capable of causing outflow and maturation, the power of ignorance is stronger and is thus fully capable of initiating karma. The power of ignorance increases through eleven factors and is therefore also said to have an exceedingly broad range of conditions, as cited in the sutra.

In the process of karmic continuity, the power of craving is even stronger; like water, it can moisten, and only after being watered can a seed germinate or a shoot arise. Furthermore, according to the preceding and subsequent sequence, craving and grasping are divided into two, whereas ignorance is not repeatedly established as three. In discussing similarities and differences among the realms and their lands, there are two aspects: 1) the limits of the realms and lands; 2) the limits of lifetimes, with respect to their similarities and differences.

Lands contain the myriad things, with both similarities and differences, as stated in the treatise. All dependently arisen dharmas rely upon oneself and others as the basis of their arising. With regard to ignorance dependent upon others—for example, when ignorance belonging to a lower ground initiates something on a higher ground—it is not like the initial latent defiled attachment on the lower ground.

The aforementioned initiator must definitely not belong to any of the links, because the ignorance of that ground has not yet arisen. The similarities and differences regarding the limits of lifetimes are clearly set forth in the treatise. Among these twelve links of dependent origination, ten belong to causes and two belong to results, and they certainly do not all occur in the same lifetime.

The first seven causal links and craving, grasping, and existence may occur in different lifetimes or in the same lifetime; links two, three, and seven, for example, certainly occur in the same lifetime. These twelve links of dependent origination constitute a double cycle of cause and effect, sufficient both to revolve and to be brought to an end. To invariably posit two cycles of cause and effect is either pointless or requires passing through them until reaching an infinite regress.

The treatise explains that a single cycle of cause and effect is first set forth in order to refute the Sarvastivada school’s assertion of two cycles of cause and effect. For a fuller understanding, one should consult the explanations given in the treatises.

– No suffering, origin, cessation, or path: this fifth section discusses the Dharma of the Four Truths. How should the Four Truths be explained here? As the Lotus Sutra teaches, the Buddha expounded the Dharma of the Four Truths for those seeking the fruit of the sravaka path. In this sutra, the Dharma of the Four Truths is taught in order to reveal emptiness. These Four Truths should, however, be divided into three topics: 1. explanation of the terms; 2. exposition of their essential nature; 3. their differing classifications and numbers.

1. Explanation of the terms: first comes the general explanation and then the particular explanation. The common designation “four” indicates their number.

“Truth” has two meanings, as stated in the Yogacara Treatise: a) whether or not the meaning corresponds to what has been stated; b) because through this meaning one reaches the ultimate purport. The term “basis” serves as a standard numerical explanation, as above, and this should be understood. In particular, the truths are not identical; the four kinds differ: 1.

Suffering; 2. Origin; 3. Cessation; 4.

Path. Because it is constituted by the three kinds of suffering, it is called suffering; because it can bring about a subsequent result, it is called origin; the ending of the origin of suffering is called cessation; and that which can eliminate and provide passage is called the path.

2. Exposition of their essential nature: the Truth of Suffering consists of the afflicted five skandhas; karma and delusion that can bring about their arising are taken as the Truth of Origin; analytical cessation, the unconditioned, is the essence of the Truth of Cessation. The Truth of the Path is the undefiled noble path of liberation. 3.

Their differing classifications and numbers: they may be classified as two or three. A twofold classification comprises: 1. conventional truth; 2. ultimate truth. Each truth fully contains all four truths, as has been clearly explained, but for fear of prolixity they are not all set forth here.

According to the Srimaladevi Sutra, there are also two divisions: 1. conditioned; 2. unconditioned. Because of the afflictive hindrances and the karma produced by them, limited birth occurs; the result thus experienced is called the Truth of Suffering, while karma and delusion capable of bringing it about are called the Truth of Origin. The ending of that suffering and its origin is called the Truth of Cessation, and contemplation of the emptiness of beings is the Truth of the Path.

Undefiled karma, with ignorance as its condition, brings about transformational birth. The resultant consciousness thus brought about is taken as the Truth of Suffering, while karma and delusion capable of bringing it about are called the Truth of Origin. The complete ending of that suffering is called the Truth of Cessation, and the wisdom contemplating the emptiness of dharmas is the Truth of the Path.

Question: How could attachment to dharmas fail to initiate karma or lead to the taking of birth? Since the liberated noble path has neither suffering nor origin, why does the sutra say that the undefiled is the cause and ignorance the condition?

– Answer: According to the explanation in fascicle eight of the Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only, because attachment to dharmas is severed and various conditions provide assistance, the undefiled is said to be the cause and ignorance the condition. Strictly speaking, the aforementioned karma of limited birth and the power of the result it brings about serve as supporting conditions, through which the resultant state becomes ever more excellent and subtle; this is called transformational birth, as extensively explained in the treatise. As for the threefold classification, both kinds of Four Truths fully possess the three natures. This refers to the imagined nature discussed in the Treatise on the Middle and the Extremes and in fascicle eight of the Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only. By extensively investigating their characteristics, one may understand them completely, but for fear of prolixity they are not fully recounted here.

– No wisdom and also no attainment: this is the sixth section, concerning the Dharma of wisdom and severance. How should wisdom and severance be explained here? In the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha teaches the Dharma of the six paramitas for the bodhisattvas. Here, this sutra speaks of wisdom and severance in order to reveal emptiness. Wisdom and severance may be explained in two ways: a) at the causal stage it is called wisdom, namely prajna, and at the resultant stage it is called the attainment of bodhi; b) according to another explanation, bodhi is wisdom and nirvana is the attained fruit. Although there are these two interpretations, the latter is superior. All the Prajnaparamita sutras set forth bodhi and nirvana; therefore they must be distinguished below.

– Because there is nothing to be attained, the bodhisattva, relying on the Prajnaparamita, has no obstruction in the mind: from here onward there are three sections clarifying the fruit attained. Within this, there are two parts: first, clarification of the attainment of the fruit; and second, the presentation of an illustrative analogy. The first part has two points: discussion of the contemplation of existence, followed by revelation of the fruit attained. The discussion of the contemplation of existence is divided into three: “because there is nothing to be attained” discusses the emptiness of dharmas and freedom from characteristics. In truth, the Dharma-nature is not apart from the six paramitas; this subsequently reveals why the preceding passage spoke only of non-attainment. Next, “bodhisattva” refers to the practitioner of contemplation who arouses the luminous resolve described above. Bodhi means the awakening of sentient beings, namely teaching and transforming beings. Seeking bodhi above and transforming sentient beings below through wisdom and compassion, one is therefore called a bodhisattva. Next, “relying on the Prajnaparamita, the mind has no obstruction.” This discusses the contemplation of existence, whose translated meaning is as previously explained. It should be understood that prajna refers to wisdom among the specific mental factors; here it reveals the complete presence of wisdom within the mind. There are two kinds of obstruction in the mind: those called the obstructions of nature and characteristics, namely the two hindrances produced by deluded cognition. In general, the meaning may be explained as the true nature of the principle of emptiness. Free from the six characteristics, the bodhisattva arouses the resolve to rely upon this contemplative Dharma, bringing wisdom to completeness within the mind in order to sever the hindrances and realize the emptiness of dharmas. This is not the attachment to existence held by ordinary beings. The two vehicles sever the two hindrances and awaken to the two kinds of emptiness.

– Because there is no obstruction, there is no fear; completely transcending all inverted dreams and delusions, one reaches ultimate nirvana: this is the second point, elucidating the fruit of realization. Some editions also read: “completely transcending all inverted delusive thoughts.” Although two editions phrase it thus, the latter is superior. Yet the fruit of realization has four aspects: 1) Because there is no obstruction, there is no fear, and all fears are completely transcended. There are five kinds of fear. Volume Two of the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhumi mentions these five fears: 1. fear for one’s livelihood 2. fear of ill repute 3. fear of death 4. fear of the evil realms 5. fear of crowds. During cultivation in the stages preceding the bhumis, these five fears are completely transcended, and the mind attains pure peace and ease.

2) Transcending inversions means transcending the inverted results of the three inversions concerning impermanence, suffering, and non-self; or the four inversions, such as regarding what is permanent as impermanent, what is not suffering as suffering, what exists as nonexistent, and the self as non-self; or the seven inversions, which combine the two views above; or the eight inversions, comprising: regarding the impermanent as permanent, the impure as pure, what is without pleasure as pleasurable, and what is without self as self.

3) Conception, attachment, and thought take the mind to be correct.

4) This is because one thinks the impermanent to be permanent, suffering to be happiness, the impure to be pure, and non-self to be self. The seven inversions do not differ from the four inversions above. The eight inversions comprise the preceding four inversions together with the four true principles attained at the fruit of Buddhahood—permanence, bliss, self, and purity—which are grasped as impermanence, absence of bliss, non-self, and impurity, thus inversely understanding bliss as suffering.

3. Transcending dreams and delusions means transcending all dreams and delusions, namely, the eight kinds of delusive conception. Because these conceptions resemble those in a dream, they are called dreams and delusions.

The Yogacara scriptures call them the eight kinds of discrimination. Because sentient beings do not clearly understand the emptiness of true suchness, three issues consequently arise: a) conception of objects b) attachment to self c) greed, hatred, and delusion. Because of greed, hatred, and delusion, karma is created, giving rise to sentient beings and to realms and lands.

Thus beings remain bound in the cycle of birth and death. Investigation, analysis, and so forth are two mental factors employed in the contemplation of emptiness to terminate deluded karma and realize great bodhi. Here the eight mental discriminations are presented briefly, as Volume 36 of the Yogacara-bhumi Treatise states: Furthermore, because foolish people do not understand true suchness as it is revealed, through this cause and condition eight discriminative dharmas arise, or three issues develop, giving rise to the world of sentient beings and their realms of existence.

What are the eight kinds of discrimination?

1. Intrinsic nature: discrimination concerning the distinct nature of dharmas, such as form, sound, and so forth.

2. Differentiation: that is, concerning the foregoing discrimination, something may be visible or invisible.

3. Collective attachment: sentient beings rely upon the aforementioned forms, sounds, and so forth and cling to them, saying: I, my house, my army, my forest….

4. Discrimination of self (firmly grasping the “I” or holding fast to a self).

5. Attachment to what belongs to the self is divided into two kinds of discrimination: concerning the aforementioned grasping at conditioned and contaminated dharmas, one counts them as the self or regards them as belonging to the self.

6. Discrimination in responding with affection

7. lack of affection

8. All are mutually opposed.

Following the sequence above, whether something is pleasing and beautiful or displeasing and unattractive, attachment accompanied by discrimination must be transcended.

The Tripitaka explains that all eight kinds of discrimination take the indeterminate, resultant consciousness (4) that gives rise to wisdom as their intrinsic nature, or take investigation and analysis as their intrinsic nature, while three further issues arise: the first three discriminations can give rise to conceptual proliferation governed by the six faculties and six objects. The next discrimination can give rise to attachment to self and taking that as one’s self; the final three are greed, hatred, and delusion.

One should understand that herein, the objects taken as conditions serve as the basis for the arising of the view of self; attachment to self serves as the basis for the arising of greed, hatred, and delusion. Because of these three attachments, sentient beings and worlds revolve and continually succeed one another. The four kinds of investigation, analysis, and so forth should be contemplated fully, as already explained in the treatises.

The meaning of the scripture is that, through wisdom, within the realization of the Dharma of emptiness, all inversions and the eight kinds of delusive conception are transcended. Ultimate nirvana means attaining the fruit of complete nirvana. Nirvana may be analyzed under four headings: 1) explanation of the term 2) essential nature 3) classifications 4) questions and answers.

1. Explanation of the term: the old translation transliterated the Sanskrit as Nirvana or Ni Hoan and rendered its meaning as Tranquil Cessation. Master Xuanzang transliterated it as Bo-li-ni-fu-nan, called in Chinese Perfect Quiescence. The ultimate transcendence of all obstacles and disturbances of birth and death is called perfect quiescence; nevertheless, following the old translation, the term Nirvana is retained.

2. The essential nature of nirvana: there are many differing theories. The Sarvastivada school holds that both nirvana with remainder and nirvana without remainder take cessation as their basis and the unconditioned as their substance, possessing a truly existent intrinsic nature.

According to the Sautrantika school, the cessation of afflictions is nirvana with a remaining basis, while the complete cessation of the fruit of suffering is nirvana without a remaining basis. As a provisional designation rather than a real substance, it has two meanings: the truth of cessation is its substance, eliminating deluded karma and encompassing the truth of cessation; from another perspective, it takes the truth of the path as its nature, for on the path delusion must be extinguished.

Here, the Mahayana theories differ. The school of Dharmaksema holds that the four virtues form a profound forest and takes them as the foundation. As Tripitaka Master Paramartha stated: in the Mahayana there are four kinds of nirvana.

3. Classifications: the fruit of the path is originally pure and does not encompass the fruit of the path. It is also said that prajna and the non-abiding mind of great compassion are taken as the intrinsic nature of nirvana.

The explanations in the treatises are so numerous that they cannot all be recounted. Here, according to the Tripitaka, there are four kinds of nirvana, all taking suchness as their substance. Volume 10 of the Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only states that all four kinds of nirvana are established on the basis of true suchness through the elimination of various obstructions.

Yet when it is said that nirvana consists of the three matters of Dharma-body, prajna, and liberation, this identifies what is capable of accomplishing it—wisdom—as maintaining that which is accomplished: the realization of true suchness free from obstructions. It does not mean that the wisdom capable of accomplishing it is itself the intrinsic nature of nirvana.

The classifications of nirvana are explained in two ways: a) former and latter—that is, within true suchness, two kinds of cessation are included. a) the first is true suchness b) the latter three all include cessation. Although there are two theories, Master Dharmapala takes the latter as the correct doctrine. The two kinds of nirvana may be expanded into four. When spoken of as two, they are: 1. Nirvana pure by nature 2. Nirvana purified through skillful means. Expanded into four, they are: 1. Nirvana of intrinsic purity 2. Nirvana with a remaining basis 3. Nirvana without a remaining basis 4. Non-abiding nirvana.

Volume 10 of the Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only records that, in brief, nirvana has four distinct meanings: 1. Nirvana of original intrinsic purity: although defiled by adventitious impurities, its fundamental nature is pure and endowed with immeasurable subtle virtues. Only noble beings personally realize this originally quiescent nature; hence it is called nirvana.

2. Nirvana with a remaining basis means true suchness freed from the obstruction of afflictions. Although the subtle suffering of the remaining basis has not yet ceased, everlasting quiescence is nevertheless present; hence it is called nirvana. 3.

Nirvana without a remaining basis: this is true suchness beyond birth and death. Afflictions and suffering have ended, the remaining basis has also ceased, and all suffering is forever quiescent; hence it is called nirvana. 4. Non-abiding nirvana means true suchness freed from the cognitive obstruction (5), wherein the mind of great compassion and prajna continually complement one another.

Therefore, one abides neither in nirvana nor in samsara, but benefits sentient beings universally until the end of future time. Though functioning, it is always quiescent; hence it is called nirvana. All sentient beings possess intrinsic purity.

Arhats of the Two Vehicles possess the three natures described above. Only our Blessed One may be said to possess all four of these virtuous natures in full.

4) Questions and answers:

Question: What is nirvana with a remainder in relation to a Sugata?

– Answer: Although there is no real basis, it appears as though there were one; or it is said that when the basis of suffering has ceased, there is nirvana without remainder, while the basis of suffering referred to in speech is not nirvana with remainder. Therefore, it is said that the Blessed One fully possesses the four virtues.

Question: Regarding the nirvana with remainder and the nirvana without remainder of the sravakas, why do some passages say that these do not exist, as explained in the Srimala Sutra?

– Answer: Some hold that they have no nirvana; how then could they have nirvana with remainder? Nor do they possess existence itself, and this is regarded as superior.

However, while the present bodies and minds of sravakas are at times still obstructed by the cognitive hindrances and the basis of suffering has not yet ceased, the meaning of perfect quiescence remains obscured. To say that they have no nirvana does not mean that sravakas truly have none; rather, when the afflictive hindrances are exhausted, the principle of nirvana with remainder is revealed. Because they have not yet realized nirvana without remainder, it is said that sravakas do not have nirvana without remainder. This does not mean that, after the body perishes, the cessation of suffering when there is no such basis is not nirvana without remainder. This is explained extensively in the cited sutra.

Question: Since the cognitive hindrances do not induce rebirth, why must they be eliminated in order to attain the non-abiding state?

– Answer: The cognitive hindrances conceal precisely emptiness; therefore, when they are eliminated, the principle of the emptiness of dharmas is revealed. This is non-abiding nirvana, which abides in neither of the two extremes.

Question: If the cognitive hindrances also obstruct nirvana, why does eliminating them not result in the attainment of cessation through discernment?

– Answer: Cessation through discernment is freedom from bondage, or the state of not being bound.

Question: Since they can be eliminated in this way, would it not be better to attain nirvana?

– Answer: Not every kind of nirvana is cessation through discernment. Since this does not apply universally, intrinsic purity is not nirvana. One explanation holds that cessation through discernment may also be included; this is an expansive manner of speaking employed by those outside the tradition, and its reasoning should be understood.

– Because the Buddhas of the three times rely upon prajnaparamita, they attain unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment: From here onward is the section adducing realization as proof. It has two parts: a) establishing the attainment of the fruit; and b) praising its excellence by considering its function. The attainment of the fruit is divided into three sections. “The Buddhas of the three times” discusses the persons who attain the fruit. The three times comprise past, present, and future, which pertain to conditioned dharmas. According to the successive order of what once existed, what now exists, and what will exist, they are taken as the three times. It is also stated thus: what no longer exists, what presently exists, and what did not formerly exist are taken as the three times. Yet these three times are of three kinds: 1. the three times of seeds; 2. the three times according to principle; and 3. the three times according to consciousness-only. The various schools necessarily differ in their accounts of the three times, as discussed in their respective teachings, provided that the explanation is logically appropriate.

Buddha is a Sanskrit word, translated into Chinese as “the Awakened One.” It embraces five meanings, as explained in the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhumi, and one possessing them is therefore called a Buddha. These five meanings are: 1) possessing the two knowledges: knowledge of all things and knowledge of all particular aspects; 2) being free from the two hindrances: the afflictive hindrances and the cognitive hindrances; 3) attaining the two characteristics: the characteristics of all dharmas and the characteristics of all particular dharmas; 4) fully accomplishing the two benefits: benefit for oneself and benefit for others; and 5) fulfilling two similes: like awakening from a dream and like a lotus blossoming.

Whoever fully possesses these five meanings is called a Buddha. Next, “relying upon prajnaparamita” discusses the wisdom capable of attainment, as already explained above. Then, “attain unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment” clarifies the fruit attained, namely the attainment of bodhi, awakening.

Bodhi is a Sanskrit sound rendered in Chinese with several different meanings: a means “un-,” anuttara means “surpassed,” sam means “right,” myak means “true,” the second sam again means “right,” and bodhi means “Way.” In brief, it means the unsurpassed, right, true, correct Way. Another translation takes a as “un-,” anuttara as “surpassed,” sam as “right,” myak as “universal,” the second sam as “knowledge,” and bodhi as “awakening.” Wisdom that accords with principle and takes true suchness as its object is “right”; wisdom that accords with measure and takes conventional truth as its object is “universal.” Non-discriminating wisdom that eliminates the two kinds of ignorance is “knowledge.” Bodhi is called “awakening” because it is liberation from the sleep of dreams.

These four wisdoms constitute the essence of bodhi. Because it surpasses the fruits of the two vehicles, it is called “unsurpassed.” Here, Tripitaka Master Xuanzang states: a means “un-,” anuttara means “surpassed,” sam means “right,” myak means “equal,” the second sam again means “right,” and bodhi means “awakening.” Since no dharma surpasses it, it is unsurpassed; because both principle and phenomena are exhaustively known, it is complete and equal; because the false is abandoned and the true revealed, it is called perfect awakening.

Collectively, this is called unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment.

Question: In stating the tenet concerning attainment of the fruit, only nirvana is mentioned, whereas in the section adducing proof by analogy, only bodhisattvas are said to take awakening as the realization of cessation. Is this not contradictory?

– Answer: The true principle pervades both wisdom and freedom, the two virtues. Each is established from one aspect, while their mutual inclusion is omitted in order to reveal this point. Bodhi is briefly explained through three distinctions: a) explanation of the term; b) disclosure of its essential nature; and c) differentiation of its categories.

a) Explanation of the term: The Sanskrit term is bodhi, translated as “awakening.” Awakening has three kinds of meaning, according to the wisdom of the three vehicles. Unsurpassed bodhi means that the wisdoms of ultimate and conventional truth together realize the two kinds of emptiness, and this is called awakening.

b) The disclosure of its essential nature is of two kinds: a) According to its true, manifest essence, the four wisdoms are its nature. Volume Ten of the Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only states that bodhi consists of the four corresponding wisdoms and takes mind as its essence. b) According to provisionally designated characteristics, there are, briefly, three explanations: 1) By distinguishing wisdom and elimination, it takes the contemplative wisdom of the two kinds of emptiness as its essence. 2) By eliminating the two hindrances and realizing the unconditioned Dharma, it takes that Dharma as its intrinsic nature.

The Bodhisattva-Bhumi section of the Yogacara Treatise states: “Eliminating the two hindrances and attaining the two wisdoms is called bodhi.” When that treatise says that the elimination of the two hindrances is bodhi, it is referring to the fruit of wisdom; as a provisionally designated characteristic, it too is called wisdom. 3) By distinguishing the two or three bodies collectively, it takes the three bodies as its intrinsic nature.

The Mahayana-samgraha says that the excellence of the essence of wisdom is precisely the three bodies. Thus, the Dharma-body is collectively called wisdom; because it is the nature of wisdom, it is provisionally called wisdom. By distinguishing the three or five dharmas collectively, it takes the five dharmas as its intrinsic nature.

The Buddha-Bhumi Sutra says that five dharmas encompass the Stage of Great Awakening. These are the four wisdoms and the purified dharma-dhatu. The Buddha-Bhumi Sutra regards true suchness as Great Awakening, just as the Mahayana-samgraha speaks of the nature of awakening.

According to the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, because the object is apprehended, it too is regarded as awakening. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom explains: wisdom and the sphere of wisdom are both called prajna.

c) Differentiation of the categories: First, the four wisdoms are explained; afterward, the three bodies are discussed. The account of the four wisdoms is divided into five sections: 1) stating their names and revealing their essences; 2) transforming consciousness into wisdom; 3) the corresponding mental factors; 4) distinctions among their objects; and 5) distinctions in their initial attainment and subsequent manifestation.

1. Stating their names and revealing their essences:

a) Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom: It is like a flawless mirror in which images appear when all the requisite conditions are present. The mirror-like wisdom upon which a Buddha relies is likewise such: the various spheres, objects, consciousnesses, and all phenomena appear within it as images. Its name is established from this simile. It takes the mind corresponding to the eighth consciousness as its intrinsic essence. Eleven similes are explained in detail in the Buddha-Bhumi Sutra.

b) Wisdom of Equality: All sentient beings, oneself and others, are equal. Its name is established according to its function, and it is therefore called the Wisdom of Equality. The ten kinds of equality are extensively explained in the sutra. It takes the mind of the seventh consciousness as its essence.

c) Wondrous Observing Wisdom: The corresponding mind skillfully observes the particular and universal characteristics of all dharmas. Its name is established according to its function, and it is therefore called Wondrous Observing Wisdom. Ten similes are extensively explained in the sutra. It takes the mind corresponding to the sixth consciousness as its essence.

d) Wisdom of Accomplishing Activities: It universally manifests throughout the ten directions the transformations produced through the three modes of action. Its name is likewise established according to its function, and it is therefore called the Wisdom of Accomplishing Activities. Ten similes are extensively explained in the sutra. It takes the mind corresponding to the first five consciousnesses as its essence.

2. Transformation of consciousness into wisdom: Fascicle 3 of the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi records that there are two theories: a) The eighth consciousness is transformed into the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom; the seventh consciousness is transformed into the Wisdom of Equality; the sixth consciousness is transformed into the Wisdom of Wondrous Observation; and the first five consciousnesses are transformed into the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done. b) The second theory holds that the sixth consciousness is transformed into the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done, while the first five consciousnesses are transformed into the Wisdom of Wondrous Observation.

This is unreasonable because it does not follow the proper order. Expounding the Dharma to eliminate doubts involves comprehensive observation, not the cooperation of the five sense faculties. Asaṅga’s Mahāyānasaṃgraha also gives two explanations, discussed extensively in that treatise.

The Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra and the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi agree, as stated in the second explanation. Fascicle 10 of the Cheng Weishi Lun likewise agrees with the Buddha-Bhūmi, as the Dharma master stated at the outset; this should be understood.

3. The corresponding mental factors: Each wisdom corresponds with twenty-one appropriate mental factors, namely, the five universally operative mental factors, the five object-determining mental factors, and all eleven wholesome mental factors, as explained in the Buddha-Bhūmi.

4. Differences in their objects: Regarding the objects of the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom, the Buddha-Bhūmi gives two explanations: a) It takes all dharmas universally as its objects, though there are two theories. b) The superior explanation is that of Consciousness-Only. Fascicle 10 also states the same theory; the complete analysis is found in the Buddha-Bhūmi.

Regarding the Wisdom of Equality, both the Buddha-Bhūmi and the Cheng Weishi Lun present three explanations: a) it takes only the eight purified consciousnesses as its objects; b) it takes only the equality of suchness as its object; c) it universally takes both ultimate and conventional truth as its objects. These are fully presented in the two treatises mentioned above. There is no dispute that the Wisdom of Wondrous Observation takes all objects as its objects.

Regarding the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done, there are two theories: a) it takes only the five presently manifest objects as its objects; b) it takes all dharmas of the three times as its objects. The latter theory is correct, as stated in the two treatises cited above.

5. Differences in the arising of these dharmas: According to the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi, the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom first manifests when the vajra-like mind is attained. The Wisdom of Equality corresponding to the mind of a bodhisattva first becomes active during the initial direct realization at the first bhūmi.

The Wisdom of Wondrous Observation corresponding to the mind of a bodhisattva likewise first becomes active during the initial direct realization at the first bhūmi. Regarding the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done, there are two explanations: a) it can become active from the first bhūmi onward; b) it first arises only when Buddhahood is attained. The latter meaning is correct, as stated in the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi.

The three bodies of a Buddha are provisionally divided into seven topics for explanation:

1) Explanation of the terms 2) Their distinct essential natures 3) How the five dharmas encompass the bodies 4) Permanence and impermanence 5) The magnitude of their forms 6) Similarities and differences in those whom they teach and transform 7) Differences in the realms on which they depend.

1) First comes the general explanation, followed by the specific explanation. In the expression “three bodies,” “three” indicates the number, while “body” has three meanings: essential nature, basis, and aggregation. Fascicle 10 of the Cheng Weishi Lun states that the three bodies comprise essence, basis, and aggregation, all of which are generally termed “body.” Fascicle 7 of the Buddha-Bhūmi gives the same explanation as the Cheng Weishi Lun.

This means that among the six kinds of compound explanation, the number is indicated, followed by the specific names of the three bodies: a) The Dharma body of intrinsic nature: because the essence of suchness is eternal and unchanging, it is called intrinsic nature; because it is the basis of all qualities, including the powers and fearlessnesses, it is called the Dharma body. b) The enjoyment body: because it enables both oneself and others to enjoy the bliss of all great dharmas, it is called the enjoyment body. c) The transformation body: because, wishing to benefit sentient beings, the Buddha manifests numerous bodily forms, it is called the transformation body.

2) Their distinct essential natures: The Dharma body takes suchness as its essence. The enjoyment body takes the four wisdoms and the qualities of self-benefit as its essence. The bodies manifested to those on the bhūmis take a portion of these qualities as their essential nature. Within this teaching there are points of agreement and difference, which will be clearly analyzed below under the five dharmas.

3) How the five dharmas encompass the bodies: According to one explanation in the Treatise on the Buddha-Bhūmi, the matter is as stated in the two modes of inclusion above: the body of intrinsic nature encompasses the enjoyment body, while the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done encompasses the transformation body. As the sutra states, the Dharma body is suchness. The Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra and the Buddha-Bhūmi Sūtra state that transforming the ālayavijñāna produces the body of intrinsic nature.

Because the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom is attained by transforming the eighth consciousness, it should be understood that the body of intrinsic nature encompasses both as stated above. The Mahāyānasaṃgraha speaks of attaining intrinsic nature; both the Mahāyānasaṃgraha and the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra hold that transforming the eighth consciousness produces the Perfect Mirror Wisdom. This sutra explains that the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done initiates various transformative activities.

The Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra states that, in relation to various objects, the Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done manifests innumerable inconceivable kinds of transformation. One should therefore understand that it encompasses the transformation body, which teaches and exhorts beings in various places. As the treatises explain, the Wisdom of Equality is capable of relying upon a pure land.

In accordance with the bodhisattvas’ aspirations for bliss, it manifests numerous Buddha bodies to encourage and teach them in various places. The same applies to the Wisdom of Wondrous Observation, as explained in the treatises: at a single great assembly, the Buddha can freely manifest a complete body to expound the Dharma and eliminate the doubts of sentient beings, as stated in the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra. It is also said that the transformation of the consciousnesses produces the enjoyment body; it should therefore be understood that, according to the two theories of inclusion, the enjoyment body is encompassed as stated in the Mahāyānasaṃgraha.

It is further said that the three bodies of a Buddha fully possess the ten meanings and encompass the excellence of wisdom; thus all three bodies possess wisdom, as explained in the Mahāyānasaṃgraha’s discussion of this excellence. This means that, according to the former mode of inclusion, the intrinsic nature of the body of intrinsic nature corresponds universally with the four wisdoms. For bodhisattvas on the bhūmis, a portion of its subtle characteristics is manifested and encompassed within the enjoyment body.

For bodhisattvas who are still prior to the bhūmis, a portion of its coarse characteristics is manifested for their transformation and is encompassed within the transformation body. The sutras all state that the Dharma body is purified suchness. Thus, in praise of the Buddha, it is said: “The Tathagata’s Dharma body is neither born nor extinguished.”

From the passages cited above, we understand that the Dharma body is the purified dharmadhātu. The Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra states that the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom is the body of personal enjoyment. The Mahāyānasaṃgraha states that the Buddha taught that the complete transformation of the consciousnesses produces the enjoyment body. Yet when it speaks of transformation, it means that the transformation of the ālayavijñāna results in the attainment of the Dharma body. Here, transformation means removing the seeds of the two obstructions from the eighth consciousness so as to attain the purified Dharma body as one’s basis; it does not mean that the Perfect Mirror Wisdom is the Buddha’s Dharma body. Furthermore, there are two kinds of enjoyment body:

a- The body of personal enjoyment, cultivated and perfected over three incalculable eons.

b- The body for the enjoyment of others, through which bodhisattvas experience the bliss of Dharma. Therefore, what universally possesses and corresponds with the four wisdoms, together with a portion of the function of teaching and transforming beings, constitutes the enjoyment body. The sutras and treatises all explain that the transformation body consists of the various bodily forms manifested to transform sentient beings who are prior to the bhūmis.

Since these are sentient beings in stages prior to the bhūmis, it should be understood that such forms are not genuine qualities; they are merely transformations, as explained in the sutras and treatises. The Wisdom of Accomplishing What Is to Be Done can initiate transformative activities, but it is not itself the transformation body. The three bodies of a Buddha fully possess and encompass the excellence of wisdom: the Dharma body is the basis upon which wisdom relies in realization, while the transformation body is the functioning initiated by wisdom.

Since it resembles wisdom, it is provisionally spoken of as wisdom, and this is not erroneous. The Cheng Weishi Lun does not differ from the preceding explanation, so it will not be repeated here.

4) Permanence and impermanence

Question: Since the enjoyment body and the transformation body undergo arising and cessation, why do the sutras say that the Buddha’s body is eternal?

– Answer: Because the Dharma-body, relying upon the two supports, experiences the bliss of the Dharma without omission, it manifests bodies to teach and transform innumerable beings without cease. Just as continually experiencing happiness and continually giving food are called “constant,” so too is this called constant. The Treatise on the Ornament explains that constancy is of three kinds: 1. constancy of intrinsic nature, referring to the body of intrinsic nature, because this body abides eternally by its very nature; 2. uninterrupted constancy, referring to the enjoyment body’s uninterrupted experience of Dharma-bliss; 3. continuous constancy, referring to the transformation body, which, after disappearing, manifests again, transforming without end.

5) Magnitude of form: The Dharma-body of intrinsic nature is like empty space; its form and magnitude cannot be described. Speaking in terms of its characteristics, it pervades every place. The enjoyment body possesses form, yet that form is not the form of conditioned dharmas.

It has no shape, so its magnitude likewise cannot be described. If considered in terms of the body and the objects known by it, it may also be said to pervade all places. Form is of two kinds: a) real form and b) transformed form.

It is called real form because it is fully produced through cultivation during three incalculable kalpas, forming a Pure Land throughout the Dharma-realm that only Buddhas together with Buddhas can know. Transformed form arises through the power of compassionate vows; when bodhisattvas enter various lands, they manifest many forms that are not fixed. To teach beings at the stages preceding the bhumis, they manifest transformation bodies together with what is form or what is not form.

What is non-form has no shape, so its appearance cannot be known. The indeterminate forms accord with the places in which they are manifested, as fully explained in the treatises.

6) Similarities and differences among those taught and transformed: The Treatise on the Buddha Bhumi teaches that the beings manifested by Buddhas are either shared or unshared, and presents three positions:

a) They are entirely shared, because all merits, practices, and vows are alike, as fully cited in the treatise above.

b) They are unshared, because a Buddha manifests many kinds of beings, each according to its own intrinsic nature, as already cited and explained.

c) In accordance with reality means that there are both what is shared and what is unshared. Since beginningless time the nature of dharmas has been thus; therefore, they are mutually connected, whether many depend upon one or one depends upon many, as fully cited in the treatise. The Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only explains this in the same way as the third position above; consult its commentary for a clear understanding.

7) Differences in the dependent realms—lands: According to the Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only, there are four kinds of bodies: the body of intrinsic nature, the self-enjoyment body, the other-enjoyment body, and the transformation body. There are also four kinds of lands: the land of intrinsic nature, the self-enjoyment land, the other-enjoyment land, and the transformation land. Thus, the four bodies above respectively abide in four different lands.

Although the body of intrinsic nature and the land of intrinsic nature do not differ in essence, their nature and characteristics within the Buddha-Dharma differ; therefore, in terms of meaning, they are spoken of as subject and object. The transformation body abides not only in pure lands but also in defiled lands, as fully explained in the treatises.

– Therefore, know that the prajnaparamita is the great divine mantra, the great mantra of illumination, the unsurpassed mantra, the mantra equal to the unequaled: From here onward, the superior function is praised. This has two parts: a) first, a broad prose explanation; b) then, a verse concluding the praise. Part (a) contains two points: 1) clarification of benefiting oneself; 2) discussion of benefiting others. This passage briefly explains benefit to oneself: strictly speaking, “mantra” should mean an incantation, while “illumination” means the wondrous wisdom that severs obstructions and realizes emptiness. Because it is essential, wondrous, and esoteric, the term “mantra” is used to praise its supreme function. Because its divine power cannot be measured by anything, it is called the great divine mantra. Because it dispels delusion and removes ignorance, it is called the great mantra of illumination. Because it transcends the Two Vehicles, it is called unsurpassed. Because it surpasses bodhisattvas and is equal to the wisdom of the Buddha, “unequaled” is repeated twice, and it is called the mantra equal to the unequaled.

– It can remove all suffering; it is true and not false: This sentence is the second part, discussing the function of benefiting others. Relying upon this wondrous wisdom, beings transcend the suffering of birth and death and realize the peace and bliss of nirvana. Even when merely opening the mouth and moving the tongue, or through the slightest interaction, one still expresses truthful words; how much more could one conceal oneself throughout the three-thousandfold world-system and utter falsehood? Therefore, the sutra calls it “true speech”—words of truth.

– Therefore, the prajnaparamita mantra was proclaimed. The mantra is thus: Gone, gone, quickly gone, swiftly gone, gone to the shore of liberation, Svaha! This sentence still belongs to the second part and presents a verse concluding the praise. It contains two points: the preceding passage in extended prose serves as an introduction, and the following verse constitutes the principal praise. However, explanations of the verse differ in many respects. According to the first explanation, the mantra cannot be translated because it has been transmitted since ancient times. Even in India it is pronounced precisely according to its secret wording; translating it would cause it to lose its efficacy, so the original Sanskrit is retained. According to the second explanation, the mantra names various noble beings or spirits, or expresses dharmas whose meanings are truly profound, with a single word containing many meanings. Here in China there are no exact words or equivalent expressions for that mantra, so its Sanskrit sounds are retained. The term Bhagavat, for example, is likewise comparable to a secret mantra, while such phrases as Namo Buddhaya and so forth can be translated. An attempt to explain this mantra divides it into three parts.

a) Gate gate: This is translated as “gone, gone.” In the prose preceding the mantra there are the two words “prajna.” This is intended to reveal that prajna has many functions: it carries oneself across and carries others across. Therefore, it is called “gone, gone.”

b) The phrase paramita… corresponds to the prose passage concerning liberation and is translated as “the other shore.” The path is the attainment of nirvana, called the other shore—that is, the shore of liberation. Gate gate means “gone, gone, having arrived there”; that is, having reached the other shore, the place to which one crosses. Therefore, it says, “quickly gone.” The word para has been translated above, while samgate is translated as “gone completely.” Bodhi is said to be the other shore, namely liberation and awakening.

c) Svaha is translated as “swiftly,” meaning that wondrous wisdom possesses the supreme function of enabling one swiftly to reach the shore of awakening. Another interpretation divides the four lines of the verse into two sections: the first two lines praise the supremacy of the Dharma, and the last two lines praise the supremacy of the person. In praising the Dharma, the first is the cause and the latter is the result.

Gate is repeated twice and is translated into Chinese as “supreme, supreme.” Because prajna possesses the two supreme functions of benefiting oneself and benefiting others, it is called “supreme, supreme,” or supremely superior. Paragate is called “supreme at the other shore,” or “certainly reaching the other shore,” because through prajna one reaches the supreme shore of nirvana. This is the meaning of “supreme at the other shore.” In praising the supremacy of the person, the first is the cause and the latter is the result.

Parasamgate is translated as “increasingly supreme at the other shore,” or “the sublime supremacy of nirvana.” Here it praises the cause of the One Vehicle: bodhisattvas are those who seek to attain the liberation of nirvana. Bodhi svaha is translated as “ultimate awakening.” This sentence praises the fruition of the three bodies; one whose awakening is perfect and complete is called ultimately awakened. Alternatively, the four lines may be explained in another way as praising the unsurpassed Three Jewels: the first two lines should respectively be understood as praising the Dharma in terms of practice and fruition, while the last two lines should respectively be understood as praising the Sangha and the Buddha.

Praise of the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra

Notes:

(1) Mind-king: The mind leads all dharmas, just as a king issues commands that his ministers and subjects must obey and carry out. There are eight mind-king consciousnesses: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, mental consciousness (the sixth consciousness), manas (the seventh consciousness), and alaya consciousness (the eighth consciousness), also called the storehouse consciousness.

(2) Mental factors: dependent upon the mind-kings, these comprise 51 factors: 5 universally present mental factors, 5 object-determining mental factors, 11 wholesome mental factors, 6 root afflictions, 20 secondary afflictions, and 4 indeterminate factors (remorse, torpor, investigation, and analysis). These mental factors always depend upon the mind-kings; in other words, the eight consciousnesses as mind-kings direct the mental factors.

(3) Spectrum: light shining extensively everywhere; in other words, the rays of the sun illuminate all things and pervade the entire universe.

(4) Vipāka consciousness: another name for the eighth consciousness—ālaya-consciousness—because this consciousness stores the seeds of all karma created by a person’s body, speech, and mind; hence it is called vipāka consciousness.

(5) Obstruction of the knowable: one of the two obstructions, contrasted with the obstruction of afflictions. It arises from dependent mental factors that disturb the bodies and minds of sentient beings, hindering the course of cultivation toward liberation.