般若波羅蜜多心經幽贊

Knowing the domain in which the Dharma is to be studied in this way accords with cultivation and practice; by what characteristics is training brought to fulfillment? By planting and fully cultivating the practices of the twelve Dharma-abidings, comprehensively encompassing all bodhisattvas; only thereafter, in the thirteenth Dharma-abiding, does one attain unsurpassed bodhi and consummate the fruit of Buddhahood, as stated in the verse:

Spiritual lineage, practice born of supreme resolve,

Pure delight in the cultivation of moral discipline,

The three wisdoms, with a mind utterly sincere,

Signlessness accompanied by effort,

Signlessness free from effort,

Complete mastery of unobstructed understanding,

The bodhisattva’s lofty and pure abiding,

The highest is named Buddha.

The twelve mental abodes are:

1. The abode of the lineage: because one has not yet aroused the aspiration toward unsurpassed bodhi, with regard to the other abodes only the causes are operative; its characteristics are as explained above.

2. The abode of practice through resolute understanding: this extends from the initial arousing of the aspiration to the first bhumi. Because one abides there by cultivating the characteristics described previously, although purity has been attained through meditative stability, it is still necessary to cultivate right conduct. One gives rise to discerning wisdom, exhorts and advances in cultivation, endures the hardship of slow comprehension, encourages others, and teaches the Dharma. According to one's capacity, one can attain perfect enlightenment and bring benefit and happiness to sentient beings. Regarding the practices mentioned above, because one has not yet learned extensively, their characteristics are not yet perfected and the mind's aspiration is not yet pure.

3. The abode of extreme joy: this is the first bhumi. As explained in the preceding chapter, the ten great vows are fulfilled.

From this point, one's excellent aspiration is transformed; one passes beyond the stage of ordinary beings and attains the nature of the noble ones, is born into the lineage of the Buddhas, becomes a true child of the Buddha, causes the Buddhadharma to flourish, and attains equanimity. One eliminates harmful disputes and attains the true, pure Dharma. Knowing that one is drawing near to awakened wisdom, one realizes the principle of the twofold emptiness and perfects the two wondrous knowledges.

One gives rise to great joy and practices the ten dharmas of pure abiding, namely faith, loving-kindness and compassion, wise generosity, tirelessness, knowledge of the treatises, understanding of the world, a sense of shame, steadfast power, retention, and making offerings to the Buddhas. With regard to the nine dharmas of abiding, one cultivates them single-mindedly and diligently, seeking their attainment. One often becomes a wheel-turning sage king (30), ruling this continent, subduing miserliness and craving, and even aspiring to become the most honored one, so as to serve as a refuge for sentient beings and bring them abundant blessings and benefits.

Or, delighting in diligence and possessing faith, one leaves the household life and cultivates the path; in an instant, one realizes hundreds of samadhi teachings. With the purified divine eye, one sees Buddha lands and hundreds of Tathagatas, clearly comprehending all their manifested comings and goings. Through supernormal power, one travels to hundreds of Buddha realms, and one's body can also emit brilliant light that pervades everywhere, enabling those who behold it to perform many deeds that benefit countless sentient beings.

If one wishes, one can preserve the body for hundreds of kalpas and perceive events that occurred throughout hundreds of kalpas in both previous and future lives. One realizes hundreds of dharmas and manifests many bodies, each capable of appearing with a retinue of one hundred bodhisattvas.

4. The abode of higher moral discipline: this is the second bhumi. Through the ten pure aspirations of the preceding Ground of Joy, one first enters this stage and becomes fully endowed with the nature of moral discipline.

From this point onward, one no longer violates the precepts or creates evil karma and has few wrong attachments; how much more so does one who attains the middle or higher grade clearly understand the causes and effects of karmic actions. One personally practices wholesome karma and also exhorts others to practice it. One feels exceptional compassion for suffering sentient beings, helps them, and cares for them wholeheartedly, clearly perceiving the pure roots of virtue of the Buddhas.

One often becomes a wheel-turning king ruling the four continents (31) of the world. Should one cease this practice, it constitutes a breach of the precepts, and the extent of one's spiritual power decreases tenfold compared with the preceding stage.

5. The abode of the higher mind is the third bhumi. Through the clear understanding and penetrating comprehension of the preceding second bhumi, and further through ten kinds of pure mind, one enters this bhumi.

One can therefore understand the practices by which sentient beings attain great awakening, which consist precisely in seeking liberation from suffering and employing skillful means to eliminate the bondage of the afflictions so that no obstacles remain. In the purity of the dharmadhatu there is no discriminating wisdom; seeing this point, one attains samadhi. On the bodhisattva bhumi, one diligently pursues extensive learning, sparing neither body nor life and relinquishing all objects of attachment.

Even without a master or teacher, and without expecting anyone's service, one vows to follow all exhortations and willingly endures bodily suffering. Merely hearing a single verse is considered more precious than treasures filling the great trichiliocosm (32). Hearing a single sentence of the Buddhadharma that can lead one to practice the bodhisattva conduct and realize Buddhahood is valued more highly than Indra, Brahma, the World-Protectors, and the other devas.

Suppose someone were to say, “I possess a single sentence of Dharma by which one may purely cultivate the bodhisattva conduct and attain perfect enlightenment. If you can leap into this blazing fire pit, I shall teach it to you.” The bodhisattva would joyfully and eagerly reply, “I can do so. Even if this were a fire pit spanning the three-thousandfold world-system, for the sake of hearing the Dharma I would leap into it from the Brahma Heaven; how much more so this small fire pit!” For the sake of seeking the Buddhadharma, one would remain for a long time in the great hells and only then emerge; how much more readily would one endure other insignificant sufferings.

Having heard the Dharma, one practices accordingly and can, within this very life, pass from one complete quiescence to another meditative concentration. One then relinquishes everything and, according to one's karma, is reborn as Indra or a heavenly king, teaching others to eliminate sensual desire; one's awesome virtue is hundreds of thousands of times greater than before.

6. The abode of higher wisdom associated with the factors of awakening is the fourth bhumi. Because one previously sought extensive learning and attained ten dharmas, one manifestly enters this bhumi and brings ten kinds of knowledge to maturity.

One cultivates the dharmas that assist the path to bodhi (33), eliminating wrong views and every attachment. One abandons destructive karma, cultivates wholesome karma, harmonizes the mind's nature, attains the perfection of merit, and abides in seeking and cultivating the path and the liberating activities. The mind's perfect peace and happiness far surpass the nature of moral discipline; therefore, neither teachings nor hostile adversaries can shake or mislead one.

One becomes a deity-king of the Suyama Heaven, eliminating wrong views, with awesome virtue countless times greater than before.

7. The abode of higher wisdom associated with the truths is the fifth bhumi. Through the ten gateways of equality and the pure aspiration described above, one enters this bhumi. By means of ten skillful methods, one examines all truths, namely: relinquishing conditioned activities, compassionately caring for sentient beings, preserving the accumulations, and diligently cultivating right conduct. Mindfulness, wisdom, and the other qualities all increase, and every other form of mental activity is utterly abandoned. By skillful means, one brings sentient beings to perfection, and all works of fine craftsmanship are accomplished well. One can become a divine messenger or heavenly king, manifesting so as to eliminate both internal and external false teachings.

8. The abode of higher wisdom associated with dependent origination is the sixth bhumi. Through cultivating the ten dharmas of equality described above, one enters this bhumi.

One realizes the dharmas of dependent origination and attains liberation; no wrong thought can arise. For the benefit and happiness of sentient beings, one remains within samsara. Wisdom and compassion are perfected without obstruction; transcendent awakened wisdom ultimately manifests directly before one, and one realizes many teachings of the most exalted meditative concentrations and samadhis.

The joyful mind is indestructible, and nothing else can encroach upon it. One becomes a heavenly king of the Heaven of Delight in Emanations, manifesting to eliminate the mind of overweening pride, with awesome virtue countless hundreds of thousands of times greater than before.

9. The abode of signlessness with exertion is the seventh bhumi. Guided by the ten kinds of skillful means described above, one who cultivates excellent practices enters this bhumi.

One's cultivation toward the realm of Buddhahood continues without interruption or deficiency. In every instant, one realizes the ten paramitas and the dharmas belonging to bodhi; all preparatory practices become pure and perfect. As a result of the defilements remaining on the preceding bhumi, one's wondrous and skillful wisdom is sufficient to surpass even the meditative attainments of the two vehicles.

In every thought-moment, one is capable of entering the attainment of cessation (34), while the bodhisattva displays extraordinary and formidable karmic abilities. One becomes a heavenly king of the Heaven of Mastery over Others' Emanations and is able to receive the Dharma and directly contemplate the skillful means of the two vehicles, with awesome virtue hundreds of thousands of countless times greater than before.

10. The abode of signlessness without exertion is the eighth bhumi. Through the preceding ten kinds of entry into the Dharma of ultimate meaning (35), one possesses the wisdom to enter this bhumi.

Previously, one cultivated the four kinds of knowledge of things as they truly are; now, having attained purity, one realizes the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas (36), severs the four calamities of deeply rooted craving, and prays that the Buddhas will illuminate, guide, instruct, and exhort one in immeasurable Dharma teachings, so that wisdom may arise, the work of supernormal powers may be accomplished, and one may realize the wondrous knowledge of innumerable emanation bodies, attain the ten masteries, receive abundant benefits and happiness, and become a king in the heaven of the First Dhyana, swiftly entering this bhumi within the first instant.

Because both accumulations of merit and wisdom are complete, all powers and attainments surpass those of the preceding bhumis by more than onefold; in the second instant they surpass the former by more than twofold, and upon reaching the tenth bhumi they increase many times over until perfected, beyond exhaustive description.

11. The Abode of Unobstructed Understanding is the ninth bhumi. Because, on the preceding profound bhumi, the mind of joy had not arisen in complete fullness, one now enters in accordance with an even stronger disposition of joyful aspiration and gives rise to the preparatory wisdom that expounds the essentials of the Dharma. Through knowledge of things as they truly are, the work of teaching the Dharma is accomplished; one becomes a great Dharma master endowed with unobstructed knowledge and becomes a king in the heaven of the Second Dhyana.

12. The Bodhisattva’s Abode of Supreme Fulfillment is the tenth bhumi. As stated above, the wisdom of unobstructed understanding is completely purified, and one becomes capable of serving as a Dharma king (37), receiving the Dharma anointment (38), attaining freedom from defilement, and so forth.

With immeasurable discipline and conduct, one performs the deeds performed by Buddhas, fully acquires the marks of a Buddha, and, at the proper time, radiates light as far as one’s retinue, emitting brilliant rays that benefit and bring happiness to every kind of sentient being. Through wondrous wisdom, one performs Buddha deeds and swiftly attains immeasurable liberations, dharanis, supernormal powers, great vows, and innumerable merits, becoming a king in the Akanistha Heaven, the Heaven of Great Sovereignty.

The Bodhisattva path is completed and its provisions fully prepared; from the auspicious cloud of the Buddha, one receives a great rain of wondrous Dharma. Just as, when a great cloud appears, everyone knows that it will pour down rain—the water of the rain washing away dust and filth and causing trees to sprout, grow, blossom, and bear fruit—so too are the bhumis. On each bhumi, what is eliminated, what is cultivated, and the merit attained are beyond enumeration.

Because fulfillment is achieved in reliance upon each bhumi, the abodes of practice on each bhumi must be established separately. In the practice of resolute aspiration directed toward the signless, the scope of cultivation is narrow and inferior, deficient and uncertain. Subsequently, throughout the following six bhumis, the signless is cultivated and realized; the scope of cultivation is profound and vast, entirely without deficiency.

Completion of the final four bhumis is the attainment of the perfectly fulfilled state of purity, in which one’s activity becomes immeasurable.

In the sixth abode, the practice of resolute aspiration (39) is faith. Faith gives rise to a mind that does not regress and prevents the loss of roots of goodness. Among the ten abodes, the seventh mind is the stage of non-retrogression, at which one does not follow the Two Vehicles. Upon reaching the Bhumi of Utmost Joy, realization does not regress and is never again forgotten or lost. Upon reaching the Abode of Effortless Signlessness, one cultivates the practice of non-retrogression. Because one advances in cultivation with the aspiration to attain knowledge of all modes and bring universal benefit and happiness, delusion still remains and obstructs rebirth; therefore, it is not said that the afflictions have been eliminated.

There are five kinds of birth:

1) Birth for the removal of calamities: Through mastery of vows, one becomes a great fish to relieve the distress of famine and poverty; a great king of physicians to cure illnesses; a person of great skill who deftly reconciles disputes; a great king who follows the Dharma and thereby ends suffering; or a great benevolent spirit who completely eradicates wrong views. One becomes fire, water, a cart, a boat, or any necessary thing in order to remove calamities.

2) Birth in accordance with the various classes of beings: Aspiring to attain sovereign power among animals and those in the evil destinies, where beings habitually commit evil, one personally refrains from evil; or among beings in the evil destinies who do not practice goodness, one personally practices goodness. It is like entering a tavern without drinking alcohol, or entering a house of lust without violating the precepts, because one perceives the harm of sensual desire. For this reason, one teaches them the Dharma and helps them eliminate their faults.

3) Birth with great power and influence: By one’s innate qualities at birth, longevity, physical stature, noble lineage, and wealth, one far surpasses everyone else and thereby eliminates the fault of contempt and arrogance in others.

4) Birth in an exalted station (superior birth): One assumes the ten royal principles and freely guides beings, taking birth wherever appropriate.

5) Final birth: Having fully and readily prepared the provisions, as Maitreya was born into the Brahmin family of a great royal preceptor, and Buddha Shakyamuni was born into the Kshatriya family of a great king, one cultivates, realizes perfect awakening, and performs all Buddha deeds.

Furthermore, one gathers and guides sentient beings by means of four aspects:

1) All-embracing inclusion: From the Abode of the Initial Generation of the Mind, one gathers all sentient beings as members of one’s own retinue and benefits them according to one’s ability.

2) Superior guidance: If one is a householder, one must be mindful of bestowing kindness, serving and supporting one’s parents, wife, children, and so forth, and providing appropriately for those who assist one. One should not coerce them but should remain patient and persevering. If they fall ill, one must care for and treat them, offering words of comfort and attending to them just as one would attend to oneself, without giving rise to a discriminating mind.

If one is a king, one does not govern with knives, clubs, or weapons, but educates and transforms through laws and makes wealth beneficial to everyone. One uses the native soil and lands of one’s own country without encroaching upon the possessions of others and regards everyone as a father or as a child. One’s words must be truthful and free from deception; one encourages everyone to abandon evil and teaches them to perform good deeds.

3) Gathering and maintaining through discipline: One remains impartial and without factionalism, does not seek fame or gain, and does not expect favors. One’s followers and associates are not tainted by private profit; one properly guides them in cultivation and does not increase harm through wrong conduct.

4) Acting according to the time: Sentient beings are of three grades—superior, middling, and inferior. One must know how to adapt expediently to the time and be capable of patiently enduring while carrying out the work of gathering and guiding them until they become mature.

The following are the stages of mind within the seventh bhumi:

These three bhumis are included within the first three abodes.

4. The Bhumi of Practicing Right Conduct, which is the sixth abode.
5. The Bhumi of Certainty, which is the tenth abode and falls within the third certainty.
6. The Bhumi of Determinate Practice, which is the eleventh abode.
7. The Bhumi of Ultimate Culmination, which comprises the twelfth and thirteenth abodes, wherein both cycles of cause and effect are completed.

As stated above, although the Bodhisattva practices are innumerable, they do not extend beyond four kinds of practice:

a) The practice of the paramitas, comprising sixty perfections rather than only the six perfections.
b) The practice of the factors of awakening, comprising the thirty-seven factors, the four dharmas of investigation and reflection, and all wondrous practices.
c) The practice of supernormal powers, comprising the six supernormal powers.
d) The practice of maturing sentient beings, comprising the objects of training and the innumerable skillful means of guidance described above.

Whether regarding the subjects of training, the Dharma to be learned, or one’s own courageous cultivation of the Bodhisattva practices, one cultivates in reliance upon them as ardently as blazing fire, yet sees no characteristic of practice therein; this is called practice.

Why is the practice of such Dharma said to be profound? Because those who practice resolute aspiration expound wondrous principles that are profound and inconceivable. Those of the Two Vehicles cannot understand them, and ordinary beings are even more bewildered; therefore, they are said to be profound.

As they truly are, the ultimate truth must be described as transcending cognition, objects, language, and deliberation; it cannot be illustrated by analogies. Subtle and difficult to know, it fully possesses the three unsurpassed qualities and the seven great essential natures; in itself, it is beneficial and surpasses everything. The Dharma of liberation is like the great ocean, wondrous jewels, springs, and pools.

Since the Dharma-realm cannot be mastered through great awakened wisdom by relying upon characteristics, only such a field of training is profound and must therefore be realized.

All these Bodhisattva practices, the true aspect of suchness, are difficult to comprehend fully. The wisdom of contemplative illumination is difficult to formulate as teachings; words and letters cannot express it exhaustively; the myriad Dharma practices are difficult to accomplish; and the realms of existence and nonexistence are difficult to penetrate completely. Wisdom is foremost, while all other natures and reflections are also awakened wisdom; therefore, all are exceedingly profound.

What is meant by time?

For practitioners of the practice of resolute understanding, it is taught: conventionally, they firmly believe, cultivate, and train, aspiring to attain emptiness; or, relying upon ultimate truth, they clearly understand that the essential nature of dharmas is empty and practice wisdom, cultivating gradually until reaching the ultimate. All of this is generally termed a period of time. Properly speaking, unsurpassed wisdom is vast, exalted, and profound; it cannot be realized through shallow and meager causes of cultivation, as explained above concerning the twelve abodes of mind.

If every moment throughout day and night were counted, in each abode of mind one would pass through innumerable hundreds of thousands of great kalpas, or even more, before its cultivation was fully perfected. If these were reckoned as great kalpas—certainly exceeding all calculable numbers—and combined, cultivation would have to pass through three innumerable great kalpas before perfection could be attained. During the first innumerable great kalpa, one cultivates one practice in each abode and thereby realizes the Abode of Supreme Joy.

During the second innumerable great kalpa, one cultivates all practices within each practice, reaches the Abode of Signless Effortlessness, and acquires pure, resolute, and courageous aspiration. During the third innumerable great kalpa, one cultivates all practices within every practice and reaches the stage of the Tathagata. A practitioner who reaches this stage is always diligent and certainly cannot fail to attain it.

The courageous advance as though walking with both feet and may transform sentient beings during an intermediate kalpa or a great kalpa. Those who are determined not to liberate sentient beings do not pass through innumerable great kalpas. One should therefore understand that, as a definitive cause, one must cultivate fully throughout three innumerable great kalpas before realizing the fruit of bodhi.

The five kinds of further shore can be reached. The meaning here is that one must cultivate the five wisdoms throughout three kalpas; or, because the duration is altered according to the mind’s vow, the work’s reaching consummation is generally termed a period of time. When emptiness is attained, one knows only in accordance with wisdom; those who have undergone the course of cultivation know what remains.

Even those of the Pratyekabuddha disposition, whose faculties are keen, must still cultivate for a hundred kalpas; how much more must those who wish to become Buddhas cultivate causes for many kalpas?

The Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “He illuminatively perceived that the five skandhas are all empty.” The commentary here explains: through the continuous, intensive practice of prajnaparamita, one attains the wisdom-eye; attaining emptiness is called illumination or illuminative perception. Form, feeling, perception, and so forth—the conditioned dharmas of the three times, internal and external, coarse and subtle, superior and inferior, distant and near—when accumulated together are called skandhas, or aggregates.

There are five skandhas: form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness, corresponding to verbal expressions, the bases of attachment, dharmas, and so forth. For practitioners of resolute understanding, the preceding passage first refuted attachment to the observing subject as truly existent, thereby clearly revealing contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas. Now it refutes attachment to the observed object, revealing contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas.

Just as delusion obscures resolute understanding, one falsely clings to the skandhas as truly existent, like a person in a dream seeing scenes appear before the eyes. If one correctly understands ultimate truth as it really is, one will certainly cease clinging, like a person awakened from a dream who clearly knows that its scenes were unreal. One therefore practices prajnaparamita to illuminate the nature of emptiness.

Properly speaking, whatever Dharma one cultivates, one must practice prajnaparamita so that the true is revealed and the false exposed through wisdom’s illumination of EMPTINESS; therefore, only this one aspect is discussed here. The emptiness of dharmas taught here is the emptiness of the three natures. First, the imagined nature has no characteristics in its essential nature and is therefore empty of intrinsic nature; hence it is called empty.

Second, in the dependent nature, form resembles a mass of foam, feeling is like a bubble, perception is like a mirage, formations resemble a plantain tree, and consciousness is like an illusion. They are not as the self to which one clings; because their nature arises through conditions, it too is called empty. Third, the absolute nature—the perfectly accomplished nature—is realized only by contemplating the emptiness of what is grasped; or, because it is unlike the true nature to which one clings, one attains true resolute understanding, and it too is called empty.

According to reality, the three natures are not empty; they are not an empty emptiness. To refute attachment to existence, emptiness is taught implicitly. It is not because the latter two natures are empty that they are called empty.

To say that all dharmas are empty is the Buddha’s hidden intention: with regard to existence and nonexistence, they are collectively described as empty, as the Blessed One taught:

Ultimate truth is without intrinsically existent characteristics or arising;

Thus have I clearly explained it.

Those who do not understand the Buddha’s hidden intent

Destroy the true path and cannot attain accomplishment.

Moreover, this emptiness is precisely the intrinsic nature of true suchness according to principle; it is not nonexistent. Because it is revealed through what is empty, while what is grasped is considered existent, it is provisionally called emptiness. Fools do not understand and cling to the five skandhas as truly existent, thereby giving rise to discriminated characteristics.

Now, when one seeks the essential nature of true suchness, phenomena do not depart from principle, nor does principle abandon its nature; the two are as taught in the sutras: all sentient beings possess the Tathagata-garbha, and all dharmas are True Suchness. To speak of characteristics as existent is precisely the emptiness of non-characteristics, enabling sentient beings to sever the bondage of characteristics. There are five kinds of eye: 1.

The flesh-eye: the physical eye of ordinary beings, not produced by samadhi, consisting of innumerable forms of purified matter. 2. The divine eye: produced on the basis of samadhi, consisting of innumerable forms of purified matter. 3. The wisdom-eye: illuminatively perceiving and clearly understanding the principle of emptiness. 4.

The Dharma-eye: wisdom and clarity acquired through penetrating the scriptural teachings. 5. The Buddha-eye: the preceding four have been perfected, and ultimately one receives the title Buddha. Here, because the emptiness of dharmas is attained through the wisdom-eye, illuminating and revealing the dharmas under contemplation, it is called “illuminatively perceived.” Yet at the stage of provisions, this nature of emptiness is mostly accepted and understood through listening and reflection.

Only upon reaching the stage of preparatory practice does one concentrate upon contemplative cultivation. Although both are called illumination, because they rely upon appearances, true suchness has not yet been realized. At the stage of the ten bhumis, one cultivates undefiled contemplation and penetrates the true principle; only then does one truly illuminatively perceive emptiness.

Upon reaching the stage of the Tathagata, illumination is perfected; knowing that it transcends words and abandons objects, it is provisionally called emptiness. Although emptiness is taught here, it encompasses the emptiness of both self and dharmas, whereas Venerable Sariputra teaches only the emptiness of dharmas. Attachment to self has long been forgotten and thus is provisionally not called emptiness; alternatively, attachment to self arises in dependence upon attachment to dharmas.

One need only contemplate the emptiness of dharmas, and the emptiness of self follows from it. Although the essential nature of the aspects not mentioned here is no different, distinctions nevertheless exist according to their manifestation. Thus the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra sometimes teaches sixteen emptinesses: internal emptiness, external emptiness, internal-and-external emptiness, great emptiness, emptiness of emptiness, ultimate emptiness, emptiness of the conditioned, emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, beginningless-and-endless emptiness, emptiness of non-dispersion, emptiness of intrinsic nature, emptiness of characteristics, emptiness of all dharmas, emptiness of non-nature, and emptiness of the intrinsic nature of non-nature.

Or it teaches seventeen emptinesses by adding the emptiness of non-attainment; eighteen by adding the emptiness of self-nature; nineteen by adding the emptiness of the separately established dominant object and perpetual nonexistence; or twenty by omitting from the eighteen the emptiness of non-dispersion and adopting instead the emptiness of nature and the emptiness of non-change, and by omitting the emptiness of characteristics and adopting instead the emptiness of individual characteristics and the emptiness of common characteristics.

These are briefly explained in the following verses:

One’s own consumption and the food consumed,

On which this body depends for its continued existence;

Seeing the true principle of nonduality,

The emptiness of the two truths must be understood.

To bring benefit and happiness to sentient beings,

Without abandoning birth and death,

And to perform innumerable wholesome deeds,

One should contemplate them all as without intrinsic nature.

For the purity of the lineage,

For the attainment of all excellent marks,

And for the flourishing of the Buddha-Dharma,

Bodhisattvas contemplate the nature of emptiness.

Dharmas are constantly abiding in practice;

Their actual substance is not an existent nature.

Attachment to existent nature and nonexistent nature

Establishes the proper names of the two emptinesses.

The next sentence of the sutra is: “He crossed beyond all suffering and distress.” The commentary here explains: for practitioners of resolute understanding—understanding emptiness—the foregoing was taught in summary to refute the two attachments to dharmas and reveal the two emptinesses, thereby enabling them to cross beyond all suffering. Having illuminatively perceived and clearly seen the nature of emptiness, free from all discrimination, like a silkworm moth escaping its cocoon and no longer bound within it, one crosses beyond every affliction, calamity, and pain and swiftly attains nirvana. Although, according to ultimate truth, there is no crossing beyond and no destination attained, according to conventional truth there is liberation and attainment.

As should properly be stated, it is only by clearly contemplating the nature of emptiness that one transcends birth and death. First, the beneficial process of cultivation is elucidated. The third method, the practice of training the mind, means contemplating what is profound, subtle, and difficult to realize.

If one becomes discouraged, one must carefully temper the mind. Worldly people who merely practice a little generosity still obtain favorable results when their lives end; how much more, if I now cultivate carefully and earnestly, would I not transcend suffering and attain a better rebirth in the next life! Just as one who cultivates wisdom will certainly transcend every suffering and calamity, eliminate the gross and turbid portion, and attain that which is undefiled, so shall I.

I must encourage myself to advance further in cultivation and must not disparage myself and give rise to a mind of retreat.

“Crossing over” means transcending and becoming liberated. “Suffering” refers to sentient beings in the three realms and six paths who undergo birth because of karma and afflictions. In truth, as long as afflictions remain, suffering cannot be brought to an end. Here, three points are briefly presented:

1. All contaminated dharmas, being subject to oppression and insecurity, are collectively called suffering. Worldly pleasures inevitably lead to decay and destruction; the convergence of conditions binds one amid countless troubles and instabilities—this is the suffering of change. When the oppressive nature intensifies, becoming painfully unbearable, and such sufferings arise one upon another, this is called the suffering of suffering. This compounded suffering has the meaning of calamity, or of disaster and adversity; hence it is called suffering. Alternatively, there are eight sufferings:

• The suffering of birth: while in the womb and when emerging from it, the infant is surrounded and oppressed by many sufferings.
• The suffering of aging: as one grows old and decrepit, the body deteriorates and becomes feeble.
• The suffering of illness: one becomes listless and uneasy, unable to eat or sleep, while body and mind weaken and undergo deterioration.
• The suffering of death: breathing ceases, life ends, and the body disintegrates.
• The suffering of encountering those one hates: those who do not love one another must meet or associate together; nothing is more painful.
• The suffering of separation from those one loves: those who love one another must part and leave their beloved ones.
• The suffering of not obtaining what one seeks: whatever one desires but cannot attain gives rise to suffering.
• The suffering arising from the flourishing of the five skandhas—form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness: this is the suffering caused by the operation of afflictions, or contaminated factors, and is generally encompassed within the five skandhas.

The foregoing discusses the eight sufferings. Next, “calamities” refers to the eight difficulties and the hindrances and adversities caused by the three calamities. Because one is not yet capable of contemplating emptiness, one is tightly bound by objects; the mind gives rise to discrimination, afflictions arise, and one is born into the sufferings of the five paths. Once one has perceived the emptiness of the three natures, or contemplated that the skandhas are wholly true emptiness, discrimination and non-arising are understood, and evil results consequently disappear entirely; one can therefore transcend all suffering and calamity, as the following verse says:

The characteristics binding sentient beings

All arise from clinging defilements.

Skillfully cultivate calm and insight;

Only then may liberation from objects be hoped for.

By relying on the cultivation and contemplation of emptiness, one is also liberated from deluded karma. Although the scope is broad, here it is described merely as transcending suffering; that is, at the stage of the provisions, one contemplates the characteristic of emptiness through hearing and reflection. At the sixth mind among the first ten minds, followed by the mind of faith that does not regress or lose its wholesome roots, one immediately transcends all suffering and calamity, as the following verse says:

If sentient beings in the world

Increasingly maintain right mindfulness and right view,

Though undergoing birth for a thousand kalpas,

They will surely remain far from the evil paths.

Upon reaching the ten abodes, from the fourth abode onward, gross afflictions no longer arise, and only then can one subdue them, transcend evil, and escape suffering and calamity. At the Abode of Noble Birth, afflictions are first severed; when they have been permanently and completely eradicated without remainder, one departs from birth and death and escapes the three realms. The Sutra on Dependent Origination states that non-Buddhist adherents regard all formations of ordinary beings as conditioned by four kinds of ignorance.

Ordinary beings who practice the inner Dharma but act heedlessly, paying no regard to merit, have the other three kinds of ignorance as conditions. Concerning those who are not heedless and govern their conduct, I do not say that ignorance is their condition. Thus it should be known that from this point onward, they forever leave the evil paths and all suffering and calamity.

Only after the seventh abode does the regressing mind cease, and one forever leaves behind the sufferings and calamities of the Two Vehicles. At the stage of penetration, one first realizes true emptiness and thereafter forever escapes the three evil paths. The eight perilous difficulties leave no trace, nor do the sufferings and calamities of poverty, illness, and so forth.

Alternatively, one may also progressively and permanently leave behind the suffering, adversity, fear, and afflictions of the three realms; only after the eighth bhumi are these entirely eliminated. Before completing the seventh bhumi, afflictions still remain; therefore, only at the tenth bhumi is the contemplation of emptiness perfected. All seeds of contamination, or affliction, are permanently eradicated, and all suffering arising from transformational birth and death comes to an end.

At the stage of the Tathagata, for the benefit of sentient beings, there may sometimes be manifestations that do not accord with this. Since Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara had not yet attained Buddhahood, he necessarily had to attain the contemplation of emptiness. To exhort and instruct those who resolve to cultivate, the text therefore says that he transcended everything.

O Sariputra, these words praise those who cultivate the practice of resolute understanding of emptiness, which is not established through dharmas, for dharmas are causes of arising. Here, the emptiness of persons should be broadly understood so that the emptiness of dharmas may subsequently be revealed. As should properly be stated, because the faculties of ordinary beings are inferior, an analogy is presented to clarify the teaching for those who cultivate the supreme practice and eradicate the four attachments.

This has three sections: first, “O Sariputra,” and so forth, gives a general indication of the obstructions concerning emptiness; next, “Therefore,” and so forth, separately summarizes emptiness; and lastly, “Because there is no attainment,” clearly explains the principle of emptiness.

Explanation: “Sariputra” is Sanskrit. In the language of the Tang Chinese, it is rendered “Son of Sarika,” or “Son of the Autumn Bird.” Because his mother was eloquent in debate, an analogy was used to name her son; and to indicate that he inherited her natural gifts, he was further called “son.” His mother’s debating skill was borrowed to name her son, who refuted the false and revealed the true, understood much from hearing little, and whose initial knowledge and vision became lucid early through the aptitude inherited from his mother.

Now, in expounding the nature of emptiness, how could an analogy alone suffice? The supreme teaching is therefore stated in order to connect the dharmas and reveal the principle of emptiness. The noble elder is addressed separately to accord with his faculties, while at the same time a general admonition is given to the entire assembly.

Although the sutra has already offered clear exhortation and instruction, those who have not yet realized the emptiness of dharmas must first be urged to train their minds; only then can they eliminate the four attachments—the characteristics of a self, a person, a sentient being, and a life-span.

– “Form is not different from emptiness; emptiness is not different from form. Form itself is emptiness; emptiness itself is form.” The laudatory commentary means that the four great elements and what is derived from them comprise the ten form-ayatana, while the nature of form within the dharma-ayatana is also manifested through transformation; all are collectively designated by the term “form.” For practitioners of superior conduct, this is broadly expounded as the Dharma of Emptiness. The Great Prajnaparamita Sutra asks: Why is this so? Because the intrinsic nature of form is empty; it is not that form becomes empty through emptiness, nor is emptiness form. Form does not depart from emptiness, and emptiness does not depart from form; form itself is emptiness, and emptiness itself is form. This refutes the two kinds of attachment—to existence and to nonexistence. “Form is not different from emptiness; emptiness is not different from form” refutes the worldly belief that a real emptiness exists separately outside form. Failing to awaken to true emptiness, beings cling to forms; their delusion increases confused karma, and so they continue revolving in the stream of birth and death. It is now made clear that seeing illusory flowers because of diseased eyes certainly means that the eyes are afflicted, not that nothing appears. Therefore, according to the ultimate truth, form is not different from emptiness. As the Buddha taught in the sacred scriptures: “Dharmas arise through causes and conditions; therefore I declare them to be empty.” “Form itself is emptiness; emptiness itself is form” refutes the attachment of fools who reify form and emptiness and then discriminate between existence and nonexistence, making separate discriminations concerning form and concerning emptiness. It is now made clear, on the basis of the ultimate truth, that the original nature of form is empty, while those who misunderstand this distinctive meaning become entangled in emptiness and form. Why, then, would form first have to perish before emptiness could be seen? When a person with diseased eyes sees illusory flowers, their nature is not truly existent; why must one wait until the flowers disappear before they become empty? Therefore, do not give rise to fixed attachment regarding form and emptiness. Only by eliminating inverted views can one reach ultimate nirvana. Thus, the two preceding sentences of the sutra indicate that the intrinsic nature of form is empty, not that form must perish before there is emptiness. Properly speaking, if one relies upon the ultimate truth, all dharmas are empty and none are existent. At first glance this may seem so, yet in principle it is not necessarily the case. The ultimate and the conventional, characteristics and appearances: the conventional does not extinguish the ultimate. Because form and emptiness stand in mutual relation, when form is extinguished, emptiness also disappears; therefore the original essence of form is empty. For practitioners of superior understanding, on the basis of this real emptiness it is affirmed to be empty; yet emptiness itself is also empty. Thus it must be stated in this way: because the intrinsic essence of form, arisen through causes and conditions, is empty, would one who was formerly a fool thereby become wise, so that ordinary beings and sages would be confused with one another, a person could appoint himself qualified to be a teacher, and who then would remain deluded? For practitioners of superior understanding, it is taught that afflictions are a part of bodhi, birth and death are themselves nirvana, and a portion of worldly defilements is the Buddha-nature. Since the original nature of all sentient beings is quiescent, how could it be that one was first foolish and only afterward became wise? Properly speaking, if one clings to form as a phenomenon distinct from the principle of emptiness, one should relinquish attachment to form and seek realization of the principle of emptiness. Since there is no real form, attachment to form is foolishness; is seeking wisdom and relinquishing foolishness not precisely freedom from inversion? Moreover, why seek to obscure birth and death in order to attain nirvana, caring nothing for suffering or happiness? The deluded wish to end birth and death and attain nirvana; why should the wise seek anything? The deluded wish to end birth and death and attain nirvana, whereas for sages to long to attain some accomplishment would be false and deluded. For practitioners of superior understanding, it is taught that worldly people, in their delusion, seek sagehood and abandon the ordinary; yet within the true principle of form and emptiness, what can be gained through grasping and rejecting? Properly speaking, although many distinct phenomena are also said to be empty, within the ultimate truth this statement itself becomes contradictory. Those who have not attained awakening understand that form is empty; those who have attained awakening do not conceive of emptiness and form. Sages who thoroughly comprehend this should regard such people with compassion, while the foolish and indolent rejoice in delight and pleasure. As the Blessed One taught: Bodhisattvas, in accordance with skillful means, attain ultimate liberation. If sentient beings understand what the Buddha taught concerning the nature of emptiness to mean that all dharmas lack intrinsic nature and are therefore entirely nonexistent, that they neither arise nor cease and are all like dreams and illusions, they will be unable to understand and penetrate those dharmas clearly. Because bodhisattvas understand and penetrate dharmas in accordance with reality, the Buddha said to the bodhisattvas: This sutra does not teach that all dharmas are utterly nonexistent; it teaches only that the intrinsic natures ascribed to dharmas through language are nonexistent. Thus it should be known that all dharmas lack intrinsic nature. Although all expressions are spoken in reliance upon dharmas, and hence all words undergo transformation, nevertheless, as the Buddha taught, the intrinsic nature posited with reference to the ultimate truth is not intrinsic nature; therefore it is said that all dharmas are nonexistent. Since the intrinsic nature attributed to all dharmas is originally empty, all are said to be nonexistent. They arise from nowhere and cease nowhere; therefore dharmas are said to be neither arisen nor ceased. Furthermore, dharmas are like dreams and illusions: they are not as they appear and are not truly existent. Yet this does not mean that all dreamlike and illusory appearances are utterly nonexistent. Likewise, dharmas are not truly existent as fools habitually reason them to be on the basis of what appears; nor, with regard to the ultimate truth, are dharmas entirely nonexistent in an intrinsic nature beyond words. Therefore, one should clearly understand that all dharmas are neither existent nor nonexistent, but are like dreams and illusions, their nature being nondual; hence it is said that all dharmas are like dreams. Thus bodhisattvas neither grasp at the slightest portion of dharmas or the dharma-dhatu nor discard the slightest portion; they neither diminish nor augment anything, nor do they bring anything to extinction. What is truly existent as a dharma they know to be truly existent; what is truly nonexistent as a dharma they know to be truly nonexistent. In this way, bodhisattvas have truly followed skillful means and penetrated the Dharma. The Prajnaparamita teaches that, because deluded people obstinately cling to real existence, it must be said that the true intrinsic nature of dharmas is like a dream or illusion, without intrinsic nature, wholly devoid of real existence, neither arising nor ceasing. This does not deny noble wisdom; certainly both ultimate and conventional truths, beyond language, constitute the Dharma-nature. It is not that, because things are like dreams and illusions, all material things and forms are devoid of names and natures. To reach what is nameless is to awaken that things are not existent; to reach the noble realm of what has names is to awaken that things are not nonexistent. Therefore it is said that bodhisattvas neither grasp at the slightest portion nor abandon the slightest portion: they know the nonexistent as nonexistent and the existent as existent. If, according to the ultimate truth, one says that the essence of all dharmas is entirely empty, wholly lacking existence, how could understanding the matter in this way be called skillful? To call this awakening is not emptiness; nor is it “not abandoning the slightest portion.” Rather, it follows the confused multitude in injuring and destroying the true Dharma. Therefore, one should know that the intent of this sutra is first to refute attachment to the existence of form and thus to declare form empty. This emptiness means nonexistence. It does not mean that the Dharma-nature itself is empty; rather, deluded people cling to the intrinsic existence of subjective conception, form, and characteristics. If one clings to their not being empty, and if form therefore must perish before it can become empty, one falls into the two inverted attachments. Thus both statements together clarify that neither the phenomena nor the principle of form are as they are grasped. Do not give rise to deluded and inverted attachment. Once deluded attachment has ceased completely, the form that was grasped also no longer remains. Therefore, one must eliminate the dependent nature while retaining the conceptually constructed nature, just as, when the disease of the eyes has ended, illusory flowers are no longer seen. Followers of the two vehicles and non-Buddhist paths cling to the real existence of causes and conditions whose functions give rise to dharmas; yet the natures of all these are not existent. Therefore the Buddha taught: “Dharmas arise through causes and conditions; I declare them all to be empty.” This does not mean that the dependent nature of form, which is like an illusion, is also entirely nonexistent. As the following verse says:

Deluded attachment gives rise to discrimination;

Through it, meanings are established.

Neither truly existent nor wholly nonexistent,

When utterly extinguished, liberation is complete.

The sacred canon also states that dharmas are neither born from themselves nor born from something else; they are neither born from a combination of causes nor born without either of these. Although there is nothing apprehended, through the functioning of causes and conditions, the capacity to take an object arises and cognition is thereby accomplished. If emptiness were spoken of in this way, it would not accord with the conventional truth; and if the conventional truth did not exist, neither should the ultimate truth.

In dependence upon whom and through whom, then, could liberation be attained? Alternatively, this emptiness is the emptiness of the Dharma-nature. If the falsely established nature (the imagined nature) that apprehends form and that which depends upon form (the dependent nature) were certainly different and truly existent, the ultimate and conventional truths would necessarily be separate, resulting in delusion.

Now it is revealed that the nature of both forms is emptiness—signlessness and the unconditioned—and that emptiness encompasses both wisdom and its object. Therefore, relinquish both attachments and proceed toward true emptiness. One should proceed toward emptiness, yet both extremes of false views must be eliminated.

The form-body of the Dharma-nature is the true characteristic and is not different from emptiness; what deluded attachment could remain?

The scriptures teach that the Two Truths possess differing degrees of profundity, yet their characteristics complement one another, thus establishing the ultimate and the conventional: there is the conventional within the conventional; there is the conventional-conventional within the ultimate; there is the ultimate-ultimate within the ultimate; and there is the ultimate-ultimate within the conventional. Thus, the conventional is precisely conventional, and the ultimate of the conventional is ultimate.

There are the conventional and the ultimate; when the conventional is absent, the ultimate ceases. It is neither the case that, apart from form, emptiness alone exists, nor that form is emptiness; it is neither so nor not so. Here, provisional distinctions are established for comparison, and it is merely said that they are not different.

Yet the “not different” mentioned here is itself not truly “not different.” As the Treatise on the Discrimination of the Middle and the Extremes states in verse:

Because nonexistence exists, there is emptiness;

The existence of nonexistence is not identical with emptiness.

It is neither one nor different:

Such is the characteristic of emptiness in the dharmas.

Form and emptiness are now said to reveal one another so that their meaning may become still clearer and doubtful attachments may be dispelled. As stated above, Avalokitesvara teaches that the mind must be disciplined. Here, form and emptiness are explained in order to eliminate four attachments: first, the adherents of the Two Vehicles are narrowly content with benefiting themselves and do not wish to benefit others; second, they give rise to doubts concerning the Mahayana and thus fall into inverted views; third, in hearing, reflection, and cultivation, they brazenly give rise to the notion of self and innumerable attachments to dharmas;

fourth, they are content and at ease with what they presently possess, attaching to form and so forth, even to bodhi, and becoming entangled in conceptual discrimination.

Now it is taught that form and the rest are not different from emptiness and that form itself is emptiness, so that adherents of the Two Vehicles may abandon their narrow attachments, attain nonconceptual wisdom, and perfect the supramundane practice.

– “Feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are also likewise.” The eulogy says: It was feared that those harboring doubtful attachments might believe that only form is not different from emptiness and that only the substance of form is emptiness, while other dharmas are not so. Yet feeling, perception, formations, and the rest are likewise the same as form. The capacity to receive objects and thereby give rise to suffering and pleasure is called feeling. Apart from feeling, that which can apprehend an object as having characteristics or lacking characteristics, as small or large, many or few, according to discrimination, is called perception. The mental activity that creates wholesome karma, unwholesome karma, and karma that is neither wholesome nor unwholesome (indeterminate), together with the circulation of other mental factors, is called formations. Mind, mentation, and consciousness are individually distinct in all three respects, yet all are collectively called consciousness. That is, these four modes of cognition bind and support, and they can determine consciousness: form is introduced; by its introduction it is known; through knowing, activity occurs; and through activity, discernment becomes clear. Therefore, form, feeling, and the rest follow one another in this order.

However, because worldly people attach to a self, the matter becomes more complex, taking five forms, such as thinking: my body is complete, I experience and use things, I speak, I perform actions, and I possess an intrinsic self. It is now made clear that the skandhas are merely the functions of dharmas; they possess no truly existent intrinsic nature, no self, and nothing belonging to a self. Therefore, the five skandhas are said neither to increase nor diminish.

Foolish beings do not know how to destroy attachment to self. With regard to the emptiness of the skandhas, they provisionally designate them as skandhas and then cling to them as existent. To refute that attachment, emptiness is taught here.

The Twenty Verses states: “It is said that no self or sentient being exists; they exist only in dependence upon dharmas.” The words “and so forth” also include the ayatanas, dhatus, and the other categories within the five kinds of skillful understanding. Yet in the Great Scripture the Buddha teaches: “Form is empty, even up to bodhi, which is also empty. If there were a dharma by which nirvana could be attained, I would also declare it to be like an illusion and a magical transformation.” Therefore, the words “and so forth” here encompass everything.

The supreme emptiness is not fully constituted by two dharmas, as explained above.

The Great Scripture next states that feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are empty of intrinsic nature. It is not because they arise from emptiness; therefore, it must be explained extensively that feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are emptiness, and emptiness itself is feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. Why is this? Because “bodhi” is itself only a name; since it signifies emptiness, so too “form,” “feeling,” “perception,” “formations,” and “consciousness” are merely names.

– “O Sariputra, these dharmas have the characteristic of emptiness: they are neither born nor extinguished, neither defiled nor pure, neither increasing nor diminishing.” The eulogy says: Previously, it was declared that the substance of all dharmas is empty; here it is revealed that the meaning of dharmas is emptiness. “These dharmas” refers only to form, feeling, perception, and the other dharmas previously said to be empty. What formerly did not exist is now named; thus it provisionally exists and then returns to nonexistence, which is called extinction. Because of afflictive obstructions, it is defiled. The word “pure” has a broad meaning and may be interpreted as increase, while it may also be called decrease.

For practitioners of resolute understanding, form and the rest are said to exist according to conventional truth, because they are born. According to the ultimate truth, however, form, feeling, and the rest are originally empty. How could empty space ever be born? One should know that birth, extinction, and the absence of characteristics are all empty. Properly speaking, the imagined nature and the dependent nature, as already explained, are such that the original nature of dharmas is naturally empty. The Dharma-nature of form and the rest is entirely empty in substance. This is by no means the same as the emptiness grasped by adherents of the Two Vehicles, which admits partial distinctions; hence it is said to be without characteristics, unborn, unextinguished, and so forth.

Furthermore, if one clings to conditioned dharmas as universally pervasive, they must certainly possess birth and extinction. Unconditioned dharmas, while bound and upon emerging from bondage, would then individually and truly possess defilement and purity. For those who have not realized suchness and those who have awakened to conditioned and unconditioned dharmas, these two mutually alternate and complement one another, giving rise to increase and decrease. Those who hold such attachments all rely upon what they apprehend; therefore, both substance and characteristics are said to be empty. How could it be as they claim—that conditioned dharmas possess birth and extinction, unconditioned dharmas possess defilement and purity, and both alike possess increase and decrease?

It is like seeing rippling waves and apprehending them as water. This water is originally nonexistent; how, then, could it arise? It is not that there are no rippling waves, but that they appear as though water had arisen. Thus, another difficulty is raised: If one relies upon the dependent nature, then form and the rest are all empty, just as that nature is; birth and extinction must likewise be so. The answer is that, just as forms within empty space undergo birth and extinction while the signless emptiness does not, so too the dependent nature may undergo birth and extinction, whereas true emptiness does not.

Another question is then raised: If all dharmas are true emptiness, and the absence of characteristics pervades greed, hatred, and the other defilements, while purity encompasses faith and the other qualities, then defilement and purity ought to exist. The answer is: Just as within empty space there are forms, defilement, purity, and characteristics, yet emptiness itself is not so, likewise, although dharmas possess defilement and purity, the signless emptiness does not. As the following verse states:

Neither defiled nor not defiled,

Neither pure nor not pure;

Intrinsic nature is originally pure and clear,

But becomes stained by adventitious dust.

Suppose someone says: If phenomena are entirely without characteristics of their own, then the liberating sacred teachings admit of increase and decrease, whereas true emptiness should not be so. Here, from the standpoint of ultimate truth, the reply is: Just as forms within space increase and decrease, but the characteristic of space does not, so too, although the sacred teachings admit of such increase and decrease, the emptiness of intrinsic nature does not; all such increase and decrease pertains to phenomenal characteristics, each having its own distinct aspect.

If all phenomena were merely true suchness and emptiness, how could phenomena undergo arising and cessation? The foregoing explains generally that not only is the substance of form not different from emptiness, but the countless distinctions arising in relation to form are likewise not different from emptiness. Here, the general and the particular are briefly presented in three levels, but in reality the characteristic of emptiness does not comprise even a single level.

The Great Sutra explains this as follows: Such intrinsic nature neither arises nor ceases, is neither defiled nor purified. When bodhisattvas practice prajnaparamita in this way, they no longer perceive arising or cessation, defilement or purity. Why is this?

Because distinct names are merely provisionally borrowed, and discrimination arises separately regarding phenomena; when one conceives them to be thus and thus, attachment consequently arises. When bodhisattvas practice prajnaparamita, they do not perceive any of these conceptions; because they do not perceive them, they do not cling to them.

– “Therefore, within emptiness there is no form, no feeling, perception, formations, or consciousness.” The commentary says: This is taught for practitioners who understand emptiness. Above, the substance and characteristics of form and so forth were explained generally as clearly not different from emptiness. Fearing that the meaning might remain obscure and cause careful observers to suppose that space is utterly vacant, the text continues the preceding passage and speaks thus. These words apply generally to the apprehension of all phenomena as empty. Properly speaking, all three vehicles share five kinds of skillful understanding: the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, dependent origination, and truths. According to the particular “vehicle,” the corresponding contemplation may be more remote or more immediate. Because the two lesser vehicles rely upon attachment to existence, nonexistence is taught here in opposition to it. From the belief that the substance of space is utterly vacant, one also supposes that the intrinsic nature of the skandhas—aggregates or collections—is entirely nonexistent. Yet, as an expedient concerning conditioned phenomena, the Buddha established the skandhas in order to dismantle the notion of a self within the five skandhas, gradually guiding beings toward skillful words of truth; they are not truly existent. As the verse says:

Like a lamp, an illusion, a star obscured,

Clouds, lightning, dreams, and foam,

They arise through compounded conjunction;

Thus should they be contemplated.

Conditioned phenomena are certainly not the skandhas in any fixed sense; therefore, on what principle could the apprehension that the skandhas and so forth exist be established as true? The nature of phenomena is true emptiness and therefore does not bear the characteristics of the skandhas. Thus, within emptiness there are no five skandhas. The Great Sutra continues: Moreover, Shariputra, when bodhisattvas practice prajnaparamita—the cultivation of ultimate, transcendent wisdom—they should contemplate in this way: “Bodhisattva” is merely a name; ultimate, transcendent wisdom is merely a name; form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are merely empty names; and so forth, as extensively explained, should likewise be understood.

– “There is no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind; no form, sound, smell, taste, touch, or dharmas.” The commentary says: This passage explains that within emptiness there are no twelve ayatanas. For practitioners of ultimate truth, it is said: As a skillful means, the Buddha taught the existence of the ayatanas, enticing and guiding practitioners to enter truth. Once they have entered truth, they must rely upon the meaning of reality; hence, they are taught that the ayatanas are nonexistent. Properly speaking, the faculties and their objects are called ayatanas because they can serve as gateways through which the six activities arise. Yet, based on the worldly characteristics of seeing, investigating, adorning, eating and drinking, attending, and discriminating, the Buddha taught the ayatanas successively in this manner. The eye and ear apprehend without having to reach their objects; the three faculties of nose, tongue, and body apprehend only upon reaching their objects; and the mind consists of the eight consciousnesses, whose operation is certainly not fixed. When the eye and ear possess extraordinary capacities, they are called the divine eye and divine ear. Mutable and unreal, the first five consciousnesses occur only in the desire realm and must depend upon the subsequent consciousnesses. The powers of karma, conditions, commonality, concentration, and Dharma all give rise to functions of varying superiority and inferiority. Accordingly, there are systems of nine, eight, seven, or five kinds of dependently originated phenomena: Form means shape and indication. Sound is said to be either appropriated or unappropriated, and it arises when all the requisite factors are present. Smell arises through the full conjunction and transformation of conditions. Tastes are bitter, sour, pungent, sweet, salty, and bland. Touch comprises the four great elements and what is produced through contact with them. Dharmas comprise non-obstructive forms, the various mental factors, nonassociated formations, and the unconditioned. Of the five skandhas, the first comprises only two kinds, while the remaining skandhas, together with the resultant consciousness, constitute the process of cyclic existence. The resultant consciousness occurs only in the desire realm and the form realm, while the last two consciousnesses pervade all three realms. Form and sound include indication, while mind and dharmas pervade all three realms. The ten forms are only karmically indeterminate or wholesome; that is, they are relinquished or retained, provisionally established and designated by name. All of them include both contaminated and uncontaminated phenomena. As a verse in the Twenty Verses on Consciousness-Only says:

Based upon what arises there,

The Buddha clearly revealed his hidden intent,

Teaching that the ayatana of form and its objects exist,

Through which sentient beings are constituted.

This means that beings falsely attached to a self are deeply submerged in samsara and have no intention of seeking liberation. Regarding what is not truly an ayatana among phenomena, the Buddha taught it as an ayatana. Thus, because attachment to the view of annihilation arises, he secretly intended to guide beings into ultimate reality, where attachment to self is abandoned.

The practitioners of the two lesser vehicles did not understand these expedient words and clung to the ayatanas as truly existent. Therefore, it is necessary here to clarify that the intrinsic nature of what they apprehend is originally empty. Since no real ayatanas exist among dependently originated phenomena, and since the emptiness that is the principle of Dharma-nature likewise bears no characteristic of an ayatana, the preceding meaning is continued by concluding that the ayatanas are empty.

The Great Sutra further states: The eye ayatana is merely a name, and likewise through to the dharma ayatana, each is merely a name; the eye ayatana is empty, and likewise through to the dharma ayatana, each is empty.

– “There is no eye-dhatu, and so forth, up to no mind-consciousness-dhatu.” Commentary: This passage states that within emptiness there are no eighteen dhatus. For practitioners, in terms of emptiness, these are spoken of as the eye-dhatu, form-dhatu, eye-consciousness-dhatu; ear-dhatu, sound-dhatu, ear-consciousness-dhatu; nose-dhatu, odor-dhatu, nose-consciousness-dhatu; tongue-dhatu, taste-dhatu, tongue-consciousness-dhatu; body-dhatu, tangible-object-dhatu, body-consciousness-dhatu; mind-dhatu, dharma-dhatu, and mind-consciousness-dhatu—called the eighteen dhatus. Here, by mentioning what comes first and last, all eighteen dhatus, including those between, are encompassed. Conventionally, they are said to exist; in ultimate truth, they are said to be empty, for they are merely provisional names. Because they are empty of intrinsic nature, it should properly be said that the faculties and their objects are capable of sustaining the six consciousnesses, while they also sustain their own causes and effects; this characteristic is called a dhatu. Because the consciousness-dhatus arise in sequence in accordance with the ayatanas described above, the eighteen dhatus are arranged in this order. The six internal dhatus have the characteristic of apprehending and retaining their objects. The six external dhatus have the characteristics of objects apprehended by the eye and so forth. The six consciousness-dhatus have the characteristic of nearly discerning objects in dependence upon faculties and their corresponding objects.

Among these, the mind-dhatu comprises mind, mentation, and consciousness. “Mind” means the eighth consciousness, which has the function of preserving seeds, storing them, and directing them toward arising. Being wholesome or neither wholesome nor unwholesome, and unobscured, it can transform the physical faculties and serve as the basis of sentient beings. It has three names:

1. In the state of being appropriated by attachment to self, it is called the Alaya-consciousness. In Chinese, this is translated as “storehouse,” having three meanings: that which stores, that which is stored, and the appropriated store.
2. In the state of being the result of wholesome and unwholesome karma, it is called Vipaka, translated as the “Maturation Consciousness,” for all wholesome or unwholesome karma that has been performed is gathered into it.
3. In the state of continuously grasping and sustaining, it is called Adana, translated as “sustaining” or “holding,” because it retains the body and does not allow it to perish.

“Mentation” means the seventh consciousness. It defiledly apprehends the characteristic of a self because, relying upon contaminated dharmas, it readily regards them as equal. Its nature is wholesome but obscured. It likewise has three names:

1. In the state associated with attachment to self, it is called the obscured manas, which takes the Alaya-consciousness as its object and apprehends it as self.
2. In the state associated with attachment to dharmas, it is the unobscured manas, which takes the Maturation Consciousness as its object and apprehends it as dharmas.
3. In the state whose nature is deliberation, it is properly called Manas; taking the Alaya-consciousness and so forth as its objects, it gives rise to deliberation concerning the apprehending subject, the apprehended object, shortness and length, sameness, and difference.

Thus, the seventh and eighth consciousnesses each have three names. Their first two names pertain to the contaminated, while the last name encompasses the uncontaminated as well. “Consciousness” means the six consciousnesses, which are manifest and encompass all three natures.

Upon attaining Buddhahood, the Maturation Consciousness is transformed into the Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom. The images of the nine analogies appear within it as appropriate. At the first bodhisattva-bhumi, the two aspects of Manas are transformed into the Wisdom of Equality, endowed with ten supreme functions.

The first five consciousnesses are transformed into the Wisdom of Accomplished Action, which initiates ten kinds of activity and fulfills the original vows. Because discrimination is predominant, “consciousness” is taken as the principal designation; at the resultant stage, “wisdom” must necessarily be used as the designation.

These first eight consciousnesses constitute the seven mind-dhatus. The four wholesome mental factors are included within the dharma-dhatu. The three illuminate existence and nonexistence, fully possessing the wisdoms of ultimate and conventional truth. The wisdom that accomplishes deeds illuminates conventional truth and is not ultimate. The Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom and the Wisdom of Equality are always unmoving; because the former constantly contemplates and illuminates, it is called Omniscient Wisdom. The Wisdom of Wondrous Observation is sometimes interrupted. Although these four wisdoms fully possess the virtues of their natures, their arising is indeterminate according to whichever characteristics become predominant.

Nevertheless, the Dharma taught by the Buddha differs in breadth and brevity. In the skandhas, form and consciousness are taught briefly; in the ayatanas and dhatus, they are taught extensively. Mental factors are treated extensively among the skandhas but briefly among the ayatanas and dhatus.

Because beings are deluded regarding all three, the skandhas are taught as conditioned phenomena, the ayatanas are taught in relation to the two attachments, and the dhatus intensify attachment to characteristics. For those seeking to destroy attachment to self, what remains in reality are the dhatus; the practitioners of the two vehicles fail to understand this clearly and consequently cling to them as real.... Everything thus apprehended is entirely empty; all that lacks reality is dhatu.

Therefore, continuing from the preceding passage, the conclusion reached is emptiness.

– “There is no ignorance and also no cessation of ignorance, and so forth, up to no aging and death and also no cessation of aging and death.” Commentary: For practitioners contemplating emptiness, it is said that above they do not contemplate what is distant, and below they do not contemplate what is near. This contemplation is not the comprehensive contemplation practiced by Pratyekabuddhas. The sutras state that, for those seeking the Pratyekabuddha vehicle, the Dharma conforming to the twelve links of dependent origination is taught. The sutras also state that ignorance through aging and death are merely provisional names and are empty of intrinsic nature; therefore, they are here said to be empty. “Cessation” itself also means emptiness, and emptiness too is empty; therefore, it is said that there is no cessation of ignorance, and so forth, up to no cessation of aging and death. Both the existence and nonexistence of the twelve links of dependent origination are empty. It should therefore be understood that all other dharmas are likewise so. To clarify the intended meaning, it should properly be stated as the Venerable Maitreya taught: herein, both defiled and purified dharmas have differing forward and reverse sequences. The forward contemplation of defiled dharmas is based upon the flowing course of birth-and-death; the reverse contemplation is explained on the basis of preparatory practices. The forward contemplation of purification is taught on the basis of the fundamental dharmas that eliminate the afflictions; its reverse contemplation is based upon the grave obstructions that have already been eliminated. In forward contemplation of defiled dharmas, one must first clearly understand the nature of the twelve links of dependent origination:

1. Ignorance: inward benightedness and outward delusion.

2. Formations: activities, whether meritorious, non-meritorious, or imperturbable.

3. Consciousness: the Maturation Consciousness.

4. Name-and-form: the complete body and mind comprising the five skandhas—form, feeling, perception, and so forth.

5. The six entrances (ayatanas): the six faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

6. Contact: contact with sensory objects, distinguishing superior and inferior.

7. Feeling: experiencing every pain and pleasure of life.

8. Craving: passionate attachment and covetous clinging to the three realms.

9. Grasping: clinging to and retaining the afflictions.

10. Becoming: From formations through feeling, the seeds of these six links, proliferating through craving and grasping, extend to becoming and what follows becoming.

11. Birth: the fruit of suffering becomes an actuality.

12. Aging and death: final decline—the end, when life is exhausted.

Next, one contemplates that, because of delusion, wrong conduct arises; through repeated practice, karma is created and its result is experienced in a later life. One understands that the characteristics of the five skandhas arise, that the faculties become complete, and that contact, feeling, seeds, and objects of experience lead to the maturation of results. Because of craving, attachment, and seeking, the afflictions grow ever deeper and permeate former karma, so that one must undergo the suffering of birth, aging, illness, and death, while sorrow continually follows.

Therefore, the sutra says: “With ignorance as condition, formations arise,” through to “with birth as condition, aging and death arise.” Consciousness and the other four links are not presented in sequence; thus, in accordance with the section presently being explained, the subsequent conditions are discussed.

Defilement, in both reverse and forward order, is established as truth on the basis of the initial accumulation of defilement. That is: aging and death are suffering; the accumulation of aging and death; the cessation of aging and death; and the path leading to the cessation of aging and death. Thus, through to the remaining links, as appropriate, one proceeds through contemplation of the truths. Because the link of aging and death encompasses the truth of suffering, in the Abhidharma the earlier arising through conditions is contemplated in reverse order, using three aspects to contemplate the link of aging and death: 1. subtle causation; 2. coarse causation; and 3. the absence of indeterminacy.

The cause and condition through which birth is experienced is called subtle. Craving, clinging, existence, and birth, insofar as they are present in their own nature, are called coarse. This means that aging and death arise because of these two links of birth. Subtle birth in a later life is a cause, while present aging and death have birth as their coarse cause. Apart from these two links of birth, there is certainly nothing capable of producing aging and death; hence this is called the absence of indeterminacy.

Although one contemplates aging and death as truly suffering, from craving onward suffering is assigned to the truth of accumulation, yet this does not sufficiently establish it. One therefore subsequently contemplates the accumulation of the innumerable sufferings of the present. That is, one contemplates in reverse order feeling, contact, the six sense entrances, name-and-form, and consciousness, examining future suffering as truly being the suffering of the present.

One contemplates that the already-existing cause of accumulation is indeed the accumulation that is to come into being, and investigates through whom the truth of accumulation underlying future suffering exists. One knows that previously accumulated karma gave rise to consciousness, which served as the principal link leading to present suffering. Once one knows that previous accumulation gave rise to it, there is no further need to contemplate why that accumulation existed.

Consciousness and name-and-form, as though mutually bound, alternately give rise to one another, without any creator. Thus, the contemplation of consciousness turns back, and in this manner suffering and accumulation are contemplated in forward and reverse order within only ten links.

Next, one contemplates the truth of cessation, proceeding first from aging and death back to ignorance. Why are all these being completely extinguished? Because, when one does not create new karma with ignorance as its condition, all sufferings must cease. One then aspires to seek realization of the path, recollecting the teaching on dependent arising formerly taught by the master, so as to see worldly dharmas clearly through present right view. These paired contemplations cause one’s vision to increase; this is called the contemplation of defilement in forward and reverse order.

The pure contemplation in forward order is as follows: because one has previously accumulated the provisions of right view, one successively comprehends the truths, whether through contaminated or uncontaminated cognition, by means of pure knowledge. Only then can one completely sever ignorance and craving. Ignorance, contact, and the other links that condition the arising of feeling must likewise be severed.

Regarding present dharmas, one attains liberation through wisdom; feeling is associated with the mind. Because craving and the afflictions have been completely abandoned and no fetters remain, the mind is entirely liberated. Since ignorance has been severed, the corresponding formations, consciousness, and so forth through feeling do not arise.

Therefore, the sutra teaches: “Because ignorance ceases, formations cease,” through to “because contact ceases, feeling ceases.” Since that feeling does not arise, craving does not arise on its basis. Thus, with respect to craving, it is also said: “Because feeling ceases, craving ceases,” through to “sorrow, lamentation, and distress all cease.” Only consciousness and the other factors, pure and undefiled in the realm of nirvana with remainder, remain; this is called realizing nirvana in the present.

Furthermore, when all contamination has ended and true permanence is attained, this is called the realm of nirvana without remainder.

In the pure contemplation in reverse order, after severance has been completed, one contemplates backward: because craving is absent, aging and death are absent; because craving ceases, aging and death cease. One knows there is no agent, because existence arises conditionally from seeds. Since the two kinds of birth are absent, aging and death are absent; since the two kinds of birth, being impermanent and conditionally arisen, cease, aging and death cease.

In this manner, through to knowing that, because there is no agent, conditionally arisen activity binds the three kinds of latent tendency: because ignorance is absent, formations are absent; because the three kinds of ignorance, being impermanent and conditionally arisen, cease, formations cease. This is called the pure contemplation in forward and reverse order. Following the forward order of defilement, the link of birth is not stated.

When the anticipated occasion arrives, the reverse order is said to contain only nine links. Taking karma as consciousness rather than as a condition accumulated through conjunction, one may also contemplate eleven links.

Because wisdom is inferior when ignorance has not been eliminated, the Blessed One used such skillful means to enable pratyekabuddhas and others to cultivate by themselves and attain awakening. Yet, because pratyekabuddhas do not penetrate it completely, they mistakenly cling to the dependent arising of defiled and pure dharmas as truly existent. Now the emptiness realized by pratyekabuddhas is taught so that they may relinquish this attachment.

Regarding defiled dharmas, it is said only that there is no ignorance, through to no aging and death. Regarding pure dharmas, it is said only that there is no exhaustion of ignorance, through to no exhaustion of aging and death. For each link, only the emptiness of the forward order is indicated, thereby also revealing the emptiness of the reverse order.

By showing the absence of before and after, the enumerated section is likewise empty. Thus, even upon reaching the sixth bhumi, although one employs this contemplation, one still clings to the true existence of cyclic progression and return through cessation. Only upon reaching the seventh bhumi is the obstruction concerning arising and cessation eliminated.

Arising is the forward order of defilement: namely, the nonexistence of ignorance through to aging and death. Cessation is the forward order of purity: namely, the exhaustion of this nonexistent ignorance through to the exhaustion of aging and death. What is not stated means that there is no locus for attachment to a permanent creator conjoined with the two aspects of dependent arising; it does not mean that the functional dharmas of dependent arising and cessation do not exist.

The sutra says that one enters the ultimate truth without losing the conventional truth. There is no creator and no recipient, yet karma is never lost. Therefore, dependent arising cannot be understood through those characteristics.

In ultimate truth, there is likewise no exhaustion or cessation of ignorance; hence all are nonexistent.

If all good and evil karma were entirely nonexistent, the sutra should merely say that dharmas are non-existent. Why, then, does it speak so extensively and elaborately, going so far as to say that they are not empty? Dharmas are established only in dependence upon causes and conditions. Since the matter itself is intricate and manifold, it must be carefully examined.

– “There is no suffering, origin, cessation, or path.” The commentary: These are not spoken for practitioners of the supreme vehicle. The foregoing emptiness concerns the proximate contemplation of the Pratyekabuddha; this is not the proximate contemplation of the sravaka. Thus the sutras state that, for those who seek the sravaka vehicle, the Dharma of the Four Truths should be taught appropriately. They further state that the Four Truths possess only nominal designations and are originally empty of self-nature. Therefore, everything above and below, down to this point, is also an object of contemplation. With respect to dependent arising, one must first examine it with the utmost care; only afterward is the principle of true emptiness taught.

Properly stated, as recorded in the Srimala Sutra, there are the established Four Noble Truths and the unestablished Four Noble Truths. These eight Noble Truths are not comprehended by the Two Vehicles. The suffering of segmented birth and death is suffering; the afflictions and contaminated karma are called origin; analytical cessation is cessation; and wisdom concerning the emptiness of beings is called the path.

These are coarse and manifest teachings shown to those of shallow wisdom and are called the established truths. The suffering of transformational birth and death is suffering; the cognitive hindrances and discriminative uncontaminated karma are called origin; the intrinsically pure, non-abiding nirvana is called cessation; and wisdom concerning the emptiness of dharmas is called the Path. These truths are subtle, profound, hidden, and difficult to know; they are not coarse objects and therefore cannot be established as ordinary truths.

In brief, contaminated dharmas that oppress and constrain, and that bring about subsequent suffering, are designated as origin. Therefore, morally indeterminate dharmas are entirely excluded from the truth of origin. This briefly sets forth the causes and effects of samsara. The four kinds of nirvana are called cessation. Conditioned uncontaminated dharmas are called the path because they lead to cessation. This briefly sets forth the supramundane causes and effects. It is like a physician who recognizes an illness and clearly understands its cause; when the illness is cured, the treatment also ceases. Contemplating the suffering of samsara, the cause of suffering, the complete cessation of suffering, and the means of extinguishing suffering is likewise so.

Because only noble ones truly know them, they are called the Noble Truths. Alternatively, in accordance with the contemplation of the twofold emptiness and true suchness, one does not separately construct a contemplation; this is the unestablished, transcendent contemplation. Each of the Four Truths is contemplated through four aspects: impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self; cause, origin, arising, and condition; cessation, peace, excellence, and release; path, truth, practice, and deliverance.

Since the practices concerning the truth of suffering can eliminate the four inversions, they culminate in entry into the ultimate truth. The proximate contemplation of the preparatory practice does not contemplate only suffering; rather, it contemplates the unestablished truths and only then enters the true path.

Regarding what is not suffering and so forth, the Buddha taught it as suffering; the sravakas did not fully comprehend that teaching and consequently gave rise to attachment. To refute their attachment, emptiness is now taught. According to what they cling to, there certainly are no characteristics of suffering, origin, and so forth; how, then, could the truth possess such distinctions?

Because all of this is entirely empty, those on the fifth bhumi, although they contemplate accordingly, still cling to the real existence of the coarse characteristics of defilement and purity. Only upon reaching the sixth bhumi do they eliminate the hindrance concerning defilement and purity. Defilement is the contaminated, which here means that the two truths of suffering and origin do not exist.

Purity is the uncontaminated, which means that the cessation and path of the two truths likewise no longer remain as ultimately real.

– “There is no wisdom and no attainment.” The commentary: These are not spoken for practitioners of the supreme vehicle. The foregoing emptiness concerns the proximate contemplation of the sravaka; this concerns the proximate contemplation of the bodhisattva. The path capable of attaining realization is called wisdom, and the object realized is called attainment. Only when there is wisdom capable of realization can there be something attained; yet both the wisdom that attains and the object attained are empty. As the sutras state, for those who seek the bodhisattva vehicle, the six perfections leading to ultimate liberation should be taught. Here, however, it is only said that wisdom and attainment do not exist.

To state it briefly: dharmas are not such that, where previously there was no practice, attainment subsequently comes into being. Thus the Great Sutra states that all wisdom, up to and including unsurpassed bodhi, is also empty. Properly stated, because bodhisattvas correctly contemplate only the unestablished truths, it is said in general that, even in proximate contemplation, there is no wisdom and no attainment. As a verse says:

Relying on consciousness, there is attainment;

The object attained does not arise.

Relying on objects, attainment is not established;

Consciousness free from attainment arises.

By cultivating non-conceptual wisdom, one realizes true suchness; mind and object accord in equality upon equality, and both the apprehending subject and the apprehended object are empty. Subsequent-attainment wisdom is free from all falsely binding characteristics. Deluded attachments must be freed from the two kinds of grasping. Another verse says:

Because consciousness involves apprehension,

It too is established as having no attainment.

When both attachments to existence are entirely removed,

The equality of non-attainment is realized.

On the other bhumis, because the afflictions have not yet been eliminated, contemplation is unclear; that is, the two kinds of grasping still remain. To refute the apprehending subject, “no wisdom” is taught; to refute the apprehended object, “no attainment” is taught. Furthermore, the two dharmas are obscured by the two kinds of grasping.

To counter each kind of grasping separately, “no attainment” is taught—the one who attains and that which is attained. Because their wondrous functioning is obscured, it is called “no wisdom”; because illumination eliminates these obscurations, it is thus explained here. Apart from the imaginary nature, the dependent nature is an illusory phenomenon, yet wisdom and attainment are conventionally affirmed.

The essence of true suchness is tranquil and utterly devoid of the two characteristics. Thus, in reliance upon the three natures, the unconditioned is taught. It is not that genuine wisdom does not arise and therefore does not exist; rather, wisdom and its sphere are both prajnaparamita, in which there is truly neither a characteristic of attachment nor a characteristic of non-attachment.

– “Because there is no attainment.” The commentary: For practitioners of the Dharma of emptiness, this states that the preceding teaching is correct. Therefore, within emptiness there are no form and so forth. Although, taken together with the foregoing, form is not different from emptiness and is neither produced nor extinguished, it has not yet been explained that form is empty of any basis. It is now clarified that within emptiness there is no dharma whatsoever that can serve as a basis. If, within form and so forth, their essence possessed even some measure of existence, then in the ultimate sense there would be some slight attainment upon which to rely. Since all is without attainment, everything is originally empty. As the Great Sutra teaches: because self-nature is empty, all things are empty.

Properly stated, as explained in the Madhyantavibhaga, bodhisattvas who cultivate the Dharma of the ten wholesome actions contemplate ten kinds of skillfulness concerning dharmas: 1) skandhas, 2) ayatanas, 3) dhatus, 4) dependent arising, 5) what is possible and what is impossible, 6) faculties, 7) essences, 8) truths, 9) vehicles, and 10) the conditioned and the unconditioned. Because Venerable Sariputra was slow to realize the Dharma of the Mahayana, the emptiness of the Three Vehicles is taught here through six aspects: general and particular, proximate and remote, preparatory and fundamental.

By contemplating the twofold emptiness, one realizes both phenomena and principle; all six characteristics of attachment are entirely nonexistent. Since neither the dependent nature nor the absolute nature possesses these six fixed characteristics, “no attainment” is used to explain generally that all the foregoing is empty. The Great Sutra teaches that, because form and all other dharmas are unattainable, profound wisdom too is unattainable.

– “Because the bodhisattva (enlightened being) relies upon the Prajnaparamita, his mind is without obstruction. Because there is no obstruction, there is no fear; having completely transcended all inverted views and dreamlike delusions, he reaches ultimate nirvana.” Commentary: For the practitioner, the meaning is not merely that the preceding passage refutes the two attachments and extensively elucidates the two kinds of emptiness, while the following passage praises reliance upon the two dharmas to obtain the two benefits. Here it praises the causal Dharma relied upon, through which defiled obstructions are severed and benefit and bliss are attained. “Reliance,” as stated above, is another designation for practice. “Obstruction” means a barrier, and “hindrance” means constraint. “Fear” means dread, and “terror” means alarm. Because beings have not yet relied upon wisdom, they cling to form and existence, are bound and tossed about amid the sufferings that continually arise, and are always filled with dread. Because of false inversions and the dreamlike delusions of birth and death, they are thereby spurred to aspire toward ultimate nirvana. Once they have relied upon prajna and awakened to the emptiness of form and so forth, there is immediately nothing left to bind, obstruct, or hinder them, including suffering, fear, inversions, delusions, and the like. Since birth and death are themselves nirvana, why should they still deludedly seek ultimate nirvana? Therefore, reliance upon prajna means separation from everything. Properly speaking, the following passage explains that by relying upon and cultivating excellent virtues, one obtains benefit, thereby leaving suffering and realizing suchness. This praises the benefits attained by bodhisattvas through causal cultivation.

When bodhisattvas ordinarily expound the Dharma of causes and conditions and written teachings, they contemplate and investigate the true aspect, taking these as the supporting conditions of their cultivation and practice. Not seeking to know every single realm is called reliance upon prajna (wisdom). “Obstruction” may also mean the afflictive obstruction, which prevents the attainment of nirvana, while “hindrance” means the cognitive obstruction, which prevents the attainment of awakened wisdom. Alternatively, “obstruction” and “hindrance” may be said to have the same meaning and to encompass both obstructions.

“Fear and terror” refers to five kinds of fear:

1) Fear of being unable to sustain one’s livelihood, arising because discriminative attachment to self gives rise to craving.
2) Fear of disgrace, arising as anxious thoughts when one acts disadvantageously.
3) Fear of death, arising from the view of self and thoughts of losing the body.
4) Fear of falling into evil destinies, arising because one creates evil karma even after encountering the Buddhas.
5) Fear of crowds, arising because one sees oneself as inferior and others as superior and thus gives rise to anxiety and fear.

There are seven kinds of inversion:

Discriminative thoughts arising in relation to the latter four delusions are inverted perceptions. Regarding them as capable of providing enduring sensual pleasure, establishing them as such, and clinging to them constitute inverted views. Inversion of mind means the afflictions, which are of three kinds:

1) The root or foundation, namely ignorance.
2) Their essential nature, namely attachment to one extreme and seeing only one aspect; attachment to prohibitions and observances, attachment to views, greed, the satkayadrsti, and wrong views.
3) Their derivative outflows, namely the other afflictions.

“Dreamlike delusions” means that, before attaining true wisdom, one remains constantly within delusive dreams. Therefore, the Buddha taught that birth and death are the long night. Because dreamlike, illusory perceptions arise, they are called dreamlike delusions. The seven inversions above arise from false perceptions, and because one acts as though within a dream, they are called dreamlike delusions. Alternatively, the inversions above may be said to be the causes of birth and death, while these dreamlike delusions are the fruit of birth and death. Since dreams pertain chiefly to the body and its objects, the name “dreamlike delusions” is given on the basis of the fruit.

“Nirvana” is a Sanskrit term. In China under the Tang, it is translated as “perfect quiescence,” meaning that its essence pervades everywhere while its nature is quiescent. Although the nature of true suchness is nondual and undifferentiated, when explained in dependence upon the conditions that are extinguished, nirvana is of four kinds:

1. Nirvana of intrinsically pure nature: the true aspect and true suchness of all dharmas.
2. Nirvana with no fixed abode: true suchness purified of the cognitive obstruction, in which the mind of great compassion and wisdom continually complement each other like the two wings of a bird.
3. Nirvana with remainder: true suchness revealed when the truth of the origin of suffering is exhausted.
4. Nirvana without remainder: true suchness revealed when the truth of suffering is exhausted.

The first kind is said to possess a basis because all ordinary and noble beings equally possess it; sentient beings are neither born nor extinguished and have, from the beginning, been quiescent. The second is said to possess a basis because bodhisattvas abide in non-abiding, whereas sravakas do not reach this nirvana. The latter two kinds possessing a basis indicate that practitioners of all three vehicles may attain liberation.

Here, generally speaking, because bodhisattvas rely upon prajna, they awaken to the emptiness of the three natures; and because both self and dharmas are empty, it becomes manifest that all things are empty. The practitioner’s mind is no longer obstructed by the two obstructions, terrified by the five fears, constrained by the seven inversions, or led astray by dreamlike delusions, and can thus awaken to ultimate nirvana.

Alternatively, because bodhisattvas rely upon prajna and cultivate the emptiness of dharmas as a resolute understanding, they bring the provisions onto the path and gradually subdue the active manifestations of the two discriminative obstructions. Upon reaching the stage of preparatory practice, they eliminate them completely and can also gradually subdue the two fundamental kinds of affliction. “The mind is without obstruction” refers to entering the path of seeing, where discriminative attachments are severed and, in accordance with one’s aspiration, consummation is swiftly attained.

“There is no fear” refers to the stage of the path of cultivation, where preparatory practice is intensified and every kind of inversion is eliminated. By completely transcending all the dreamlike delusions of birth and death, one reaches the stage of no further learning and only then attains ultimate nirvana. Once the four stages are established, one advances further from them.

Furthermore, upon reaching the Ground of Utmost Joy, all coarse external aspects of the defiled afflictions and the cognitive obstruction are severed, thereby enabling the afflictions no longer to become active. For the mind to be without obstruction or hindrance, one must first awaken to uncontaminated, effortless wisdom free from attachment to characteristics. All obstructions and afflictions are then absent; one attains the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, and all coarse external aspects of the cognitive obstruction are severed.

Because none of the afflictions ever becomes manifest again, there is no longer fear. The cause receives its name from the fruit; when the fruit has been severed, the bodhisattva ground is consummated in the supreme manner. All habitual tendencies of the afflictions, their dormant states, and the fundamental coarse aspects of the cognitive obstruction are completely severed.

Entry into the Tathagata ground is called complete separation from all inverted and delusive perceptions. That is, the two obstructions and the mind’s three abiding states have been entirely severed; through this, one reaches the fruit of Buddhahood and attains ultimate nirvana.

“The Buddhas of the three times, relying upon the Prajnaparamita, attain unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment.” The Praise says: This is spoken for practitioners of the teaching of emptiness. Above, the causal basis was praised in relation to the severing of defiled obstructions; below, the resultant basis is praised in relation to the attainment of bodhi. The three times are the past, present, and future.

“Buddhas” indicates a plurality, not merely one. The Sanskrit word for Buddha is Buddha; it is now abbreviated as “Phật,” and wisdom is taken as primary. It is translated as “the Awakened One,” and is also called one who has attained supreme realization.

A means “un-”; Nậu đa la means “surpassed”; Tam means “complete”; Miệu means “perfect”; the second Tam means “complete”; and Bồ Đề means “enlightenment.” Mạt già means “path,” but that term is not used here. Because no Dharma surpasses it, it is called “unsurpassed.” Because both principle and phenomena are known exhaustively, it is called “complete and perfect.” Because delusion is abandoned and suchness is realized, it is further called “complete enlightenment.” Thus it is unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states that both wisdom and the sphere of wisdom are called Prajna. The awakening of the three times depends upon this; therefore, realizing the wisdom that awakens to emptiness is called attaining complete enlightenment. Alternatively, merely expounding the nature of emptiness is called bodhi, or awakening.

The Tathagata’s subtle and wondrous bodily marks are precisely the Dharma-body. Properly speaking, having escaped birth and death, he realizes wisdom as one awakens from a dream, accords with the Dharma-nature and unfolds it, and, like a flower opening, possesses both ultimate and conventional wisdom. He perfects self-awakening, the awakening of others, and the practices of awakening.

“Buddha” signifies one whose awakening is perfect. Although he sees that there is nothing to cultivate, he continues without ceasing to rescue all classes of sentient beings. Therefore, it may also be said that the Buddha relies upon Prajna, for reliance here means cultivation.

From his position, the Buddha relied upon Prajna in practice and thereby attained enlightenment. This passage has the following five parts: 1. The pure Dharma-realm, meaning that the Buddha’s Dharma-body is suchness and nirvana, replete with true nature and sublime qualities.

Because the fruition is attained by contemplating the principle of emptiness, the qualities apart from the four wisdoms are called conditioned virtues; this is the realized enjoyment-body of the Buddha. Because the fruit is attained through causal practices for one’s own benefit, great bodhisattvas behold a body adorned with pure marks. This vast Buddha-body is called the enjoyment-body for others.

For those of the two vehicles, he manifests bodies in pure or impure forms. The indeterminate Buddha-body is called the transformation-body, complete in the work of benefiting others and appearing according to what is appropriate. The self-enjoyment body truly possesses 140 exclusive qualities.

That is, the Tathagata’s virtues include the thirty-two marks of a great being; the eighty subsidiary excellent characteristics; the four purities of mind; the ten powers; the four fearlessnesses; the three foundations of mindfulness; the three things that need not be guarded; great compassion; never forgetting the Dharma; the permanent eradication of habitual tendencies; all sublime wisdom;

and, in addition, the eight liberations, eight spheres of mastery, nine successive meditative absorptions, ten totalities, four immeasurable states, three gates of liberation, three kinds of acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas, the thirty-seven factors assisting the path to bodhi, five eyes, six superknowledges, four unobstructed understandings, freedom from contention, knowledge born of aspiration, constant abiding in the nature of equanimity, the eighteen exclusive qualities, and even omniscience and knowledge of all modes.

His immeasurable qualities cannot be fully described. The enjoyment-body and transformation-body likewise possess all such corresponding qualities. Conditioned qualities are encompassed by the four wisdoms.

Because wisdom is primary, it is called the wisdom of bodhi. The Dharma-body of suchness is the bodhi of cessation. Both are called bodhi; therefore, it should be known that both are praised as bodhi.

“Buddha” is employed as a general designation through which particular dharmas may be understood. Thus, when it is said that the Buddhas rely upon Prajna and attain bodhi, all qualities are included therein. With wisdom and cessation perfected, they attain unsurpassed awakening.

In a concise alternative explanation, this is called complete enlightenment. Those of the two vehicles, whose wisdom is partial, are simply called equally awakened. Bodhisattvas, whose wisdom is not yet complete, are called completely awakened.

Only the Buddha, who realizes perfection, uniquely possesses the full title.

The Diamond Sutra contains the teaching: All Buddhas emerge from this sutra, and all Tathagatas are born from this sutra. Therefore, all three bodies of the Buddha are awakening—bodhi. The Section on the Principle of Wisdom teaches that those who faithfully study this sutra quickly accomplish the practices of the bodhisattvas and swiftly realize unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment. Thus complete, perfect enlightenment is attained through this.

– “Therefore, know that the Prajnaparamita is the great divine mantra, the great luminous mantra, the unsurpassed mantra, the unequalled mantra equal to the unequalled.” The Praise says: This is spoken for practitioners of the Dharma of emptiness. Above, the two causal and resultant bases that lead to the two benefits were separately presented; below, the function of Prajna is praised in general. First comes the concluding summary, expressed by the words “therefore, know.” Its inconceivable wondrous function is called “divine.” Being neither darkness nor a lamp, it is called “luminous.” Being supreme and foremost, it is called “unsurpassed.” Because nothing can compare with it, it is called “unequalled, equal to the unequalled.” The Great Teacher, the Buddha, secretly taught the essential principles of the wondrous Dharma to destroy the false and reveal the true, eliminate evil and encourage goodness. Because its numinous power is revered, the sages honor it, and its mighty blessing is relied upon, it is called a mantra. Properly speaking, the Sanskrit word for mantra is dharani, translated as “total retention.” Briefly, there are four kinds: 1. Dharma: using concise teachings to encompass what is profound. 2. Meaning: using concise meanings to encompass what is extensive. 3. Ability: attaining bodhi and acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas, as the Venerable Maitreya taught: một để mật để kiết để tỳ lê đê (twice), bát đà nị sá ha. 4. Mantra: As the Great Sutra teaches: nạp mộ bạt già phạt đế, nhứt bát thích hoại ba la nhỉ đa duệ (twice) đát điệt tha tam thất truật duệ, tứ thất truật duệ, ngũ thất truật duệ, lục thất truật duệ tế thất sá ha.

This mantra possesses vast divine power, as the sutra states. The two powers of mindfulness and wisdom fully encompass the myriad virtues. According to the ancient manner of expression, these are collectively called a mantra.

First, the two kinds of practice are summarized; afterward comes the section on retaining the mantra, which says, “Therefore, know this.” Through the meaning of total retention, it passes through the four paths of ordinary beings, sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. Or, through the wondrous functions of letters, contemplation becomes perfectly luminous, bringing superior benefit to the retinue. Ultimate reality is beyond analogy, or else the four paths are included together; therefore, Prajna is here called a divine mantra.

This Prajna mantra may also be called the great divine mantra and even the unequalled mantra equal to the unequalled. This is taught to encourage all practitioners to rely upon this sutra and perform the ten practices, as the Venerable Maitreya says in verse:

Copying and making offerings,

Giving it to others, hearing and regularly reciting,

Correctly explaining and retaining it,

Reading, reciting, and contemplating—

Those who retain these ten practices

Gain immeasurable merit and virtue;

Nothing can surpass or exhaust it,

Because they retain the mantra without ceasing.

– “Able to eliminate all suffering.” The Commentary says: Previously, the virtues were elucidated; now, the destruction of evil is clarified. Those who faithfully awaken to these words eliminate every obstruction, and nothing that veils the mind can defile them. Although a person may have committed many extremely grave evil karmas, that person can nevertheless transcend the evil destinies. Even if one has killed living beings of the three realms, one will not thereby fall into hell, the animal realm, or the realm of hungry ghosts. Even amid karmic afflictions, because one is born within a lotus, one remains entirely undefiled and is always in harmony with wholesome deeds. Here, sentient beings attain unobstructed wisdom and can skillfully enter and awaken to the equality of all natures. They can subdue both their own anger and the anger they provoke in others; toward every enemy in this life, they give rise to loving-kindness. They frequently encounter the Buddhas and attain knowledge of past lives. When they hear the Buddha-Dharma, seals, and mantras, they never forget them. The joyful bliss of the Dharma is always present before them. Because they constantly devote themselves with diligence to cultivating wholesome dharmas, evil māras and non-Buddhist practitioners cannot invade or harm them. The Four Heavenly Kings continually follow and protect them, and they escape wrongful death, premature death, bereavement, calamities, and so forth. The Buddhas and bodhisattvas always safeguard them, causing goodness to increase and evil to diminish at all times. According to their vows, they may attain rebirth in the Buddha lands of the Buddhas. They will not fall into the evil destinies before attaining the fruit of liberation; they will swiftly perfect the bodhisattva practices and quickly realize unsurpassed complete and perfect enlightenment. Whatever they have vowed in their hearts will invariably be brought to complete fulfillment. Therefore, from the royal palace to the fourfold assembly, all should recite it in order to subdue adverse forces. In the celestial palaces, it is accepted and upheld only after being perceived with the divine eye, whereupon enmity dissipates. How much more so when one personally, with a sincere and earnest heart, plants wholesome causes and reaps good fruits, does not fall into the five evil destinies, follows in the footsteps of the Buddhas of the ten directions, and becomes an unprecedented master.

– “True and not false”: The Commentary says: To dispel doubts and exhort people to give rise to faith, these words are spoken again. How could the Buddha have relinquished the wealth and honor of a wheel-turning king, entered the secluded depths of the forest, and cast aside every adornment, only to be revered as the compassionate father and Dharma King? Following in the footsteps of ascetics, he gained renown among the dragons and elephants. As the guide of gods and humans, he exhorts and leads sentient beings—this is truly unprecedented. Therefore, the sutra teaches that the Tathagata is a speaker of truth, and so forth, never uttering words that are false or contrary. Thus, one should believe, revere, and practice it, and should not give rise to doubtful thoughts.

– “Therefore, the Prajnaparamita mantra should be proclaimed; the mantra is then spoken thus: Gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā.” The Commentary says: Above, the Dharma was explained as having two meanings of dharani, in order to exhort people to believe and practice. Because it is intended that its wondrous efficacy be swiftly realized, it is called “dharani.” Over the course of a great kalpa, the Buddha cultivated arduously through compassion and wisdom, sustained by the power of steadfast vows; this has been abbreviated here and not fully set forth. The meaning of the sutra is profound and far-reaching, while its teaching is infinitely inclusive and vast in meaning; it cannot easily be praised in full.

A Commentary Praising the Sublime Meaning of the Prajnaparamita Sutra

End of the Second Fascicle

Notes

(30) Wheel-turning sage king: This title has several forms, including wheel-turning sage emperor and wheel king. According to Fascicle 4 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, when such a king ascends the throne, a wheel-treasure appears through a celestial response. He then sets that wheel-treasure in motion and subdues the four quarters; hence, he is called a wheel-turning sage king. A wheel-turning sage king may be understood as a powerful sovereign who rules numerous surrounding minor states.

(31) The four continents: The four continents are Pūrvavideha in the east, Aparagodānīya in the west, Jambudvīpa in the south—also called Southern Jambudvīpa, the continent on which we live—and Uttarakuru in the north, a region in the far north that is icy throughout the year and receives almost no sunlight.

(32) The great-thousand realm, that is, a great-thousand world-system: World-systems are divided into small-thousand, medium-thousand, and great-thousand world-systems. The four great continents, the moon, the sun, and the celestial realms together constitute one world. One thousand worlds are called a small-thousand world-system; one thousand small-thousand world-systems constitute one medium-thousand world-system; and one thousand medium-thousand world-systems constitute one great-thousand world-system, or great-thousand realm.

(33) The dharmas that aid the path to bodhi: These comprise the following thirty-seven factors: the four right efforts—to prevent unarisen evil from arising; to cause arisen evil to be eliminated; to cause unarisen good to arise; and to cause arisen good to increase. The four foundations of mindfulness—to contemplate the body as impure, feelings as suffering, mind as impermanent, and dharmas as non-self. The four bases of spiritual power—the bases of spiritual power consisting of aspiration, diligence, mindfulness, and concentration.

The five faculties—the faculties of faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. The five powers—the powers of faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. The seven factors of enlightenment—investigation of dharmas, joy, diligence, tranquility, mindfulness, concentration, and equanimity.

The Noble Eightfold Path—right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right effort, right livelihood, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

(34) Concentration of cessation: Also called the concentration of the cessation of feeling and perception. The samadhi of cessation is one of the two mindless concentrations. It is the concentration in which the mind and mental factors of the six consciousnesses are brought to cessation and are no longer bound. This is a very lofty concentration attained by noble ones who have reached the fruit of non-returning or above. The noble one passes beyond the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception to enter nirvana. The mindless concentration of non-Buddhist practitioners is called the concentration of non-perception and belongs to the fourth dhyana.

(35) Ultimate meaning: The most important meaning, the primary principle of phenomena and truth, is called the ultimate meaning. It is the most profound and sublime principle, beyond which nothing is loftier or deeper.

(36) Patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas: To abide unwaveringly in the principle of neither arising nor ceasing. This is the fourth of the five kinds of patience according to the Sutra of the Humane King and Fascicle 50 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom: “Patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas means faithfully accepting and thoroughly comprehending the true characteristic of all dharmas as neither arising nor ceasing, without attachment or regression; therefore, it is called patience regarding non-arising.”

(37) Dharma King: The King of Dharma refers to the Buddha, the king of all dharmas. Being free and sovereign, and neither dependent upon nor bound by any dharma whatsoever, he is called the Dharma King.

(38) Dharma abhisheka: A religious rite in which water is poured upon the crown of the head. In ancient India, when a new king ascended the throne, a most solemn abhisheka ceremony was held. During the ceremony, the leader of the Sangha in that country bestowed blessings by pouring water from the four seas upon the king’s head.

(39) Among the Sangha in certain Buddhist countries, when ordination or Dharma transmission ceremonies are conducted, they likewise follow the ritual in which the presiding master pours blessed water upon the head of the newly ordained recipient.

(40) The practice of resolute understanding: The practice of clear and decisive discernment. According to the Yogacara school, this is one of the five object-specific mental factors. The function of resolute understanding is to overcome and completely eliminate doubt, so that there is no longer any uncertainty in cognition.