妙法蓮華經玄贊

INTRODUCTION

Thus have I heard: The Supremely Enlightened One skillfully revealed the provisional and disclosed the real; in accordance with the causes and conditions of the myriad things, he expounded their phenomenal characteristics. The sage employed many wondrous methods, explaining the meaning according to the various capacities and classes of sentient beings. His voice shook the mountains and resounded harmoniously, adorning the entire great trichiliocosm.

By presenting teachings suited to their inclinations, he became a harbor and a shore for the eighty thousand. He spread vast clouds of loving-kindness as a covering and poured down the rain of Dharma to bring refreshing coolness from afar. He watered the two trees so that they blossomed and moistened the three kinds of grass so that they grew ever more luxuriant.

Yet because the young guides had grown weary on the long and perilous road, he gradually led them toward the expedient transformed city; because the innocent children were accustomed to playing with goat carts, he ultimately explained the teaching so that they might advance to the great ox cart.

Therefore, the holy king who had vanquished the ten armies removed the radiant jewel from his topknot, and the King of Physicians who had established the eight truths placed the excellent medicine in their hands. The eloquent words transcend phenomena and principle; the profound meaning surpasses the hundred schools. It encompasses the seven stages yet is adorned solely by the nine divisions; it stands foremost among the Five Vehicles and remains unique throughout a thousand ages. How magnificent! It reveals the One Reality and embraces the realm of vast space; it stirs the two provisional teachings and gathers in the myriad phenomena. How could even the most expansive, lofty, and wondrous expressions adequately describe the exalted and profound purport of this sutra!

The introduction to the causes and conditions for the Buddha’s exposition of this Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma constitutes the General Discussion.

I. GENERAL DISCUSSION

A. EXPLANATION OF THE SUTRA AND ITS CHAPTERS

First, the title Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma is stated. It concisely expresses the sublime and excellent meaning and presents the common title of the entire sutra.

– Chapter One, Introduction: This illuminates the principal headings of the categories of meaning and clearly sets forth the sections having different meanings.

– Dharma: It includes the meaning of a rule and a path to be followed. Because it encompasses every excellent quality, it is called Wondrous.

– Flower: This is a general designation for all kinds of flowers, but the lotus is specifically named because this flower possesses all the beauties of the various flowers described in this sutra. Both essence and function are presented; both Dharma and analogy are set forth. Once the paths of the half and the complete teachings have been understood, the ways of accepting and relinquishing become clear.

– Sutra: It means Constant, Dharma, Gathering, and Thread. Constant means that it is the path followed by a hundred kings; Dharma means that it serves as the moral standard for a thousand ages. Gathering means that it collects all wondrous principles; Thread means that it strings them together in order to discipline ordinary sentient beings. It is hoped that all may leave the shore of suffering and ultimately ascend the shore of enlightenment.

– Introduction: It means cause and beginning. It presents the causes from which the teaching arose and serves as the opening step through which the Dharma flourishes.

– Chapter: It means category and distinction. It differentiates the various categories within the mysterious purport and analyzes the distinct meanings of the profound doctrine.

The sutra has twenty-eight chapters that clarify its true tenet. This chapter stands first in sequence and is therefore called the first.

“First” indicates order and position. “One” means highest and foremost.

B. EXPLANATION THROUGH SIX APPROACHES

Before explaining the text of the sutra, it is first analyzed through six approaches:

I. The causes and conditions from which the sutra arose.

II. The central purport of the sutra.

III. The titles of the sutra and its chapters.

IV. The establishment and omission of the sutra’s chapters.

V. The sequence of the sutra’s chapters.

VI. The structure and explanation of the sutra text.

I. THE CAUSES AND CONDITIONS FROM WHICH THE SUTRA AROSE

The causes and conditions for the Buddha’s exposition of the Lotus Sutra are briefly presented under five meanings:

First, to requite the causal practices and respond to requests.

Second, to dispel doubts and attachments.

Third, to reveal predictions and practices.

Fourth, to benefit beings both then and in the future.

Fifth, to disclose the appropriate time and capacities.

I. 1—REQUITING THE CAUSAL PRACTICES AND RESPONDING TO REQUESTS

Requiting the causal practices and responding to requests has two meanings:

A. REQUITING THE CAUSES B. RESPONDING TO REQUESTS.

A. REQUITING THE CAUSES

Requiting the causes comprises six causes:

1. Requiting the cause of practice.

2. Requiting the cause of vows.

3. Requiting the cause of seeking.

4. Requiting the cause of upholding.

5. Requiting the cause of signs.

6. Requiting the cause of exposition.

The fruit of Buddhahood cannot arise of itself but must be attained through karmic practice. Practice does not arise without reason; it must be motivated by the vow to benefit sentient beings. Although practices and vows may arise of themselves, without conditions they cannot by themselves bring about the encounter.

Even when the requisite conditions are encountered, the fruit cannot be lightly or hastily attained. Only through cultivation, preservation, and study can the fruit be realized. Once the fruit has been perfected, the teaching is presented in response to the needs of external beings.

To reveal the profound and wondrous character of the purport of the sutra text, the great causal sign is first manifested. Once the great sign has appeared, the principle must be disclosed; hence it is made clear that the Buddha originally appeared in the world for one great matter. Therefore, requiting the causes includes these six meanings.

1) Requiting the cause of practice: In the Skillful Means Chapter, eight extremely profound dharmas are discussed and explained. It states: The Buddha formerly drew near to hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of innumerable Buddhas, fully practiced all the immeasurable paths and teachings of those Buddhas, advanced courageously and diligently, and became renowned everywhere, accomplishing the extremely profound and unprecedented Dharma. The dharmas are difficult to understand. The Tathagata knows how to expound their difficult meanings in accordance with what is appropriate; this is a Dharma that shravakas and pratyekabuddhas cannot comprehend.

The eight extremely profound dharmas are: first, the extreme profundity of receiving, upholding, reading, and reciting; second, cultivation and practice; third, the fruit of practice; fourth, increasing the mind of merit and virtue; fifth, delighting the mind through wondrous matters; sixth, the unsurpassed; seventh, entry; and eighth, the extreme profundity of undertaking and presiding over what is not shared with shravakas and pratyekabuddhas.

The sutra contains only six dharmas and does not include the seventh and eighth; this will become clear below. Only after fully practicing the paths and teachings of the Buddhas and completely cultivating the causes of the wisdom of all modes of the One Vehicle is the fruit of Buddhahood attained. Therefore, now, to requite the causes, this wondrous Dharma is expounded in order to encourage the cultivation of causal practices.

2) Requiting the cause of vows: This refers to the statement in the Skillful Means Chapter: “Shariputra! Listen carefully. I originally made a vow, wishing to cause all sentient beings to become equal to me, without any difference.

The vow I made in the past has now been fulfilled: I have transformed and delivered all sentient beings, causing them to awaken to and enter the Buddha Way.” The Lifespan Chapter states: “I constantly reflect in this way: How can I cause sentient beings to enter the Buddha Way and swiftly attain the body of a Buddha? Whether during the former causal stage or in the fruit attained today, I have always made the vow to cause sentient beings to become like me in body and to enter the Buddha Way.” Therefore, to requite his original vow, he expounded this sutra.

It was also to cause sentient beings to make this same vow, so that their practices and vows would correspond with one another and they would attain transcendence from the world.

3) Requiting the cause of seeking: This refers to the statement in the Devadatta Chapter: “In the past, when I sought the Lotus Sutra, I was never negligent or weary. For many kalpas I was often a king who sought the path to bodhi without ever retreating. I had a drum beaten and proclaimed an order throughout the four directions.

At that time, a seer came and addressed the king, saying: ‘I possess a Mahayana sutra called the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma. If you do not disobey me, I shall expound it for you.’ When the king heard the seer speak these words, he rejoiced with exhilaration and immediately complied with him, providing everything the seer required. He even offered his own body as a bed and a seat.

Without weariness in body or mind, he served that seer for a thousand years. For the sake of seeking the Dharma, he ensured that the seer lacked nothing. The king of that time is now none other than myself.

The seer of that time is now Devadatta.” The practices and vows of the Buddha in the past could be accomplished only through the convergence of conditions. He always held this sutra in high esteem and, in the presence of a spiritual friend, devoted himself to seeking it. Therefore, I now expound it so that everyone may give rise to a mind that seeks and esteems it.

4) Responding to the cause of upholding: This refers to the eight profoundly deep dharmas mentioned above:

– First, the Buddha had formerly drawn near to hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of innumerable Buddhas; this is called the profundity of receiving, upholding, reading, and reciting. Bodhisattvas of the first ground make offerings to Buddhas as numerous as the sands of five Ganges Rivers.

– Bodhisattvas of the second ground make offerings to Buddhas as numerous as the sands of six Ganges Rivers.

– Bodhisattvas of the third ground make offerings to Buddhas as numerous as the sands of seven Ganges Rivers.

– Bodhisattvas of the fourth ground make offerings to Buddhas as numerous as the sands of eight Ganges Rivers; they encounter many spiritual friends and receive and uphold the Dharma for a long time.

Furthermore, in a past life, Shakyamuni Tathagata himself was the Bodhisattva Never Disparaging. After the Buddha King of Awe-Inspiring Sound entered nirvana, he practiced the conduct of never disparaging others. As he approached death, he heard from empty space twenty thousand myriads of kotis of verses from the Lotus Sutra, all of which he was able to receive and uphold.

He attained purification of the six faculties, and his lifespan was further extended by two hundred and eight myriads of kotis of nayutas of years. He expounded this sutra widely. After the end of that life, he encountered two thousand kotis of Buddhas, all called Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance, and he constantly upheld this sutra.

Through these causes and conditions, he again encountered two thousand kotis of Buddhas, all called Cloud-Sovereign-Lamp King. Amid the Dharma of these Buddhas, he received and upheld this sutra and constantly attained purification of the six faculties.

That Bodhisattva Never Disparaging was none other than I myself. Because in former times I constantly upheld this sutra, I now teach this sutra and exhort others always to receive and uphold it.

5) Responding to the cause of signs: After attaining Buddhahood, when the Buddha was about to teach this sutra, he first taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings for the bodhisattvas and then entered the samadhi of the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings.

The heavens rained down four kinds of flowers, the earth quaked in six ways, the four assemblies gazed reverently, and the eight classes of beings rejoiced. He emitted a ray of light that penetrated immensely far and wide. Having witnessed this, the assembly became doubtful.

Maitreya asked a question, and Manjushri said: “As I surmise, the Buddha, the World-Honored One, now intends to proclaim the great Dharma, rain down the great Dharma rain, blow the great Dharma conch, beat the great Dharma drum, and expound the meaning of the great Dharma. In the past I have witnessed this auspicious sign. After Buddhas emitted such a ray of light, they proclaimed the great Dharma and expounded it extensively.

Today the Tathagata will certainly teach a Mahayana sutra called the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma.

Whenever the Buddhas of the three times are about to teach this sutra, these many great signs invariably appear first. This differs from other sutras, for other sutras do not have these initial great signs. Since these signs are extraordinary, this matter must be explained clearly: when this sutra is about to be taught, great signs are first manifested; the great signs are first manifested precisely for the sake of teaching this sutra.

6) Responding to the cause of teaching: As stated later in the sutra, the Buddha-Tathagatas appear in the world solely because of the causes and conditions of one great matter, and so forth as extensively explained: there are no shravaka disciples; they teach and transform only bodhisattvas, ultimately enabling them to attain wisdom of all modes. Therefore, after the Buddhas of the three times attain the Way, they ultimately and invariably teach the One Vehicle. During the causal stage, all their quests were undertaken through skillful means. Although their cultivation and study had been completed, they had never yet expounded it. Now this opportunity could not be allowed to pass in vain; therefore, in accordance with former causes, this wondrous Dharma was taught.

The sutra contains many passages of the same kind as those cited above. For fear of excessive length, they are only briefly recounted here.

B. RESPONDING TO REQUESTS

Responding to requests means responding to earnest entreaties. The sutra states: “As soon as the bodhisattva was born, he took seven steps, emitted a great radiance that illuminated the ten directions, looked all around, and, uttering a lion’s roar, spoke this verse:

My births from the womb are ended;

This is my final body.

I have attained liberation

And shall again deliver sentient beings.”

Having made this vow, his body gradually matured. When he went on excursions through the four gates, he saw the signs of old age, illness, and death, as well as the appearance of a shramana. After asking about and understanding them, he wished at once to leave his family and seek the unsurpassed fruit.

At midnight, he observed the musicians, consorts, and palace women, whose forms resembled putrid corpses and inspired profound revulsion. He then ordered Chandaka to saddle the horse Kanthaka. The devas supported the horse’s hooves, and at midnight he left the city.

Traveling fourteen yojanas, he reached the forest where the sage Bhargava dwelt. He took a knife and cut off his hair, exchanged his precious and beautiful garments for a deerskin robe, and sent Chandaka back to inform his royal father. He then stayed near the Nairanjana River with the six non-Buddhist teachers in order to subdue them.

For six years he practiced austerities, laboring and suffering even more intensely than they did, eating only sesame and barley each day. Later, disenchanted because they were not cultivating the true path, he ate milk porridge, accepted auspicious grass, went to the Bodhi tree, and sat upon the Vajra Seat. Through the power of wisdom, he subdued Mara’s armies, realized great bodhi, and forever transcended the three realms.

At that time, the lord of the trichiliocosm and other devas came to the Buddha and requested him to turn the Dharma wheel. Transformation Buddhas praised him and urged him provisionally to employ expedient means in teaching. Because the time was not yet ripe, he was to teach skillful means and not yet teach the true Dharma.

Now that the capacities of beings accord with the teaching, Shariputra and the others requested the Buddha to explain the domains of the provisional and true vehicles. Manjushri and the others requested him to teach the vehicle’s practice of peaceful conduct. Maitreya and the others requested him to teach the fruit of the true and responsive bodies.

Therefore, the sutra later states: “When I first sat at the place of enlightenment, I contemplated the trees and walked in meditation. For twenty-one days, I continually pondered this matter. I even reflected upon the power of skillful means employed by the Buddhas of the past, thinking that, now that I had attained the Way, I too should teach the Three Vehicles.

As I reflected thus, the Buddhas of the ten directions all manifested and, with Brahma voices, consoled and exhorted me, saying: ‘Excellent, Shakyamuni! Following all the Buddhas, employ the power of skillful means. By means of those skillful means, teach the Three Vehicles.’”

Now that the capacities of beings have ripened, Shariputra and the others requested a clear exposition of the true doctrine and a clarification of the true aspect of the One Vehicle. Therefore, the sutra later states: “You have earnestly entreated me three times. How could I now fail to teach?” In the chapter “Peaceful Conduct,” Manjushri made a request, and the World-Honored One extensively taught the four kinds of peaceful conduct. Likewise, in the chapter “The Tathagata’s Lifespan,” Maitreya made his request three times. The Buddha declared: “You should believe and understand the Tathagata’s truthful words.” Only after exhorting them three times to believe did he teach the matter of the true and responsive bodies. Thus, this Lotus Sutra was taught in response to requests.

I. 2- DISPELLING DOUBTS AND ATTACHMENTS

Dispelling doubts and attachments has two parts:

A. DISPELLING DOUBTS. B. DISPELLING ATTACHMENTS.

A. DISPELLING DOUBTS

This means that, from the time the Buddha attained the Way, he had only predicted that bodhisattvas would become Buddhas and had not said that shravakas could attain the fruit of Buddhahood. The shravakas doubted that they would ever become Buddhas. Thus, Shariputra deeply lamented that he had lost the Tathagata’s immeasurable knowledge and vision, and so forth as extensively explained.

But now, having heard from the Buddha a Dharma never heard before, he severed his doubts and regrets. The lesser bodhisattvas who had formerly heard of the Mahayana also doubted, thinking that only bodhisattvas could realize bodhi and that shravakas had no share in it. Or lesser bodhisattvas of indeterminate nature might doubt that they themselves had no share in the fruit of the Buddha’s bodhi.

Thus, all Three Vehicles were caught in a net of doubt. Therefore, this sutra states: “Whether shravakas or bodhisattvas, all who hear the Dharma I teach—even so much as a single verse—will attain Buddhahood without any doubt.”

It further says: “If any among those who seek the paths of the Three Vehicles still harbor doubts or regrets, the Buddha will eliminate them for their sake, leaving not the slightest trace.” It also says: “When the bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, the nets of doubt are all destroyed; the twelve hundred arhats will likewise all attain Buddhahood.” Here both doubt and regret are dispelled. Formerly, they regretted that by cultivating the Lesser Vehicle they could not attain Buddhahood. Now, having heard this teaching, their former regret is removed, for they know that the Lesser Vehicle is precisely a cause of the Great Vehicle.

Doubt is present in all Three Vehicles, whereas regret is found only in the Lesser Vehicle. Since the broader encompasses the narrower, the text speaks only of dispelling doubt and does not mention eliminating regret. The distinctions will be explained in the subsequent fascicles. Thus, this wondrous Dharma is taught in order to dispel doubt.

B. BREAKING ATTACHMENTS

1. Classification of shravakas

a. There are two kinds of shravakas:

a.1- Those of determinate nature, who attain the fruit of a shravaka and are certain to enter nirvana without remainder, with both body and cognition extinguished. Therefore, the sutras say: “When others enter nirvana, their wholesome roots come to an end, but the wholesome roots of bodhisattvas are not so.”

a.2- Those of indeterminate nature, who, after having regressed, again give rise to the aspiration for great bodhi. At first they were of determinate nature; later they became of indeterminate nature.

b. There are four kinds of shravakas:

Both the Yogācāra teachings and the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra state that there are four kinds of shravakas:

b.1- Those of determinate nature, also called those inclined toward quiescence.

b.2- Those of overweening pride, namely ordinary beings who attain the fourth dhyana and call themselves arhats.

b.3- Those of indeterminate nature, who, after having regressed, again give rise to the aspiration for great bodhi; they are also called those of indeterminate nature.

Furthermore, among those who receive predictions in the Lotus Assembly, the shravakas are called those who have regressed from the aspiration for bodhi. Shariputra and the others all belong to this kind. Therefore, the Introductory Chapter of the sutra states: “I tell you, Shariputra! In the past I taught you to aspire to the Buddha path. Now you have all forgotten this and consider yourselves to have attained extinction.”

The Upāsaka Sutra says: “Shariputra cultivated the Great Vehicle path for sixty kalpas. Because of the incident in which he gave away his eye, he found the great practice difficult to accomplish and therefore regressed, seeking the lesser fruit.” The Son of Shari also said: “Life after life, I have followed the Buddha and received his teaching.” The Parable of the Conjured City Chapter says: “The sentient beings taught and transformed by the sixteen princes first formed affinities with them in the past.” Hence they are called those who have regressed from the aspiration for bodhi.

Not all those of indeterminate nature are of this regressive kind. There are also those who formerly did not seek the fruit of the Great Vehicle but who now proceed from the fruit of the Lesser Vehicle toward the Great Vehicle, because their nature is indeterminate.

b.4- The manifested transformation kind. Manifested transformations are not real.

The Mahāyānasaṃgraha states: “Great bodhisattvas and Buddhas manifest as shravakas in order to guide real shravakas toward the Great Vehicle.” Purna and the others all belong to this kind.

2. Predictions.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra states: “Here, only two kinds of shravakas receive predictions: those who have regressed in aspiration and those who are manifested transformations. Those inclined toward quiescence and those of overweening pride do not receive predictions from the Buddha because their faculties are not yet mature.” Bodhisattvas receive predictions, although it is still stated generally that those who cultivate the bodhisattva path will attain Buddhahood, because the treatise says: “Predictions are given in order to inspire the aspiration.” When the faculties of those who have regressed from the aspiration for bodhi have matured, teaching them the One Vehicle is precisely to break their attachments.

Manifested transformations are not real and have no attachments that need to be broken; they merely display an appearance that may seem to be so. Those of overweening pride are ordinary beings. Because their faculties are not yet mature, the Buddha does not give them predictions.

The bodhisattva who received a prediction was Sadaparibhuta. When the causes cultivated by him were complete, the Buddha gave him a prediction, causing him to believe that he possessed Buddha-nature and, moreover, because he had gradually aroused the aspiration to cultivate the Great Vehicle path.

Since those inclined toward quiescence do not possess the nature of the Great Vehicle, how could one consider whether their faculties are mature or not? Thus it is said that, because those inclined toward quiescence lack the nature of the Great Vehicle and their faculties are not mature, the Buddha does not give them predictions.

Bodhisattvas receive provisional predictions because they fully possess the causal principle-nature, so that they may gradually be led to place faith in the Great Vehicle as the Dharma concerning which they are not ignorant; it is not that their faculties are not yet fully mature but will later mature. Therefore, bodhisattvas are not given provisional predictions in order to cause them to arouse the aspiration and turn toward the Great Vehicle. To say that they will attain Buddhahood means that, because bodhisattvas possess the mind of aspiration, expedient means are used to teach and transform them, causing the intention of faith to arise in them.

As the Prajnaparamita Sutra says: “I cause them all to enter nirvana without remainder, yet it is not the case that all the bodhisattvas who receive predictions actually enter it.” The same applies to those inclined toward quiescence. If those inclined toward quiescence were regarded as the same as those of overweening pride, not only could they no longer be called inclined toward quiescence, but this would also be inconsistent with the doctrinal meaning.

Because those inclined toward quiescence and those of overweening pride are discussed together, the person who supervised the translation also said that, because their faculties were not yet mature, they had to be caused to arouse the aspiration. It should properly be said that those inclined toward quiescence do not receive predictions because their faculties are not mature. Bodhisattvas receive predictions in order to inspire the aspiration of faith and understanding in the Great Vehicle.

Because the faculties of those of overweening pride are not yet mature, the Buddha does not give them predictions. Bodhisattvas receive predictions so that they may arouse the aspiration toward the Great Vehicle. If those inclined toward quiescence were also to attain Buddhahood later, this would contradict the scriptural teachings cited everywhere, such as those in the Nirvana Sutra.

3. Bodhisattvas of Sudden Awakening and Gradual Awakening.

Bodhisattvas are also of two kinds: first, those of Sudden Awakening; second, those of Gradual Awakening. Gradual Awakening has two meanings:

1) Those who proceed from having attained a fruit of the Two Vehicles are called Gradually Awakened, because the number of their remaining births is small or there are none at all. If those at the two stages of ordinary beings take refuge in the Great Vehicle, they are included among the Suddenly Awakened, because they have never awakened to or realized a fruit of the Two Vehicles. Since the number of their remaining births is still great, they are likewise not called Gradually Awakened. Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra speaks only of noble beings requiring eighty thousand kalpas and so forth; it does not state the number of kalpas required for ordinary beings who redirect their minds.

2) Those who, having once aroused the aspiration for the Two Vehicles and cultivated the practices of the Two Vehicles, subsequently turn to the Great Vehicle are called Gradually Awakened, because they possess those natures and have cultivated those practices.

Awakening and understanding through hearing and reflection are also called awakening; why must realization through direct experience be required? Moreover, there are those whose number of remaining births is small, meaning that once their next birth has become fixed, in that very life they will complete all the aids conducive to penetration. Although the treatise says that the principle of the One Vehicle taught in this sutra is intended for two kinds of shravakas—those who have regressed in aspiration and those who are manifested transformations—the entire Lotus Assembly primarily teaches those who have regressed from the aspiration for bodhi, while also including those who are manifested transformations, because Purna, Son of Maitrayani,

and the others were likewise present in this assembly.

According to the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, ten meanings are combined in explaining the One Vehicle. The meaning that it is taught for all three is also correct in principle:

a. So that those of determinate nature will not be ignorant of the Dharma.

b. So that those of indeterminate nature will redirect their minds and seek the Great Vehicle.

c. So that those who are manifested transformations may assist in the work of teaching and prediction.

Although it may also be taught to both kinds of bodhisattvas, its principal purport is directed toward those of Gradual Awakening. Therefore, the sutra later says: “When bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, the nets of doubt are all severed.” That the meaning also encompasses those of Sudden Awakening is likewise correct in principle.

In its explanation of the One Vehicle through ten meanings, the Mahāyānasaṃgraha states: “In order to draw in and embrace one kind, and to sustain the other kinds whose nature is indeterminate, the Buddhas teach the One Vehicle.” The one kind drawn in and embraced is the shravakas who have regressed from the aspiration for bodhi. The other kinds who are sustained are bodhisattvas of Gradual Awakening.

The śrāvakas retreated from the resolve for bodhi because they clung to the lesser fruit and regarded it as ultimate. Śāriputra said: “I had eliminated all wrong views and attained the emptiness of dharmas. At that time, I thought in my heart that I had reached cessation.”

Mahākāśyapa also said: “The Buddha enabled us to transcend the three realms and attain nirvana. In our hearts, not a single thought of delight in the bodhisattva Dharma arose. This was entirely because we had formerly clung to the Lesser Vehicle.”

This is as stated in the Mahāyānasaṃgraha: the three kinds of cultivation of samāpatti—contemplation of mind—eliminate the obstructions of the four bases, taking the meaning of the Dharma as their object.

The “four bases” are:

1) The mental activity of the Two Vehicles.

2) All doubts and the removal of doubt.

3) Regarding the dharmas heard and contemplated, saying, “I have attained this, while others have not.”

4) Clinging to and discriminating everything, from the most trivial matter up to bodhi.

“The mental activity of the Two Vehicles” means clinging to the fruits of the Two Vehicles and regarding them as the ultimate. This sutra was therefore taught in order to eliminate that attachment.

Bodhisattvas of gradual awakening cling to the belief that they have no share in the fruit of the Buddha’s bodhi; they are about to become discouraged and retreat to abide in the Two Vehicles. This sutra was therefore taught to uphold such people and prevent them from retreating.

As for lesser bodhisattvas of sudden awakening, they cling to the belief that only they, because they practice the Great Vehicle, can attain Buddhahood, whereas those who abide as śrāvakas cannot attain Buddhahood. To break this attachment, it is now clarified that the fruits of the Two Vehicles are not the ultimate fruit and that those who abide in the Two Vehicles can also attain Buddhahood. This sutra was therefore taught. Thus, in discussing the four bases, the Mahāyānasaṃgraha states that the first is the mental activity of the Two Vehicles, and the second is the class of those who say, “I have attained this, while others cannot attain it”; the other two classes, all doubts and so forth, are those described above.

I. 3 — CLARIFYING THE PREDICTIONS AND PRACTICE

Clarifying the predictions and practice has two parts: first, clarifying the predictions; second, clarifying the practice.

A. CLARIFYING THE PREDICTIONS

Since attaining the Way, the Buddha had not yet bestowed predictions of bodhi upon the śrāvakas. This sutra was now taught in order to bestow predictions upon them. Thus, a later passage of the sutra says: “I established this expedient means to enable you to enter the Buddha’s wisdom. I had never said that you would attain the Buddha Way. I had never taught this because the proper time had not yet arrived. Now is precisely the time; therefore, I shall decisively teach the Great Vehicle.”

Furthermore, Kāśyapa said: “Moreover, we are now old and advanced in years. Toward the Dharma of anuttara-samyak-saṃbodhi by which the Buddha teaches the bodhisattvas, not a single thought of delight arose in our hearts. Now, in the Buddha’s presence, we have heard predictions of anuttara-samyak-saṃbodhi bestowed upon the śrāvakas. Our hearts are all filled with joy, for we have obtained what we had never had before.”

It is also said: “He teaches the sūtras, gāthās, and the dharmas of jātaka, itivṛttaka, and adbhuta. As for nidāna, avadāna, geya, and upadeśa, only these nine divisions were taught to the śrāvakas; vyākaraṇa, vaipulya, and udāna were not taught to them.” This means that, until now, predictions had not been bestowed upon them; therefore, this sutra is now taught.

B. CLARIFYING THE PRACTICE

This now explains the practice of bodhisattvas of the One Vehicle. The One Vehicle is precisely the practice of bodhisattvas. Thus, a later passage of the sutra says: “There are children of the Buddha whose minds are pure, gentle, and also keen in faculties, who, in the presence of innumerable Buddhas, have practiced the profound and wondrous Way. For these children of the Buddha, this Great Vehicle sutra is taught.”

It also says: “Whether śrāvakas or bodhisattvas, those who hear the Dharma I teach, even so much as a single verse, will all attain Buddhahood. There is no doubt whatsoever.”

It also says: “Śāriputra! The Buddha-Tathāgatas teach and transform only bodhisattvas, for everything they do is always for the sake of one matter”: they must cultivate merit and wisdom, contemplate the principles of existence and emptiness, investigate the meaning of the teachings, examine the profound and wondrous principle, and through true understanding awaken to the One Vehicle.

Furthermore, the One Vehicle has both cause and fruit. Its cause consists of the Seven Grounds and the Four Bodhisattva Practices. In the passages below, these are all assigned in full according to their respective applications. Its fruit consists of bodhi and nirvana at the stage of Buddhahood. These are all wholly encompassed within the three bodies.

Furthermore, the One Vehicle is taught in three rounds: the Skillful Means chapter and so forth clarify the object of the One Vehicle; the Peaceful Practices chapter and so forth clarify the practice of the One Vehicle; and the Lifespan chapter and so forth clarify the fruit of the One Vehicle.

Clarifying the object is intended to inspire those among the śrāvakas to arouse the resolve. Clarifying the practice is intended to cause them to cultivate the bodhisattva practices. Only on that basis may they hope to attain the merits of the fruit of Buddhahood. Therefore, this Lotus Sutra was taught in order to reveal the bodhisattva practices.

I. 4 — BENEFITING THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE

This section has two meanings: first, benefiting the present; second, benefiting the future.

A. BENEFITING THE PRESENT

All ordinary beings and noble ones in the Lotus Assembly, after hearing the Lotus Sutra, certainly obtained benefit. These benefits are of two kinds: first, the benefit of prediction concerning the fruit; second, the benefit of present realization.

1) The benefit of prediction concerning the fruit.

This has two topics: first, the three rounds of teaching the meaning of the One Vehicle and bestowing predictions; second, the eight occasions on which predictions are manifested and bestowed.

a) The three rounds of teaching the meaning of the One Vehicle and bestowing predictions:

– For those of three capacities, the Blessed One taught the meaning of the One Vehicle in three rounds. He integrated the Two Vehicles into the One and refuted the Two Vehicles in order to benefit those present at that time. From the Skillful Means chapter through the Parable chapter, up to the passage where “Śāriputra received his prediction and the eight classes rejoiced,” is the first round.

– The sutra says: “The Buddha-Blessed Ones appear in the world solely because of the causes and conditions of one great matter. Indeed, there is only the One Buddha Vehicle, which the Buddhas, through the power of skillful means, teach as three.” After Śāriputra heard this teaching, he gave rise to profound understanding in the Parable chapter. When the Buddha had finished teaching, Śāriputra immediately received his prediction. In the Parable chapter, Śāriputra entreated the Buddha, and the Buddha then taught the parable. Together with the Faith and Understanding chapter, the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs chapter, and the Bestowal of Predictions chapter, this constitutes the second round.

– The Parable chapter says: “The Tathāgata is also like this; he is the father of all sentient beings.” It continues until: “Through these causes and conditions, Śāriputra, you should know that by the power of the Buddhas’ skillful means, the One Buddha Vehicle is distinguished and taught as three.” After the Venerable Mahākāśyapa heard this teaching, he gave rise to understanding and awakening in the Faith and Understanding chapter. After the Buddha reiterated it in the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs chapter, he immediately bestowed predictions in the Bestowal of Predictions chapter upon four venerable ones: Mahākāśyapa, Subhūti, Mahākātyāyana, and Mahāmaudgalyāyana. The Parable of the Conjured City chapter, the Bestowal of Predictions upon Five Hundred Disciples chapter, and the Bestowal of Predictions upon Those in Training and Beyond Training chapter constitute the third round.

At the beginning of the Parable of the Conjured City chapter, the account of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence is taught to cause them to recollect the past. It further says: “Bhikṣus! The Tathāgata himself knew that the time for nirvana had arrived,” continuing through, “It is only through the power of the Buddhas’ skillful means that the One Buddha Vehicle is distinguished and taught as three.” After Pūrṇa and the others heard this teaching, they gave rise to profound understanding in the Bestowal of Predictions upon Five Hundred Disciples chapter.

After the Buddha had recounted and confirmed their past deeds, he bestowed predictions upon the five hundred disciples and upon those in training and beyond training. This is precisely how the assembly of śrāvakas at that time was benefited.

b) The eight occasions on which predictions are manifested and bestowed:

In the sutra, there are eight occasions on which predictions are manifested and bestowed:

– First are individual predictions: Śāriputra and the four great śrāvakas were all well known to the assembly, so predictions were bestowed upon each of them individually, with different names. These are called individual predictions.

– Second are common predictions: Pūrṇa’s group of five hundred and another group of twelve hundred were each bestowed predictions bearing a common name for the entire group. These are therefore called common predictions bestowed simultaneously.

– Third is the Later Prediction: those among the learners and those beyond learning, and so forth, who were not known to the assembly were classified as having inferior faculties and received the prediction that, in the future, they would all share the same epithet.

– Fourth is the Prediction Free from Enmity: to demonstrate that the Tathagata harbors no enmity or hatred, he bestowed a prediction upon Devadatta.

– Fifth is the Prediction of Universal Practice: to reveal that laywomen and ordained women who cultivate the bodhisattva practice can all realize the fruit of Buddhahood, predictions were bestowed upon the bhiksunis and the celestial maiden.

The five kinds of prediction explained above brought immediate benefit at that time, and all were predictions bestowed by the Tathagata.

– Sixth is the Prediction Possessing the Cause: Bodhisattva Never Disparaging bowed in reverence and praised them, saying: “I do not disparage you. You will all become Buddhas.” In order to reveal that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, he bestowed predictions upon this class of bodhisattvas. This describes benefit in a past age.

The first three predictions and the fifth were predictions benefiting those who heard the Lotus Sutra. The remaining two were not predictions resulting from hearing this sutra. Nevertheless, the first five predictions are all called Present Benefit, meaning benefit through predictions of future fruition. After hearing their predictions, however, the sravakas will undergo transformational birth; the characteristics, essence, and meaning of this will be explained later.

2) Benefit of present realization:

This also has many kinds, such as:

– In the Devadatta Chapter, although the Dragon Maiden emerged from the dragon palace and attained enlightenment, this was entirely due to the Lotus Sutra and was not a benefit arising from the assembly at Vulture Peak; it is therefore omitted and not discussed. It is stated only that, when the Dragon Maiden attained enlightenment and taught the Dharma, the bodhisattvas, sravakas, devas, dragons, the eight classes of beings, humans, and nonhuman beings in the Saha world all saw from afar the Dragon Maiden become a Buddha and teach the Dharma to all the humans and devas in that assembly. Their hearts were filled with great joy, and they all paid homage from afar.

Immeasurable sentient beings heard the Dharma, awakened to understanding, and attained non-retrogression. Immeasurable sentient beings received predictions of attaining the path. The Immaculate World trembled in six ways. Three thousand sentient beings in the Saha world came to abide on the Stage of Non-retrogression, while three thousand sentient beings generated the aspiration for bodhi and received predictions. Together, the four groups above—the four great disciples—all obtained benefit.

– In the Distinctions in Merits Chapter, eleven groups attained realization and one group generated the aspiration.

– In the Tathagata’s Lifespan Chapter, the Buddha spoke of enduring benefits: six hundred and eighty myriads of kotis of nayutas of sentient beings, as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, attained the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas; a thousand kotis of bodhisattva-mahasattvas attained the Dharani Gateway of Hearing and Retaining. Furthermore, bodhisattva-mahasattvas as numerous as the dust particles of one world attained joyful eloquence in exposition. Bodhisattva-mahasattvas as numerous as the dust particles of one world attained immeasurable thousands of myriads of kotis of dharanis. Bodhisattva-mahasattvas as numerous as the dust particles of a three-thousand-great-thousand world came to turn the non-retrogressive Dharma wheel. Bodhisattva-mahasattvas as numerous as the dust particles of two thousand lands came to turn the pure Dharma wheel. Bodhisattva-mahasattvas as numerous as the dust particles of a small-thousand world would attain realization after eight more births. Those as numerous as the dust particles of four sets of four continents would attain realization after four more births. Those as numerous as the dust particles of three sets of four continents would attain realization after three more births. Those as numerous as the dust particles of two sets of four continents would attain realization after two more births. Bodhisattva-mahasattvas as numerous as the dust particles of one set of four continents would, after one more birth, attain Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi. Moreover, sentient beings as numerous as the dust particles of eight worlds all generated the aspiration for Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.

– When the Medicine King Chapter was taught, eighty-four thousand bodhisattvas attained the Dharani of Understanding the Languages of All Sentient Beings.

– When the Wondrous Voice Chapter was taught, eighty-four thousand people attained the Samadhi of Manifesting Bodies of Every Form; forty-two thousand sons of devas attained the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas; and Bodhisattva Flower Virtue attained the Lotus Sutra Samadhi.

– When the Avalokitesvara Chapter was taught, eighty-four thousand sentient beings all generated the aspiration for the unequaled Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.

– When the Dharani Chapter was taught, sixty-eight thousand people attained the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas.

– When the Chapter on the Past Deeds of King Wondrous Adornment was taught, eighty-four thousand people became free from dust and defilement and attained the pure Dharma eye.

– When the Encouragement of Samantabhadra Chapter was taught, immeasurable and boundless bodhisattvas, as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, attained a million Revolving Dharanis, while bodhisattvas as numerous as the dust particles of a three-thousand-great-thousand world practiced the path of Samantabhadra.

In the first five predictions, predictions were bestowed that they would attain Buddhahood. These twenty-five kinds of realization attained through hearing the sutra are present realizations of the causal stages. Moreover, these are benefits obtained at the present time—Present Benefit—and therefore the Lotus Sutra was taught.

B. BENEFIT FOR THE FUTURE

After the three assemblies—the teaching of three rounds for beings of three capacities—people obtained merits through the Lotus Sutra. These are all Benefits for the Future.

– The Merits of Rejoicing in Accord Chapter states: “If the fiftieth person, having heard the Lotus Sutra only once, is able to rejoice in accord with it, that person’s merit is greater than that gained by giving gold, silver, and the seven precious treasures to sentient beings throughout four hundred myriads of kotis of nayutas of three-thousand-great-thousand worlds, and even enabling them to attain the fruit of arhatship.

“If a person goes to a Sangha dwelling and hears the Lotus Sutra even for a moment, then in life after life that person will always ride elephants, horses, and carriages, sit in palanquins adorned with the seven treasures, and ascend to celestial palaces.

“If that person also shares a seat so that another may hear the sutra, then in life after life that person will sit upon the seats of Sakra and Brahma King.

“If that person further encourages another to go and hear the Lotus Sutra, then in life after life that person will be born together with Dharani Bodhisattvas and will never be mute or inarticulate... even to the point that, in future lives, that person will be born in every lifetime, see the Buddha, hear the Dharma, have faith, accept it, and receive the Buddha’s instruction and transformation.”

– The Merits of the Dharma Teacher Chapter states: “If good men or good women receive and uphold this Lotus Sutra, whether reading or reciting it, explaining and elucidating it, or copying this sutra, they will attain eight hundred merits of the eyes, one thousand two hundred merits of the ears, eight hundred merits of the nose, one thousand two hundred merits of the tongue, eight hundred merits of the body, and one thousand two hundred merits of the mind. With these merits they will adorn the six faculties and cause them all to become pure.

– Even the Samantabhadra Chapter states: “If, in a future age, anyone receives, upholds, reads, and recites this scripture, that person will no longer greedily cling to necessities of life such as clothing, bedding, food, and drink. That person’s wishes will not be in vain, and in this very life that person will receive blessed rewards.”

Therefore, the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching states: “Those who were to be liberated have all been liberated. Those who have not yet been liberated have all formed the causes and conditions for liberation.” Thus, this sutra was taught to bring great benefit in the future; this is called Benefit for the Future.

I. 5 - CLARIFYING THE TIME AND CAPACITY.

The meaning of clarifying the time and capacity has two parts:

A. CLARIFYING THE TIME. B. CLARIFYING THE CAPACITY.

A. CLARIFYING THE TIME

1) The Sudden Teaching and the Gradual Teaching:

The methods of instruction established by the Buddhas are broadly of two kinds: first, Sudden; and second, Gradual.

– Sudden means enabling those of great capacity, capable of sudden awakening, to proceed directly from the state of an ordinary being in seeking the fruit of Buddhahood, as with the One Vehicle taught in the Srimala Sutra, because the Four Vehicles are provisional and the One Vehicle is true.

– Gradual means enabling those who advance from a lesser capacity to a greater capacity, as with the One Vehicle taught in this sutra, because the One Vehicle is true and the Two Vehicles are provisional. This sutra chiefly enables those of the Two Vehicles to seek the fruit of Buddhahood and is therefore chiefly included within the Gradual Teaching of the Mahayana.

2) The teaching of the five periods (an ancient view).

An ancient interpretation states that the teachings comprise five periods.

– The first period: when the Buddha had newly attained enlightenment, he taught the five hundred merchants led by Trapusa. He taught them only the Three Refuges, the Five Precepts, the Ten Wholesome Actions, and the teaching of worldly cause and effect. These are found in such works as the Trapusa Sutra, the Five Precepts Sutra, and the Sutra of Former Practices, because they did not yet possess the capacities for the supramundane teaching.

– The second period: After the Buddha attained enlightenment, beginning after the first twenty-one days and continuing for twelve years, he taught only the doctrine of the three vehicles concerning existent practices, and had not yet taught the principle of emptiness. These were the Hinayana sutras, such as the Agama Sutras and so forth.

– The third period: During the thirty years after the Buddha attained enlightenment—from the thirteenth through the thirtieth year—he taught the doctrine of emptiness as the common practice of the three vehicles. These were the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Sutra of Special Thought, the Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra, and so forth.

– The fourth period: During the forty years after the Buddha attained enlightenment—from the thirtieth through the fortieth year—he taught only the One Vehicle, but still did not clearly expound the eternally abiding Buddha-nature or the true aspect of reality. He continued to teach that the unsurpassed fruit of Buddhahood was the truth. These were the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and the Lotus Sutra. This was because the meaning of the One Vehicle had not previously been explained, while in these sutras the eternally abiding Buddha-nature was still not clearly expounded.

– The fifth period: Only when he was in the grove of twin sala trees did he teach: “All sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, and the Buddha-jewel eternally abides.” These were the Nirvana Sutra, the Great Compassion Sutra, and so forth.

An assessment of the division of the teachings into five periods.

At first glance, the foregoing theory may appear acceptable, but when examined according to principle, it is not correct.

+ Examination of the first period:

The Sutra of Trapusa states: “When the five hundred merchants were about to receive the precepts, they first repented of their offenses of the five heinous acts, the ten unwholesome deeds, slandering the Dharma, and so forth. They realized that the four great elements are originally pure, the five skandhas are originally pure, the six sense objects are originally pure, and both self and what belongs to self are originally pure.

At that time, Trapusa and his companions attained the patience of non-arising; three hundred merchants attained the patience of compliant acceptance; two hundred merchants attained the fruit of stream-entry; the Four Heavenly Kings and others attained the patience of compliant acceptance; and three hundred dragon kings attained the patience of faith. Moreover, all the devas aroused the aspiration for unsurpassed enlightenment. One billion devas and human beings all practiced the bodhisattva’s path of the ten wholesome deeds. The elder Trapusa extinguished all suffering in the three realms and attained the patience of non-arising. This corresponds to the First Bhumi through the Eighth Bhumi.”

Furthermore, the Lalitavistara Sutra states: “During the second seven-day period, the five hundred merchants led by Trapusa offered the Buddha barley-malt cakes. The Buddha bestowed a prediction upon him, saying: ‘In a future life, you will become a Buddha named Qicheng.’”

How, then, can it be said that the first period consisted only of worldly teachings? It was only because, at that time, the common contemplation of the truths for the three vehicles had not yet been explained that this was not called the turning of the Dharma wheel. Only at the time of the five bhiksus was it called the turning of the Dharma wheel.

+ Examination of the second period:

Next, it is claimed that during the twelve years of the second period, the Buddha taught only the doctrine of existence. In response, Jue’ai refuted this by saying that in the fifth year after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha taught the Great Prajnaparamita, which explains the true aspect of reality.

Furthermore, in the seventh year, he taught the Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra to eight bodhisattvas, thereby explaining the principle that the five skandhas constituting sentient beings are originally empty.

Furthermore, in the ninth year, he taught the Angulimala Samadhi Sutra, and in the tenth year, he taught the Tathagatagarbha Sutra; both explain the profound and wondrous principle of nirvana and Buddha-nature.

In addition, the Sutra of Trapusa and the Lalitavistara Sutra both explain the bodhisattva practice. Moreover, the prediction that the merchants would attain Buddhahood proves that the Buddha taught the Mahayana as soon as he had attained Buddhahood. Furthermore, during the second seven-day period after his enlightenment, he taught the Ten Bhumis Sutra.

The Great Prajnaparamita Sutra also states: “At the Deer Park, the Buddha turned the wheel of the Four Truths. Immeasurable sentient beings aroused the aspiration for the pratyekabuddha vehicle; immeasurable sentient beings aroused the aspiration for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi and practiced the six paramitas; immeasurable bodhisattvas attained the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas and abided on the First Bhumi, the Second Bhumi, the Third Bhumi, and onward through the Tenth Bhumi; and immeasurable bodhisattvas bound to only one more birth simultaneously attained Buddhahood.” How, then, can it be said that during the second period the Buddha taught only the doctrine of existence for the three vehicles?

Thus, it should be understood that the Buddha’s teaching is like a single rain falling universally, but because beings’ capacities differ, their understandings also differ. It cannot be said that the Buddha’s teachings necessarily followed a fixed sequence of earlier and later.

Here, following the ancient interpretation, we have provisionally refuted the first two periods.

+ As for the other three periods, they have already been refuted by the ancients.

At first glance, the doctrine of the five periods may appear acceptable, but according to principle it is not correct. Fearing that the discussion may become excessively lengthy, I have spoken of it only briefly and shall now stop.

3) The teaching of one period and three periods (the present view)

According to the newly translated sutras accepted today, the sudden teaching of the Mahayana belongs to only one period, for it is taught solely to those of great capacity and does not arise by gradually developing their faculties; the teaching and those taught are thus each of a single kind. Yet because beings’ capacities develop in gradual stages, the great teaching is consequently divided into three periods.

In the Samdhinirmocana Sutra, the Buddha, for the bodhisattva Paramarthasamudgata, taught on the basis of the three natures that the three kinds of absence of self-nature all refer to the nature of the imagined and falsely discriminated. The bodhisattva Paramarthasamudgata gained a most profound understanding.

This is extensively explained through worldly analogies involving the Visvaka medicine, variegated colors, writing, earth, clarified butter, and empty space. The Blessed One praised him for having skillfully understood what the Buddha had taught.

Paramarthasamudgata addressed the Buddha, saying: “Formerly, in the Deer Park at the Place Where the Seers Descended in Varanasi, the Buddha, solely for the sake of setting forth and guiding those inclined toward the sravaka vehicle, turned the wheel of the true Dharma through the aspects of the Four Truths. Although this was most extraordinary and exceedingly rare, and no one in any world could turn such a wheel, the Dharma wheel turned at that time was still surpassable and provisional; it was not definitive and remained a basis upon which disputes could rest.

Formerly, during the second period, the Blessed One, solely for the sake of setting forth and guiding those who cultivated the Mahayana, relied upon the principle that all dharmas lack self-nature, are neither born nor extinguished, are originally quiescent, and are by nature nirvana, and turned the wheel of the true Dharma through an implicit aspect. Although this was even more extraordinary and even rarer, the Dharma wheel turned at that time was still provisional and not definitive, and it remained a basis upon which disputes could rest.

Today, during the third period, the Blessed One, in order to set forth and guide those inclined toward all vehicles without exception, has relied upon the principle that all dharmas lack self-nature, are neither born nor extinguished, are originally quiescent, are by nature nirvana, and are devoid of inherent self-nature, and has turned the wheel of the true Dharma through an explicit and fully revealed aspect. It is extraordinary in the highest degree and rare beyond measure! The Dharma wheel turned today by the Blessed One is unsurpassed, admits of no qualification, and is not a basis upon which disputes may rest.”

According to this passage from the sutra:

– The Agama Sutras and so forth belong to the first period. They teach existence in a general and implicit manner, but do not clearly explain the nature of that existence.

– The Great Prajnaparamita Sutra and so forth belong to the second period. They teach emptiness in a general and implicit manner, but likewise do not clearly explain the nature of that emptiness.

– The Avatamsaka Sutra and so forth belong to the third period. They explicitly and fully teach existence—the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature—and also explicitly and fully teach emptiness, because the nature of what is falsely conceived is empty. Therefore, the Sutra of Wholesome Precepts and others state: “The conditioned and the unconditioned are called existence; self and what belongs to self are called emptiness.”

– The Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra and others also describe the three Dharma wheels as Turning, Illumination, and Upholding: “The Dharma of the Four Truths is turned; existence is illuminated through emptiness; and what is neither empty nor existent is worthy of being upheld.”

– The Nirvana Sutra also says: “In the past, a physician instructed people to drink milk. Because they drank only milk, many people in the country died. Later, another physician said that milk was poisonous and instructed them all not to drink it, whereupon all the people in the country recovered. Later, when the king fell ill, he asked what medicine he should take. The physician changed the prescription and added milk to the medicine. The king angrily asked: ‘Previously, you said that milk was poisonous. Why do you now instruct me to mix it with medicine and drink it?’ The physician replied to the king: ‘Previously, because the people drank only milk, many in the country died. This was because they habitually drank too much milk, and so I called it poisonous. Fearing that they would not abstain from it, I issued a general order requiring everyone to refrain. According to the true principle, for some illnesses milk should be taken, while for others it should not. For this illness, it should be mixed with medicine and drunk, because this is what is proper.’ The Buddha taught: ‘My Dharma is also like this.’”

– The Lotus Sutra also says: “In all matters, we considered ourselves already sufficient; having completed this task alone, we thought there was nothing further to be done.”

Regarding the teaching of the first period, if we heard of purifying Buddha lands and teaching and transforming sentient beings, we felt neither joy nor delight.

In the teaching of the second period, the Buddha also manifested such a rare occurrence. Knowing those who delighted in the Lesser Vehicle, he used the power of skillful means to discipline their minds, and only afterward taught them the great wisdom. Today we have obtained a Dharma never before attained; it is not a Dharma for which we had formerly yearned, yet now we have received it of ourselves.

The teaching of the third period corresponds to the three-period teaching found in the Golden Light Sutra, the Samdhinirmocana Sutra, and so forth.

If one follows the capacities suited to a gradual sequence, the teaching comprises only three periods; unless the five stages are unified, this cannot be established. It is difficult for a single rain to water universally the three different kinds of grass, yet the teaching is only one. Those with the capacity for sudden awakening immediately realize the one fruit. According to this principle, therefore, there is no teaching of three periods.

If capacities are brought to maturity gradually, and the Great arises from the Small, the teaching must necessarily comprise three periods, because teachings must be expounded in accordance with capacities. When principle is used to integrate the teachings, it is called “one rain.” When teachings are used to approach differing capacities, the Dharma of the Three Vehicles is expounded. Whether three or one, the principles do not contradict one another.

In this sutra, the three cycles in which the One Vehicle is taught are for the most part intended to aid the sravakas. First, the prajnaparamita teachings were expounded, teaching them the principle of emptiness and curing their malady of clinging to existence. They were no longer ignorant concerning dharmas and had already gained faith and understanding.

Now the teaching of the third period is expounded to cause them to return to the right path. This sutra also teaches those of sudden awakening, who thereby arouse the aspiration for enlightenment; in the Dissemination section, they realize non-arising. As stated above, this sutra also encompasses the sudden teaching.

Thus it is known that, although there is one and the same rain, the benefits of its moistening differ. This sutra was therefore expounded in order to reveal clearly the true teaching of the third period.

B. REVEALING THE CAPACITIES

1. There Is Only One Capacity

According to the Nirvana Sutra, there is only one capacity. Thus that sutra says: “When the lion roars, it definitively proclaims that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature.” It also says: “Sentient beings are likewise so: they all possess mind. Whoever possesses mind will assuredly attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.”

This sutra also says: “Throughout the lands of the ten directions, there is only the Dharma of the One Vehicle. There is neither a Second Vehicle nor a Third Vehicle, except when the Buddha teaches through skillful means. He teaches and transforms only bodhisattvas; there are no sravaka disciples.” It further explains at length: “Whether they are sravakas or bodhisattvas, all who hear me expound the Dharma will attain Buddhahood.” On this basis, there is only the single nature of the Great Vehicle. This sutra expounds the One Vehicle to help them recognize their own Great Vehicle nature.

2. Two Natures: Principle and Practice

The nature of the Great Vehicle has two meanings:

a) The nature of principle, namely the tathagatagarbha taught in the Srimala Sutra.

b) The nature of practice, namely the tathagatagarbha taught in the Lankavatara Sutra.

Everyone possesses the former nature, whereas some possess the latter and others do not. When speaking of possessing the tathagatagarbha, it is not said that all attain Buddhahood.

According to the Sutra of the Wholesome Precepts and the Treatise on the Bodhisattva Stages, there are only two kinds: first, those possessing the seed-nature; and second, those lacking the seed-nature. Those sutras and treatises state: “The nature of the seed-nature has been so since beginningless time; the six superior bases continue in an unbroken succession.” Thus, according to the nature of practice, these are those who possess the seed-nature.

Because those lacking the seed-nature possess no seed-nature, even though they may arouse the aspiration and diligently cultivate with vigor, in the end they still cannot attain unsurpassed bodhi. They can only perfect the wholesome roots pertaining to humans and devas, but cannot attain unsurpassed bodhi; this is precisely the absence of the nature. Here, the teaching aids those who possess the nature, not those who lack it.

This is to explain existence and nonexistence on the basis of the nature of practice.

The discussion below is for the most part based on the nature of practice, because everyone possesses the nature of principle. It is based on existence and not on nonexistence, because superiority and inferiority differ. Therefore, Vasubandhu’s Mahayanasamgraha also says: “Because there is a distinction between the higher vehicle and the lower vehicle, the bodhisattvas and sravakas each have their three baskets.”

Furthermore, it is taught everywhere that among the Tathagata’s ten powers is the power of knowing the various superior and inferior faculties. This pertains to the bodhisattva basket of the higher vehicle, aiding those of superior faculties. It is based on existence, not nonexistence; on difference, not sameness; and proceeds from the general to the particular.

This sutra further says: “For those seeking the sravaka path, he expounds the Dharma corresponding to the principle of the Four Noble Truths; for those seeking the pratyekabuddha path, he expounds the Dharma corresponding to the principle of the twelve links of dependent origination; and for those seeking the bodhisattva path, he expounds the Dharma corresponding to the six paramitas.” This sutra’s exposition of the One Vehicle is precisely the Dharma corresponding to the six paramitas, taught for those seeking the bodhisattva path.

In the chapter “King Wonderful Adornment” in a later portion of this sutra, it is said that eighty-four thousand people became free from dust and defilement when they heard the Buddha expound this chapter of the sutra. It may therefore also be said to aid the sravakas, because it benefits the various kinds of beings surrounding them. Both those who possess the nature and those who lack it are mentioned, and the various kinds of both the Great and Lesser Vehicles are included. This is based on sameness, not difference, and uses the particular to encompass the general.

The Nirvana Sutra says: “Suppose that sick people are of three kinds. The first will certainly recover whether or not they encounter a good physician; these are the bodhisattvas. The second will recover if they encounter one but will not recover if they do not; these are those of the Two Vehicles. The third will certainly not recover whether or not they encounter one; these are the icchantikas.”

This sutra also says: “Wheel-Turning Kings, Sakra, and Brahma kings are the small medicinal herbs; sravakas and pratyekabuddhas are the medium medicinal herbs; and bodhisattvas, both great and small, are called the great medicinal herbs. In accordance with their respective contrary ranks, they all also attain nirvana.”

Here, the teaching now aids only those who possess the bodhisattva nature, because although they were formerly sravakas, they later become bodhisattvas. It may also be said to aid those sravakas, as explained above: it is based on existence, not nonexistence, with the general and the particular constituting different categories.

Furthermore, in the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra, the bodhisattva Suvikrantavikramin says: “We pray only that the Blessed One, out of compassion for us, will expound in detail the sphere of the Tathagata’s wisdom.”

If sentient beings belong to the class of those whose nature is definitely fixed in the Śrāvaka Vehicle, after hearing this Dharma they can swiftly realize their own uncontaminated stage. If they belong to the class of those whose nature is definitely fixed in the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, after hearing this Dharma they will swiftly attain liberation in accordance with their own vehicle. If they belong to the class of those whose nature is definitely fixed in the Supreme Vehicle, after hearing this Dharma they will swiftly realize unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment.

If sentient beings have not yet entered the certainty of the noble path beyond the state of ordinary beings, or belong to the class whose nature is not definitely fixed among the three vehicles, after hearing this Dharma they will arouse the aspiration for unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment.

Although the treatises say, “Even noble ones may redirect their minds,” here it is said that they have not entered the certainty of the noble path beyond the state of ordinary beings because, upon redirecting their minds, they do not undergo transformed birth and death. This scripture benefits those whose nature is definitely fixed in the Mahayana. As for those whose nature is definitely fixed in the Śrāvaka Vehicle and those whose nature is not fixed, they are as cited above. Yet there is no textual statement that it benefits those possessing the capacity for the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle. Both existence and nonexistence are mentioned, so that the general may be understood through the particular.

Furthermore, the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says: “Just as the great earth bears four heavy burdens—first, the great oceans; second, the mountains; third, grasses and trees; and fourth, sentient beings—so too, a good man who embraces the true Dharma can bear four weighty responsibilities. That is, sentient beings who follow what is contrary to the Dharma, do not hear the Dharma, and remain far removed from spiritual friends are brought to fulfillment through the wholesome roots leading to human or heavenly birth. Those who seek the Śrāvaka Vehicle are instructed in the Śrāvaka Vehicle; those who seek the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle are instructed in the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle; and those who seek the Mahayana are instructed in the Mahayana.”

Here it benefits those of the Mahayana and can also reach śrāvakas, but it does not benefit those of the other two natures. It relies upon existence, not nonexistence; the general and the particular belong to different classes; and what is presently nonexistent may exist in the future.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra says: “The Buddha told Mahāmati that there are five kinds of natures obstructing the Dharma: first, the nature of the Śrāvaka Vehicle; second, the nature of the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle; third, the nature of the Tathagata Vehicle; fourth, the nature of the Indeterminate Vehicle; and fifth, the natureless, namely the icchantika. The last is of two kinds:

– First, those who have burned away all wholesome roots, namely those who malign the Bodhisattva Piṭaka.

– Second, those who, out of compassion for all sentient beings, vow that every sentient being throughout the realm of beings shall attain Buddhahood. Such is the bodhisattva’s vow: ‘If sentient beings do not enter nirvana, neither shall I enter it.’

Mahāmati asked: “Which of these two kinds never enters nirvana?” The Buddha replied: “It is the bodhisattva who never enters nirvana, not the one who has burned away all wholesome roots. This is because the bodhisattva knows that all dharmas are originally nirvana and does not abandon any sentient being.”

This scripture delivers those whose nature belongs to the Śrāvaka Vehicle and the Tathagata Vehicle, those of indeterminate nature, and the greatly compassionate bodhisattvas among the icchantikas. It does not, however, benefit those possessing the Pratyekabuddha nature or those who have severed their wholesome roots. Both existence and nonexistence are taught; the general and the particular belong to different classes.

There are five kinds of nature. The first four are the same as in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. The fifth is of two kinds: first, temporarily bounded; and second, ultimate. “Temporarily bounded” means only temporary, while “ultimate” means lacking a cause. This scripture delivers the first four kinds, except for those of the Pratyekabuddha nature, but not the fifth nature. It relies upon existence and then refers to nonexistence; some will attain realization and others will not; the general and the particular belong to different classes.

The Yogācārabhūmi also says that there are five kinds of nature. The first four are as above, while the fifth consists of only one class, called the natureless. This scripture delivers them in the same manner as the Sūtrālaṃkāra. If the One Vehicle is regarded as its central tenet, then it delivers only those possessing the bodhisattva nature and does not deliver those possessing only the śrāvaka nature. A single rain moistens all, yet the three kinds of grasses each differ; thus śrāvakas can also be delivered.

The Yogācāra scripture also says: “The uninterrupted path enables one to transcend the dust, and the path of liberation enables one to depart from defilement. Realization of this supreme wisdom is called the pure Dharma eye—that is, seeing the truths and attaining the fruit of stream-entry, and so forth.” Therefore, it should be known that even where the One Vehicle is not taught, śrāvakas are also delivered. Such beings were present in the assembly; hence this common teaching was established, and this scripture was taught to benefit those whose capacities were suited to it.

II. THE CENTRAL TENET OF THE SCRIPTURE

There are many ways of classifying scriptures and treatises into different doctrinal schools.

II.1 - CLASSIFICATION INTO FOUR SCHOOLS

The ancient masters of this land comprehensively analyzed the scriptures and treatises and established four schools:

1. The School Establishing Essential Nature: represented by the Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya and other texts, which establish the five groups of dharmas on the basis that they possess essential nature.

2. The School Refuting Essential Nature: represented by the Satyasiddhi Śāstra and other texts, which refute the substantial existence of dharmas, because dharmas possess only characteristics.

3. The School Refuting Characteristics: represented by the Prajnaparamita scriptures and other texts, which also refute the characteristics and configurations of dharmas, because even those characteristics are empty.

4. The School Revealing Reality: represented by the Nirvana, Avataṃsaka, Lotus, and other scriptures, because they elucidate the meaning of the path within ultimate reality.

This scripture belongs to the fourth school.

II.2 - CLASSIFICATION INTO FOUR SECTARIAN TENETS

Moreover, the ancient scriptures and treatises contain a great many tenets. Here four sectarian systems are presented:

1) The old Four Āgamas and the great Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya represent the tenets of the Mahāsāṃghika school.

2) The Samayasatyasiddhi Śāstra represents the tenets of the Sthavira school.

3) The Śāriputrābhidharma, the Sixfold Brahmajāla, and the Sūtra of the Twelve Views represent the tenets of the Saṃmitīya school.

4) The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya represents the tenets of the Dharmaguptaka school.

To which schools, then, do those scriptures and treatises belong?

II.3 - CLASSIFICATION INTO TWENTY-TWO SCHOOLS

The Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra and the Samayabhedoparacanacakra Śāstra state that the Hinayana comprises twenty schools:

Mahāsāṃghika – Ekavyāvahārika – Lokottaravādin – Kaukkuṭika – Bahuśrutīya – Prajñaptivādin – Aparaśaila – Śaila – Uttaraśaila – Sarvāstivāda – Saṃkrāntika – Vātsīputrīya – Dharmottarīya – Bhadrayānīya – Saṃmitīya – Ṣaṇṇagarika – Mahīśāsaka – Dharmaguptaka – Kāśyapīya – Sautrāntika.

Together with the two schools of the Mahayana, there are twenty-two schools in all.

II.4 - CLASSIFICATION OF THE TEACHINGS INTO THREE SCHOOLS

Now, when the teachings are analyzed according to the texts, there are only three kinds. When they are arranged into schools according to their type, however, there are eight.

Regarding the teachings, there are three schools:

1) The School That Predominantly Teaches Existence: this refers to the Hinayana doctrines found in the Āgama scriptures and other texts. Although they teach existence for the most part, they do not contradict the principle of emptiness.

2) The School That Predominantly Teaches Emptiness: this refers to the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, Śata Śāstra, Dvādaśanikāya Śāstra, Prajnaparamita scriptures, and other texts. Although they teach emptiness for the most part, they do not contradict existence.

3) The School of Neither Emptiness nor Existence: this refers to the Avataṃsaka, Saṃdhinirmocana, Lotus, and other scriptures, because they teach that conditioned and unconditioned dharmas are termed “existent,” while the self and what belongs to the self are termed “empty.”

II.5 - CLASSIFICATION INTO EIGHT SCHOOLS

There are as many as eight schools:

1) Both self and dharmas exist: represented by the Vātsīputrīya school and others.

2) Dharmas exist but there is no self: represented by the Sarvāstivādins and others.

3) Dharmas neither go nor come: represented by the Mahāsāṃghika school and others.

4) Present dharmas include both the nominal and the real: represented by the Prajñaptivāda school and others.

5) The conventional is false, while the ultimate is real: represented by the Lokottaravāda school and others.

6) All dharmas are mere names: represented by the Sarvāstivāda school and others.

7) All is empty in the ultimate sense: represented by the Prajnaparamita scriptures, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, the Śata Śāstra, and other works taught by Nāgārjuna.

8) Complete reality in accord with principle: represented by this Lotus Sūtra and other texts—the teaching of the Middle Way expounded by Asaṅga.

The Satyasiddhi Śāstra and the tenets of the masters of the Sautrāntika school correspond to the fourth school, according to which present dharmas include both the nominal and the real. Although the distinctions in doctrine amount to twenty-two kinds, in principle their complete range of differences does not exceed these eight.

II.6 - THERE IS ONLY ONE SCHOOL.

Yet the Avatamsaka Sutra says: “The Tathagata uses a single language to expound the boundless ocean of sutras.”

The Vimalakirti Sutra says: “The Buddha expounds the Dharma with a single sound, and sentient beings, according to their kinds, each attain understanding.”

The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings says: “For more than forty years since I attained the Way, I have constantly taught the Dharma as neither arising nor ceasing, neither going nor coming, neither this nor that, neither gained nor lost, and entirely without characteristics. It is only because sentient beings differ in their awakening and understanding that they attain different fruits.”

The Lotus Sutra also says: “One rain falls universally, yet the three kinds of grasses and two kinds of trees grow differently.”

The Upasaka Precepts Sutra says: “Three beasts cross a river, each discerning a different depth.”

The Mahayana-samgraha also says: “Like the celestial drum and the mani jewel, without thought they accomplish their respective tasks.”

Therefore, it is known that the various teachings are fundamentally without differentiation. Because capacities differ, the teachings are divided into Mahayana and Hinayana, Sudden and Gradual. This sutra may still be regarded as belonging to the Mahayana Gradual Teaching. This is because it converts and guides the sravakas, leading them to take refuge in the Mahayana; hence it is called Gradual.

In the chapter “The Former Deeds of King Wonderful Adornment,” eighty-four thousand people became free from dust and defilement and attained the purity of the Dharma-eye, namely, the First Fruit and so forth. In the chapter “The Lifespan of the Tathagata,” sentient beings as numerous as the dust particles of eight worlds aroused the aspiration for Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi. In the chapter “The Universal Gateway,” eighty-four thousand sentient beings all aroused the aspiration for unequaled Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi. Thus, it can constitute the Sudden Teaching.

Therefore, it is known that the Sudden and the Gradual do not differ; the gateways of teaching are distinguished according to capacities. Of the two teachings, Half and Full, this belongs within the Full Teaching. The two kinds of emptiness, of persons and dharmas, are included in both the Common and the Distinct Teachings.

The conditioned and the unconditioned can pervade both gateways. Conventional truth and ultimate truth are divided into two as appropriate. Although the general purport of the teaching is understood in this way, according to the distinctions in its exposition, the One Vehicle is precisely its tenet.

Therefore, the sutra text below says: “Now, in this sutra, only the One Vehicle is taught”; and formerly, in the presence of the bodhisattvas, the sravakas were reproached for delighting in the lesser Dharma, although in truth the Buddha used the Mahayana to teach and transform them.

Therefore, it is definitively established here that the One Vehicle is the tenet. The meaning of the One Vehicle will be extensively distinguished in the section “because of one great cause and condition” in the chapter “Skillful Means.”

III. EXPLANATION OF THE TITLES OF THE SUTRA AND ITS CHAPTERS

This Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Dharma is called in Sanskrit: Saddharma-pundarika-sutram.

Sad means correct and wonderful. Therefore, Dharma-protector rendered the title as Lotus Flower of the Correct Dharma, while Kumarajiva rendered it as Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Dharma.

Dharma means Dharma.

Pundarika means white lotus flower.

Because in the Western Regions the white lotus is called pundarika, the sutra speaks of four kinds of lotus flowers—blue, yellow, red, and white—called utpala, kumuda, padma, and pundarika respectively, corresponding to one another in that order.

Lotus here indicates the fruit of the lotus plant.

Flower means beautiful adornment; that which is beautifully adorned is called a flower.

Sutram means sutra.

Master Yiying called it the Sutra of the White Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Dharma. Therefore, the sutra text below speaks of “emitting a white ray of light” and “the splendid cart drawn by a white ox.” White is the fundamental basis of all colors, just as the One Vehicle is the fundamental basis of all vehicles.

The Sanskrit text does not contain a separate word for “white”; therefore, it is generally called the Lotus Flower. In this sutra, Sariputra made his request three times; those of evil disposition withdrew, and only then did the Buddha expound the profound tenet of the One Vehicle. The title Dharma Flower is chiefly established on the basis of the causes and fruits of principle and wisdom.

– Opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision: the twofold praise reveals Principle and Wisdom, the two bodies—the Dharma-body and the Reward-body—in order to cause sentient beings to delight in them.

– Revealing the Buddha’s knowledge and vision: this reveals the two kinds of unsurpassed Dharma-body principle and enables sentient beings to understand them.

– Awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision: this reveals the wisdom of the Reward-body and exhorts people to cultivate and realize it.

– Entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision: this reveals that the three kinds of praise above manifest the fruit of Buddhahood, the two bodies—the Dharma-body and the Reward-body—and the two kinds of nirvana.

Through cultivating and studying the principle and wisdom of bodhi, one enters the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, beginning from these two causes:

a) By cultivating the cause of the One Vehicle, one reaches the ultimate fruit. Equally distributing the ox carts to them is the cause of the One Vehicle.

b) Having obtained such carts and given them to his children so that, throughout the days and nights of many kalpas, they may roam and play freely—this is the causal vehicle.

The conjured city is abolished, and they are led to the Place of Jewels: this is the fruit of the One Vehicle, because great parinirvana is called the Place of Jewels. Nor does this conflict with its analysis into the three categories of unsurpassed, middle, and peripheral. The teaching that expresses is called provisional skillful means. The wisdom that is expressed is called the true vehicle. Within the true vehicle, the aim is to cause those of the Two Vehicles to cultivate the cause and reach the fruit; therefore, cause and fruit are taught and called the Dharma Flower.

Thus, in explaining the chapter “Skillful Means,” the treatise says: “From this point onward, what is called the characteristics of cause and fruit is explained. Therefore, it is precisely the Practice and Fruit of the One Vehicle that are upheld and called the Dharma Flower.”

According to the treatise’s explanation of the seventeen names of the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, the sixteenth name is Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Dharma.

Lotus Flower has two meanings:

1) Emerging from the water, because the principle expressed transcends the turbid, muddy waters of the Two Vehicles.

2) Opening and unfolding, because sublime words of teaching are used to disclose the true principle.

The former meaning is the wondrousness of Principle; the latter is the wondrousness of Teaching.

Furthermore, among the names above, the fourteenth name is also called Vehicle. Therefore, it is known that the Dharma Flower encompasses both Teaching and Principle. In order to enable bodhisattvas to examine capacities and bestow the Way accordingly, the Teaching and Principle are primarily named Immeasurable Meanings and secondarily also called the Dharma Flower.

The chapter “Skillful Means” says: “The wisdom of all Buddhas is exceedingly profound and immeasurable. The gateway to their wisdom is difficult to understand and difficult to enter.” The treatise on the “Introduction” chapter explains that there are two kinds of profoundness. The first is the profoundness of realization, which is called the wisdom realized by the Buddha’s wisdom. The second is the profoundness of Agama, namely, the teaching that elucidates it, intended to sweep away the attachments of those of the Two Vehicles and cause them to give rise to reverence.

Emerging from the samadhi called the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings, the sutra is first named the Dharma Flower on the basis of Teaching and Principle. Gathering all the passages together and speaking in accordance with reality: Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruit are all the One Vehicle, and all are called the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Dharma. The Teaching and Principle of the Wonderful Dharma are as explained above in sequence.

– The Practice of the Wonderful Dharma: in explaining “entering the knowledge and vision,” the treatise says: “It causes one to realize the stage of non-retrogression, because it reveals immeasurable activities of wisdom; this is precisely the causal vehicle leading to the fruit of Buddhahood.” The chapter “Parable” says: “My body and arms are strong; I could carry them out of the house with robes or benches.” It also says: “There was only one gate, and it was narrow and small.” It further says: “Although I was within the gate of this burning house, I was still able to escape safely.” The causal practices of the Mahayana are compared to the gate because it is precisely the path that must be traversed. The compassion and wisdom attained through the causes of the Two Vehicles are provisionally compared to robes and benches because they are things that may be discarded as appropriate. The Three Vehicles described above still remain within the house of the three realms, divided into successive segments of birth and death; therefore, they are designated as carts, or vehicles.

It further says: “Having obtained such vehicles, the children, throughout days, nights, and kalpas, constantly roam and play at ease; together with the bodhisattvas and the assembly of shravakas, they ride these precious vehicles and proceed directly to the place of enlightenment.” Therefore, it is known that the uncontaminated causal practices necessarily lead one out of the burning house. Leaving the burning house is precisely called the One Vehicle: one is free and unbound, relying upon and seeking nothing anywhere.

Thus, the Skillful Means chapter says: “They cultivate all the unsurpassed paths and Dharma methods of the Buddhas.” The Treatise states that because the cultivation is extremely profound, the Practice capable of accomplishing the fruit of Buddhahood is also called the Dharma Flower.

– The Fruit as the Wondrous Dharma: the Treatise explains that Opening, Revealing, and Awakening signify unsurpassed meaning, identical causality, and what was previously unknown—that is, the fruit of Buddhahood, nirvana, and bodhi. A passage later in the sutra says: “The marks of all dharmas are quiescent and extinct; they cannot be expressed in words.” Therefore, it is known that the true principle of the fruit of Buddhahood is also called the One Vehicle. It also says: it is in order to expound the wisdom of the Buddhas that the Buddhas appear in the world. Thus, it is known that the right wisdom of the fruit of Buddhahood is also called the One Vehicle. Accordingly, in general, the Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruit of the Mahayana all possess the virtues of the Lotus, emerging from the turbid waters of the Two Vehicles: the Teaching has the function of disclosing the wondrous Principle; the Principle has the power to emerge from the water; the Practice bears the characteristic of unfolding from Cause to Fruit; and the Fruit is capable of producing seeds that become causes. Yet the Dharma must borrow an analogy for its elucidation, whereby its wondrous principle may become manifest. Thus, the flowers and seeds of the pundarika are borrowed as an analogy for the fruit and cause of Saddharma.

Since Dharma encompasses four meanings, Flower likewise includes ] four virtues:

a) The four meanings of Dharma are:

1) It accords with the wondrous meaning of the esoteric treasury; this is the Teaching.

2) It accords with the profound purport suited to hidden capacities and conditions; this is the Principle.

3) It is able to accomplish the profound karma of the Supreme Vehicle; this is the Practice.

4) It perfectly realizes the true tenet of ultimate awakening; this is the Fruit.

Because it is supremely excellent, it is called Wondrous.

b) The four meanings of Flower are:

1) The lotus bud opens to reveal the lotus, just as the Teaching is proclaimed to disclose the essential purport for awakening.

2) The lotus flower emerges from the sacred pond, just as the Principle stands forth, transcending the lesser vehicles.

3) When the flower fully opens, the seed is obtained, just as when the Cause is perfected, the Fruit is fulfilled.

4) The seed in turn forms the root of the flower, revealing that the Buddha’s wisdom is the source of the Vehicle.

Thus, there is good reason for borrowing the lotus flower as an analogy. According to this principle, Dharma possesses four excellent meanings, just as the Flower does. Yet, although an examination of the sutra’s intent shows that all four are present, the Skillful Means chapter chiefly reveals that formerly the three vehicles were taught as provisional teachings, whereas now, in this assembly, the true Principle is only one.

The Dharma realized by the Buddha is extremely profound and difficult to explain so that others may fully awaken to it. Even when words are used to elucidate it, its meaning is still exceedingly difficult to comprehend. Therefore, the Buddha’s wisdom is employed to remedy and guide those of the Two Vehicles.

These two—the Teaching and Principle—must be illustrated by the Lotus: the Two Vehicles are swept away so that true sages may be revealed, and the One Vehicle is selected so that those who are sages only in name must withdraw and depart.

Only after three entreaties did the Buddha formally expound it for them ]:

The one great causal condition is the essential substance of the Dharma Flower; that is, Practice and Fruit are regarded as the Dharma Flower. Opening, Revealing, and Awakening are the Fruit, while Entering is the causal Practice. Therefore, the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings explains “the lotus emerging from the water” as having two meanings: first, it concerns those of the nature of bodhisattvas who awaken suddenly and emerge from the Two Vehicles, though at the outset they cannot be fully understood; second, it compares the shravakas entering and sitting among the great assembly, thereby highlighting how, by relying upon the Teaching and contemplating the Principle of the One Vehicle, they attain gradual awakening.

Just as bodhisattvas always sit upon lotus flowers with followers of the Two Vehicles beside them, both the Teaching and the Principle are expounded.

Alternatively, the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings teaches bodhisattvas about the desires of sentient beings, analyzing them into immeasurable kinds of desire, so that bodhisattvas may use the two—Teaching and Principle—to awaken the capacities of sentient beings. Therefore, in the Treatise’s explanation of the seventeen names, only Teaching and Principle are used to explain the name Lotus Flower. This sutra teaches those of the Two Vehicles so that they may arouse the aspiration to seek the Mahayana; therefore, only Practice and Fruit are designated by the name Lotus Flower.

Furthermore, this sutra teaches those of the Two Vehicles so that they may return to the Mahayana. It enables them to know that, as an expedient means, the teaching provisionally established three vehicles, while the essential Principle is only one—the single Buddha Vehicle—so that they may arouse the aspiration to practice and ultimately attain the fruit of Buddhahood. Therefore, Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruit are all named Lotus Flower, because Teaching and Practice both unfold and blossom, while Principle and Fruit both emerge from the water. Further distinctions will be made below in the discussion of the seventeen names.

If only suchness itself were regarded as the substance of the One Vehicle’s Wondrous Dharma, while Lotus Flower bore the two meanings of emerging from the water and unfolding into bloom, then the analogy would be broad while the Dharma would be narrow; in principle, this certainly cannot be so. Moreover, the Treatise merely explains the sutra’s title and does not explain this matter. Since the Dharma is Wondrous, it is itself the Lotus Flower.

The two explanations as karmadharaya and tatpurusha, in the order given above, are also valid. “The wondrousness of the Great Dharma” is a tatpurusha explanation, explaining it in relation to what it qualifies. “This Wondrous Dharma is like a lotus flower” is also a karmadharaya explanation, explaining it according to its own function. Here, however, there is no intention to explain Lotus Flower separately, so these explanations do not contradict one another.

If the Principle is Wondrous and the sutra is only the Teaching, then “Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma” is explained as a tatpurusha compound. If the Wondrous Dharma is the Teaching and the sutra is likewise the Teaching, then “Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma” is explained as a karmadharaya compound. If the Wondrous Dharma is the Principle and the sutra is also the Principle, then “Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma” is likewise explained as a karmadharaya compound. If the Wondrous Dharma is the Teaching while the sutra is the Principle, it is also explained as a tatpurusha compound.

According to the conformity of substance and meaning, the person dwelling in the middle, the supramundane recompense, reliance upon persons and upon the Dharma, and reliance upon the Dharma and upon analogies, these are taken as titles of sutras, as stated in the treatises on tenets. Thus, the meanings of the Introductory chapter and the other chapters are all explained according to their respective titles.

– The sutra has twenty-eight chapters, namely: the Introductory chapter, the Skillful Means chapter, the Parable chapter, the Faith and Understanding chapter, the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs chapter, the Parable of the Conjured City chapter, the Prophecies for Five Hundred Disciples chapter, the Prophecies for Those in Training and Beyond Training chapter, the Dharma Teacher chapter, the Seeing the Jeweled Stupa chapter, the Devadatta chapter, the Encouragement to Uphold the Sutra chapter, the Peaceful Practices chapter, the Bodhisattvas Emerging from the Earth chapter, the Lifespan of the Tathagata chapter, the Distinctions in Merits and Virtues chapter, the Merits and Virtues of Rejoicing in Accord chapter, the Merits and Virtues of the Dharma Teacher chapter, the Bodhisattva Never Disparaging chapter, the Tathagata’s Spiritual Powers chapter, the Entrustment chapter, the Past Deeds of Bodhisattva Medicine King chapter, the Bodhisattva Wondrous Voice chapter, the Universal Gateway of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara chapter, the Dharani chapter, the Past Deeds of King Wondrous Adornment chapter, and the Encouragement of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra chapter.

These chapters are generally divided into four categories:

1) Fifteen chapters are named according to one meaning.

2) Ten chapters are named according to two meanings.

3) One chapter is named according to three meanings.

4) Two chapters are named according to indeterminate meanings.

Among the fifteen chapters named according to one meaning, there are four cases ]:

a) Four are named according to a Dharma: the Skillful Means chapter, the Faith and Understanding chapter, the Encouragement to Uphold the Sutra chapter, and the Dharani chapter.

b) Three are named according to analogies: the Parable chapter, the Parable of the Medicinal Herbs chapter, and the Parable of the Conjured City chapter.

c) Four are named according to persons: the Dharma Teacher chapter, the Devadatta chapter, the Bodhisattva Never Disparaging chapter, and the Bodhisattva Wondrous Voice chapter.

The Dharma Teacher chapter: “teacher who possesses the Dharma” is a name for a person based upon what accompanies that person; “the Dharma itself is the Teacher” is a name for the Dharma based upon its being followed as teacher. Either interpretation is valid.

d) Chapters named according to an event are of four kinds: the Introductory Chapter, the Chapter on Bestowal of Predictions, the Chapter on Emerging from the Earth, and the Chapter on Entrustment.

Among the ten chapters whose titles are based on two] meanings, there are three patterns:

a) Those named after both person and Dharma comprise eight chapters: the Chapter on Bestowing Predictions upon Those Still in Training and Those No Longer in Training, the Chapter on the Lifespan of the Tathagata, the Chapter on the Merits of the Dharma Preacher, the Chapter on the Tathagata’s Supernatural Powers, the Chapter on the Former Deeds of Bodhisattva Medicine King, the Chapter on the Universal Gateway of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Chapter on the Former Deeds of King Wondrous Adornment, and the Chapter on Bodhisattva Samantabhadra’s Encouragement.

b) There is one chapter named after the agent and the object: the Chapter on Distinguishing Merits.

c) There is one chapter named after cause and effect: the Chapter on the Merits of Rejoicing in Accord.

There is one chapter] named according to three meanings:

It is the Chapter on Bestowing Predictions upon the Five Hundred Disciples. “Five hundred” is a number, “disciples” denotes persons, and “bestowing predictions” denotes an event; thus it comprises three meanings.

There are two chapters whose titles are based on indeterminate meanings]:

The first is the Chapter on the Practice of Peace and Bliss; the second is the Chapter on Beholding the Jeweled Stupa.

This is because the meaning of “peace and bliss” applies to both cause and effect, while the meaning of “beholding” applies to both beholding and manifestation. If peace and bliss pertains to the cause, and beholding means only manifestation, then these belong to the category of titles based on one meaning. If peace and bliss pertains to the effect, and beholding means only beholding, then these belong to the category of titles based on two meanings. By reflecting accordingly, all may be clearly understood.

Furthermore, here the titles of the chapters are distinguished only according to their general categories. The reasons why they were given these particular titles will be explained when each chapter is discussed.

IV. THE PLACEMENT AND OMISSION OF CHAPTER TITLES

Upon examining the root text of this sutra, the version translated by Kumarajiva during the flourishing period of the Later Qin dynasty contains only twenty-seven chapters and lacks the Chapter on Devadatta. The Congduo Record by the monk Daohui states that Shi Faxian of Upper Dinglin Monastery obtained a Sanskrit manuscript of this sutra in the kingdom of Khotan that contained this chapter.

The monk Fayi of Waguan Monastery translated this chapter in the twelfth month of the eighth year of Yongming during the Qi dynasty, but it was still not incorporated into the Lotus Sutra. Toward the end of the Liang dynasty, a monk from Ujjayini in western India named Kulanatha, rendered here as “Family Reliance,” who also bore the Sanskrit name Paramartha, rendered here as “True Meaning,” likewise translated this chapter and first placed it after the Chapter on Beholding the Jeweled Stupa.

Furthermore, the monk Dharmaraksa of Dunhuang translated the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the True Dharma during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Jin dynasty, and in that text the Chapter on Devadatta was also placed after the Chapter on Beholding the Jeweled Stupa. An ancient explanation handed down states: “Manuscripts west of the Congling Mountains mostly contain this chapter, whereas those to the east mostly do not. Kumarajiva was originally from the kingdom of Kucha, and therefore his text did not contain this chapter.” If so, how could Faxian have obtained this chapter in the kingdom of Khotan, since Khotan also lies east of the Congling Mountains?

Another explanation states: “The Chapter on Beholding the Jeweled Stupa commands that the Dharma be upheld, and the Chapter on Encouragement to Uphold It responds to that command; the tenor of their words follows continuously. Yet the Chapter on the Heavenly Bestowal (Devadatta) suddenly intrudes between them, causing the flow of the text to become disjointed. Kumarajiva feared that later generations would harbor many doubts, and therefore omitted it.” If so, the inclusion or omission of the authentic text would have depended entirely upon Master Kumarajiva, and the abridgment of passages as prolix or defective would have rested with one person alone. This cannot be accepted.

Shi Dao’an, seeing that translators of sutras frequently abridged or omitted passages, composed the essay Five Losses and Three Things Not to Be Altered, saying: The arhats who compiled the scriptures were so apprehensive and cautious, yet ordinary people of the degenerate age, commonplace as they are, alter the profound and subtle words of a thousand ages past to conform to the vulgar customs prevailing under a hundred later kings. Is this not grievous! Therefore, all Sanskrit manuscripts contain the Chapter on the Heavenly Bestowal.

Furthermore, the Chapter on the Heavenly Bestowal reveals the meaning of honoring the Dharma: Devadatta treated it as his seat and bed in seeking the great power of the sutra; the sutra surged forth from the Dragon Palace; and the sutra’s awesome power swiftly enabled the dragon maiden to attain the Way. It offers praise in order to exhort and transform people. Why, then, should the Chapter on Encouragement to Uphold It not immediately follow?

We know only that Sanskrit manuscripts contained this chapter, whereas Kumarajiva’s manuscript lacked it. Since he translated according to that manuscript, his version did not contain the chapter. As the matter cannot be determined on the basis of east or west, neither can it be claimed that he omitted it because its meaning interrupted the sequence. It is simply that Master Kumarajiva’s manuscript was incomplete; having come from a remote and isolated kingdom, it contained many omissions and errors.

Moreover, in this sutra the Chapter on Entrustment is placed after the Chapter on Supernatural Powers. An ancient explanation states: Master Kumarajiva skillfully grasped the meaning of the sutra. He placed it earlier rather than at the end because, in the Chapter on Entrustment, the emanation Buddhas are each permitted to return to their own lands. If it were placed at the end of the sutra, the emanation Buddhas would not be permitted to return to their respective lands until the preaching of the sutra had concluded. Before their departure, this land would have remained pure; why, then, would Bodhisattva Wondrous Voice later have been admonished not to conceive an inferior view of that land?

Moreover, those who surged forth from below had bowed their heads in homage to all the emanation Buddhas. Accordingly, when Wondrous Voice came from the eastern land, he should not have paid reverence solely to Buddha Prabhutaratna; nor, when Avalokitesvara offered his pearl, should it have been divided into only two portions! What fault had the emanation Buddhas committed that they should not receive reverence?

Furthermore, the Chapter on Entrustment clearly sets forth the entrustment, while the Chapter on Medicine King and the other chapters describe how that command is obeyed through the extensive propagation of the teaching. From this it may be inferred that the Chapter on Entrustment should not be placed afterward, and therefore Master Kumarajiva placed it earlier.

Although the foregoing explanation may at first appear acceptable, careful examination of the doctrine and meaning reveals eight rational contradictions that are difficult to resolve:

1) The various versions contradict one another:

In the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the True Dharma translated by Dharmaraksa during the Jin dynasty, and in the supplementary Lotus Sutra version produced by Jnanagupta and Dharmagupta during the Sui dynasty, this Chapter on Entrustment is placed at the end of the sutra.

2) The treatise and the sutra contradict one another:

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra states that the power of practice comprises, in summary, seven kinds:

a) The first is the power of upholding, manifested in the chapters on the Dharma Preacher, the Practice of Peace and Bliss, and Encouragement to Uphold It.

b) The second is the power of teaching, manifested in the Chapter on Supernatural Powers.

c) The third is the power of practicing austerities, manifested in the Chapter on Medicine King.

d) The fourth is the power of teaching and transforming sentient beings through the practice of austerities, manifested in the Chapter on Wondrous Voice.

e) The fifth is the power of protecting sentient beings from various calamities, manifested in the chapters on Avalokitesvara and Dharani.

f) The sixth is the power of supreme merit, manifested in the Chapter on King Wondrous Adornment.

g) The seventh is the power of protecting the Dharma, manifested in the Chapter on Samantabhadra and the chapter that follows it.

Since it says that the power of protecting the Dharma is manifested in the Chapter on Samantabhadra and the chapter following it, it is clear that the Chapter on Entrustment was placed at the end of the sutra. Otherwise, what chapter could follow the Chapter on Samantabhadra?

Furthermore, after the Chapter on Supernatural Powers, it clearly states that the Chapter on Medicine King and the other chapters follow in their proper sequence. Therefore, it is known that the Chapter on Entrustment should be at the end of the sutra.

3) It differs from other teachings:

In other sutras, the Chapter on Entrustment is always at the end. Why should it be taught midway only in this sutra?

4) Two matters contradict one another:

If it is claimed that when the emanation Buddhas returned to their original lands, this land immediately became defiled and impure, and that this was why Wondrous Voice was later admonished, then the Chapter on Entrustment also caused Prabhutaratna’s stupa to return to its original land. Why, then, when Avalokitesvara offered the pearl, was it still divided into two portions?

5) The two commands are not consistent:

If Prabhutaratna and the emanation Buddhas each returned to their respective lands, why had the emanation Buddhas departed while the stupa of Buddha Prabhutaratna remained? If it is said that the command allowing Prabhutaratna’s stupa to return as before meant only that the door of the stupa was closed, then why does the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the True Dharma say that it could return to its original land?

6) The stupa had no place to which it could return:

Furthermore, the emanation Buddhas had been dispatched by Śākyamuni. If it had just been said that they departed and returned, then the stupa of Prabhūtaratna would ultimately have had nowhere to return, even by the end of the sutra.

7) The distinction between purity and impurity:

Furthermore, it is held that, because Gadgadasvara was admonished, this was not a pure land; hence it is known that all the emanation Buddhas had already returned to their lands. If so, on the day the emanation Buddhas assembled like clouds, why did each of them send an attendant, personally bearing lotus flowers, to Vulture Peak? When they took the flowers and scattered them over the Buddha, the land was transformed into a pure land; all the mountains ceased to be separated from one another, forming a Buddha-land, and the five destinies also disappeared. How, then, could they have come from Vulture Peak to the Buddha’s presence and scattered the flowers they bore?

Furthermore, when Mañjuśrī went to attend the oceanic assembly and was about to arrive in this region, those on Vulture Peak had already seen flowers suddenly appear.

8) The assembly’s rejoicing is contrary to reason:

Furthermore, in the Entrustment Chapter, when the emanation Buddhas were instructed to return, the stupa did not depart. If the entrustment did not occur only at the end of the sutra, then why did the asuras and the others rejoice so greatly at such an early point? If their rejoicing was not because they had heard the precious Dharma and thereby gave rise to joy, then it must have been because they saw the Guest Buddhas depart—something truly most astonishing!

It was simply because spiritual powers had first been manifested that this land appeared pure. Since this land was originally impure, it was feared that Gadgadasvara, seeing its impure aspects together with the rest, would give rise to disparagement; hence he was admonished. It was not that, when Gadgadasvara arrived, the emanation Buddhas had already returned and the land had become impure.

Although it was a pure land, upon returning and seeing the transformation of Vulture Peak, he saw not only purity but impurity as well, because he was looking downward from above.

Why were the two Buddhas not allowed to sit together so that Gadgadasvara could pay homage to them? Avalokiteśvara offered a jeweled necklace in homage and presented it to those two guiding masters. Such intentions are particular and are not shared with the other Buddhas.

Likewise, in the Devadatta Chapter, when Mañjuśrī emerged from the Dragon Palace, he bowed only at the feet of the two World-Honored Ones within the stupa. At that time, the emanation Buddhas had not yet returned to their original lands, yet Mañjuśrī did not bow to them. Therefore, it is known that the intention of paying reverence was particular; how could one insist, merely by analogy, that homage must be paid to all alike?

Hence it is known that the Entrustment Chapter must be placed at the end of the sutra, because the words “rejoiced and respectfully practiced it” occur there.

Furthermore, the Universal Gate of Avalokiteśvara Chapter has no verse section. Some editions include one, but this was added by later people, like drawing legs on a snake. People commonly doubt it, saying: If it was spoken by the Buddha, why do the verses say:

“The World-Honored One, replete with wondrous marks,

Answered Akṣayamati in verse”?

This was in fact composed in verse by the translators who compiled the sutra. For example, the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says: “When she had given rise to this thought, the Buddha appeared in the sky,” and so forth. Following the preceding verse, they continued in verse, thus producing the subsequent verses. Since the intervening passage was brief and prose would have been inconvenient, this is also reasonable in principle.

Others again raise a doubt, saying: If it was spoken by the Buddha, why does it say:

“Curses and various poisons

Will turn back and harm the one who sent them”?

Could the Buddha, the World-Honored One, possibly harm a living being’s life? In former times, there was also a doubt concerning the meaning of the phrase, “The wondrous sound of compassion, like a great cloud,” and the former master was consulted. When the Great Master compared it with the Sanskrit text, he found the passage complete. The wording in this verse is actually “Maitrāya Mana,” and therefore it should say “compassionate mind,” not “compassionate sound.” Thus the verse certainly existed; moreover, both asserting its existence and denying it are erroneous.

This is precisely a case of adapting to beings’ capacities and inclinations in order to tame them, like a skilled hunter capturing bears and leopards, or a skilled physician administering a counteracting medicine. Although there may initially be harm, benefit will certainly follow; it is not a case of benefit first and harm afterward. Since the verses do not contradict the central doctrine, even supposing they were absent, how would that conflict with reason?

Furthermore, in the text added to the sutra during the Sui dynasty, the bodhisattva Vyūharāja asked about the reason for Avalokiteśvara’s name. Bodhisattva Akṣayamati universally contemplated the ocean of Avalokiteśvara’s past vows, then informed Vyūharāja and spoke in verse:

“The World-Honored One is replete with wondrous marks;

I now ask him once again.

The World-Honored One, replete with wondrous marks,

Answered Akṣayamati in verse.”

Since the wording is self-contradictory, it is known to be erroneous.

In addition, the latter half of the Medicinal Herbs Parable Chapter was added to that chapter of the sutra. The treatise explains that, of the two parables, one is used to refute attachment to the vehicles; in teaching the vehicle, both are alike, and both use sunlight as an analogy. Neither the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra nor the Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma contains the latter half of the Medicinal Herbs Parable Chapter. Nor does the treatise explain the four conforming and the three contrary cases.

That sutra also places the Supernatural Powers Chapter in an order contrary to both versions of the sutra and to the treatise.

It is further said that the opening portions of both the Pūrṇa Chapter and the Dharma Teacher Chapter were omitted and lost. Since there is no established textual evidence, this claim is also difficult to accept on principle. It is also said that there should properly be only twenty-seven chapters, because the Devadatta Chapter and the Jeweled Stupa Chapter constitute a single chapter. Yet four versions contradict three; this conclusion is indeed untenable.

V. THE ORDER OF THE CHAPTERS

1. In general, when one wishes to teach the Dharma, one must first awaken sentient beings so that their capacities and conditions converge; only then can one respond to their capacities and expound the teaching. The initial explanation of the circumstances that gave rise to the teaching is called the Introductory Chapter.

2. Once the Introductory Chapter has been taught, the principal doctrine—the essential purport, namely, the main content—is discussed immediately thereafter. Although the great assembly had gathered like clouds, they were not yet fully prepared, and so the central doctrine had to be presented for their instruction. The teaching of the Dharma of the One Vehicle is the Real; briefly revealing the provisional operation of the Two Vehicles is the Expedient. The One Reality is taught to guide them back, and the two provisional teachings are disclosed to cause them to turn around. Wisdom must be skillful, responding wondrously to those of superior capacity. The words manifest divine efficacy and penetrate the profound principle. Therefore, the Skillful Means Chapter comes next in sequence.

3. Those of superior capacity understood; the Buddha’s reiteration of their understanding was completed, and only then could predictions be bestowed. Thus there is a chapter describing their understanding, its reiteration, and the bestowal of predictions.

In truth, Śāriputra, though outstanding in intelligence, was unable to elucidate it fully; hence the passages concerning understanding, reiteration, and prediction are brief and concise. This chapter first conveys the meanings of understanding, reiteration, and prediction. Although those of intermediate capacity heard the teaching of the Dharma, they were still unable to understand it.

Unless they were reminded at length and made to understand through a parable, there was no way for them to comprehend it. Therefore, the Parable Chapter follows.

4. Through the parable, wisdom and understanding arose in those who were wise; therefore, there is the Belief and Understanding Chapter.

5. Although they had attained belief and understanding, their knowledge was not yet profound. To dispel their doubts and further emphasize this meaning, there is the Medicinal Herbs Parable Chapter.

6. The four great śrāvakas had attained profound understanding, and the fruits they would attain in the future were confirmed. Therefore, the Bestowal of Predictions Chapter comes next.

7. Although those of superior and intermediate capacities had attained understanding, those of inferior capacity still showed no sign of awakening. It was therefore necessary to rely on detailed exposition and earnest instruction, telling them how they had first formed karmic affinities in the past so as to awaken and illuminate their original minds. They were told that the nirvana they had realized was originally not true extinction, so that they might return to the place of treasure and advance toward great nirvana. Therefore, in this sequence comes the Parable of the Conjured City Chapter.

8. Those of high capacity attained understanding immediately upon hearing the Dharma and thereby gained an even purer mind of belief and understanding. Their understanding truly arose through three rounds of earnest exposition. The text is brief, and the confirmation is likewise not extensive, so no separate chapter was established. First, the characteristics of the future fruition of those of eminent renown are taught; therefore, there is the Bestowal of Predictions to the Five Hundred Disciples Chapter.

9. At that time, those of lesser capacity also gradually attained understanding, and the Buddha bestowed predictions upon them; hence there is the chapter “Bestowal of Predictions upon Those in Training and Those Beyond Training.”

10. Those of all three capacities had attained awakening, and the benefits of the teaching of the Dharma had been universally bestowed. In order to ensure that beings in distant future ages would ultimately conform to its guiding principles, and to praise those persons and extol the Dharma so that its great meaning might be widely propagated, there is therefore the chapter “Dharma Teachers.”

11. Those who practice and study in accordance with the Dharma—whether the Dharma itself or the person who upholds it—can serve as teachers and exemplars. Thus, attachment to the Lesser Vehicle is broken so that the Great Way may be accomplished, and the meaning of the provisional vehicles is gathered together so as to enter the true tenet.

Yet those who believe and study are rare, and those who take refuge in and revere it are also few. The Buddha Prabhutaratna appeared within the stupa, and the Buddha’s emanation bodies assembled from all directions, in order to exhort and guide sentient beings to persevere in cultivation, and to have firm faith that they would certainly attain realization, for the Buddha’s words are never false. Hence there is the chapter “The Appearance of the Jeweled Stupa.”

12. Although another Buddha proclaimed his testimony of faith in this sutra, the original Lord had not yet clearly manifested himself to encourage people to take refuge in and revere it. Therefore, he clearly revealed that in a former life, when he was a king, he so highly esteemed this sutra that he personally made himself a servant in order to seek the Dharma from the home of his enemy. He further revealed that this sutra possesses immense power and can liberate countless sentient beings in the dragon palace; through the swift efficacy of its Dharma power, the Dragon Girl was transformed and attained the Way. Hence there is the chapter “Devadatta.”

13. It had already been shown that both oneself and others hold it precious, and that its immense power acts swiftly. The Buddha earnestly encouraged those who heard the sutra, and the bodhisattvas all accepted the teaching and vowed to uphold it; hence there is the chapter “Upholding.” According to the treatise text, it is called the chapter “Exhortation to Uphold,” which is also reasonable.

14. Fearing that in the age of the Final Dharma many things in the practice of the Dharma might transgress the proper standards, the Buddha now clearly set forth the prescribed methods to facilitate the propagation of the Dharma. When the Dharma is easy to practice, harm and loss will naturally be avoided; hence there is the chapter “Peaceful Practices.”

15. Bodhisattvas equal in number to the sands of eight Ganges Rivers heard the wondrous Dharma and then vowed to uphold it, but at that time the Buddha did not permit them. This showed that there were already those who would uphold and propagate the Dharma. Thus, bodhisattvas equal in number to the sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers, who had freed themselves from defilements and had long abided in the Buddha Way, first requested permission and vowed to widely proclaim the wondrous Dharma, thereby inspiring the entire Dharma assembly of that time. Hence there is the chapter “Emerging from the Earth.”

16. When the great assembly witnessed their “emergence,” they supposed that these beings were mere transformations and not genuine: because the father was young while the children were old, they doubted that these were emanation bodies of Shakyamuni Buddha. It was now demonstrated that they were emanation bodies of the Buddha, who had attained the Way long ago, and thus, by reason, was no longer young. In order to resolve this doubt, there is therefore the chapter “The Lifespan of the Tathagata.”

17. The reward body of the Buddha manifested a long lifespan, while the essence of the Dharma body was also proclaimed through skillful means; thus it became clearly known why Shakyamuni was a transformation Buddha. The Buddha’s virtues are profound and wondrous; many who heard believed, the benefits were great, and the merit was immeasurable. It was now clearly explained that both the assembly of that time who heard the Buddha teach this sutra and sentient beings in later ages who receive and uphold it would obtain differing benefits and merits. Hence there is the chapter “Distinctions in Merit.”

18. Although those who were to receive benefits had already been fully described, the merit of those who rejoice in accord is also not slight. Hence there is the chapter “The Merit of Rejoicing in Accord.”

19. If even others who rejoice in accord gain abundant merit, the merit of those who personally come forward to proclaim and propagate the wondrous Dharma is greater still. Hence there is the chapter “The Merits of the Dharma Teacher.”

20. A Dharma teacher who upholds the sutra will certainly attain Buddhahood. One who slanders a Dharma teacher will incur immeasurable offenses. The Buddha cited himself as testimony; hence there is the chapter “Never Disparaging.”

21. The Tathagata gave many exhortations and teachings concerning meritorious deeds, yet he feared that sentient beings might doubt and suppose that the Buddha was making empty claims. Wishing to reveal that his words were never false—for how could he deceive you sentient beings?—the Buddha displayed his spiritual powers to make this clear to them. Hence there is the chapter “The Spiritual Powers of the Tathagata.”

22. In the past, Medicine King sacrificed his body and life to uphold the sutra. The Buddha taught the former causes and conditions of this bodhisattva

in order to encourage the Dharma assembly of that time. Hence there is the chapter “The Former Deeds of Bodhisattva Medicine King.”

23. In circulating the true Dharma, it must reach every land. Medicine King had already proclaimed it in this land, so Wondrous Voice was summoned and instructed to transmit it in other lands. Hence there is the chapter “Bodhisattva Wondrous Voice.”

24. Sentient beings who uphold the sutra encounter many obstacles and difficulties. They must therefore rely upon the universal manifestations of all the Dharma gates of great compassion for rescue and protection. Hence there is the chapter “The Universal Gate of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.”

25. Even though one invokes Avalokiteshvara and relies upon another to be rescued from calamities, one has not yet upheld the mantra and sought the empowering majesty of the Dharma. In order to ensure that one possesses great numinous power, so that upholding the sutra may readily accomplish deliverance, there is therefore the chapter “Dharani.”

26. The power of upholding the sutra does not distinguish between friend and foe. The merit and virtue bestowed upon us by this sutra cause us always to be reborn in beautiful and auspicious places. In order to explain how past and present correspond, and thereby encourage the propagation of the wondrous purport, there is the chapter “The Former Deeds of King Wondrous Adornment.”

27. Although the sutra was propagated in both this land and other lands, there had not yet been an occasion on which beings in every region mutually encouraged its propagation. Hence there is the chapter “The Encouragement of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra.”

28. Once praise and exhortation had become universal and the conditions for teaching had been fulfilled, the Buddha earnestly entrusted the Dharma so that it might circulate for a long time. Hence there is the chapter “Entrustment.”

This explanation of the sequence of the chapters follows the Sutra of the Lotus of the True Dharma and the treatise, placing the chapter “Entrustment” at the end. If the chapter “Entrustment” were taught immediately after the chapter “Spiritual Powers,” people would misunderstand, and it would not accord with the overall arrangement.

VI. EXPLANATION OF THE SUTRA TEXT

A. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE.

B. EXPLANATION OF THE SUTRA TEXT.

A. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE.

A. 1- Analysis According to Master Gu Zun.

Dharma Master Gu Zun said: The twenty-eight chapters are divided into two sections. The first chapter describes the causes and conditions for the Tathagata’s initial commencement of teaching. The remaining twenty-seven chapters describe his principal teaching. The Introductory Chapter explains the initial causes and conditions, while the principal teaching elucidates the benefits of this sutra, because benefits are conferred throughout, even to the end of the sutra.

A. 2- Master Jizang’s Analysis.

Great Master Jizang said: The first chapter is the introductory section. The following fifteen and a half chapters are called the principal section, extending from the second chapter through the first part of the chapter “Distinctions in Merit,” up to the end of the verses comparing and measuring merit, where the final stanza records the Blessed One’s reply to Maitreya:

“Those who are learned or possess total retention,

And understand the Buddha’s words according to their meaning—

People such as these

Will have no doubts concerning this matter.”

This section explains the provisional vehicle and the true vehicle, and the provisional body and the true body; it is the principal section.

Shariputra thrice requested the Buddha to explain the provisional and true vehicles, while Maitreya thrice petitioned the Buddha to explain the provisional and true bodies. Beginning with the latter half of the chapter “Distinctions in Merit”—namely, the second prose passage following the verse cited above (“Those who hear this teaching on the lifespan and believe and understand it will have immeasurable merit”)—together with the eleven chapters below, is called the circulation section.

A. 3- Analysis According to Master Yijing.

Dharma Master Yijing said: The first chapter is called the introductory section; the following nineteen chapters are called the principal section; and the eight chapters beginning with “Spiritual Powers” are called the circulation section. Although he made this division, he did not explain the reason for it.

A. 4- Analysis According to This Treatise.

a. The first method divides the text into three sections:

– The first section: the first chapter is called the introductory section.

– The second part: the following eight chapters are called the main section. They rightly expound the One Vehicle and confer predictions upon those of the three kinds of capacities, enabling all three kinds to obtain fundamental benefit, for those belonging to the Two Vehicles have already been led out of the turbid realm.

The concluding part of this sutra states: “Now in this sutra only the One Vehicle is taught. Formerly, before the bodhisattvas, the Buddha reproached the shravakas for delighting in the lesser Dharma; yet in truth, the Buddha used the Great Vehicle to teach and transform them.”

Furthermore, in the Devadatta Chapter, Bodhisattva Accumulated Wisdom told the Buddha Many Treasures that he could return to his original land. Thus we know that only after the work had been completed was he invited to return, clearly showing that the teaching of the One Vehicle is the central purport of the entire sutra.

If the teaching of the One Vehicle were not the criterion, and every passage in which benefit is obtained belonged to the main section, then in the Universal Worthy Chapter, where immeasurable bodhisattvas attain dharani and bodhisattvas as numerous as the dust motes of three thousand worlds practice the path of Universal Worthy, benefit is likewise obtained without the One Vehicle being taught; all of that would therefore belong to the main section.

If so, the explanation of Master Gu Zun is indeed the guiding principle. Furthermore, if the matter had not yet been completed, why would Bodhisattva Accumulated Wisdom ask to return midway?

Alternatively, the first half of the Dharma Teacher Chapter may be added, making eight and a half chapters the main section, because in the first half of the Dharma Teacher Chapter, the Buddha conferred predictions upon the others present in the assembly, whether sages or ordinary beings, declaring that anyone who sees the Buddha, hears the sutra, and rejoices accordingly will attain the fruit of bodhi.

– The third part: the remaining nineteen chapters, or eighteen and a half chapters, are collectively called the dissemination section, because they describe the matters of verification and praise, receiving the charge, and entrustment to the disciples concerning the practice and preservation of the teaching.

Although in the Encouragement to Uphold Chapter predictions are conferred upon the bhikshunis present in the assembly—because they addressed the Buddha and requested to uphold the sutra, whereupon the Buddha conferred predictions upon them—it is nevertheless stated that predictions had already been conferred universally upon all of them. Since the One Vehicle is not taught again, this does not belong to the main section.

b. The second method divides the sutra into five parts:

– The first part is the introductory section, no different from that described above.

– The second part comprises all twelve chapters from the Skillful Means Chapter through the Encouragement to Uphold Chapter, all of which elucidate the Object of the One Vehicle.

– The third part comprises the two chapters Peaceful Practices and Emerging from the Earth, which elucidate the Practice of the One Vehicle.

– The fourth part comprises the five chapters from the Lifespan of the Tathagata Chapter through the Never Disparaging Chapter, which teach the Fruit of the One Vehicle.

The Object is taught so that beings may clearly understand which vehicle is provisional and which is real, and they are encouraged to relinquish the provisional and adopt the real. When shravakas comprehend this principle, they receive predictions.

The Practice is taught so that they may understand which cause is right and which cause is wrong, and they are encouraged to learn what is right and eliminate what is wrong. Those who train accordingly “emerge from the earth.”

The Fruit is taught so that they may understand which body is true and which is a transformation body, and what constitutes the fruit and the cause of realization. They are encouraged to recognize the transformation body and seek realization of the true body, gradually acquiring the excellent qualities of the causal and resultant stages. Bodhisattvas who clearly understand this principle will realize

the path and fully manifest the excellent qualities perfected at the causal and resultant stages.

– The fifth part: all the chapters from the Supernatural Powers Chapter onward are called the dissemination section, because they set forth the matters of entrustment and the obedient acceptance and practice of the charge.

The reasons for all the foregoing will be explained in the sections below.

B. EXPLANATION OF THE SCRIPTURAL TEXT

From here to the end of the work, the chapters of the sutra are explained in sequence.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

A. EXPLANATION OF THE CHAPTER TITLE

1- THE SEVEN KINDS OF ACCOMPLISHMENT

The Treatise states that the Introductory Chapter has seven kinds of accomplishment. “Accomplishment” means completeness and perfection. This is intended to demonstrate that the Introductory Chapter fully contains seven meanings, and that these seven meanings are perfect because other sutras do not possess them.

1) Accomplishment of the introductory chapter: From the very beginning, the common causes and conditions are complete and perfect. The mountain and the city are both fully present, symbolizing abundant excellence; therefore, this chapter alone is specifically named the Introductory Chapter. In truth, all seven accomplishments constitute the introduction.

2) Accomplishment of the assembly, with its many accomplishments: first, Number; second, Practice; third, Inclusion of Merits; and fourth, complete and perfect abiding in deportment in accordance with the Dharma. This is an accomplishment that other sutras do not possess.

3) Accomplishment of the arrival of the time when the Tathagata wished to teach the Dharma: this is the passage beginning with “For the sake of the bodhisattvas, he taught the Great Vehicle Sutra” and continuing below. This is because the Buddha first taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, which possesses seventeen titles surpassing those of other sutras.

4) Accomplishment of abiding in deportment in accordance with that upon which the teaching of the Dharma depends: this is the passage beginning with “After the Buddha had taught this sutra, he sat cross-legged in the lotus posture” and continuing below. It is based upon meditative stillness, the vessel-world, and sentient beings—three kinds of dharmas not found in other sutras.

5) Accomplishment of the cause upon which the teaching depends: this is the passage beginning with “At that time, the Buddha emitted a ray of light from between his eyebrows...” and continuing below. It concerns seeing that which illuminates, the sphere illuminated, and that which is illuminated, and thereby giving rise to a rare and wondrous mind—matters not found in other sutras.

6) Accomplishment of the great assembly present before him wishing to hear the Dharma: this is the passage beginning with “At that time, Bodhisattva Maitreya had this thought” and continuing below. Although one person asks the question, many people are able to hear it and give rise to a rare and wondrous mind; this is not found in other sutras.

7) Accomplishment of Manjushri’s reply: Through the knowledge of former lives, he directly perceived the signs of cause and effect in the past and the accomplishment of twelve events like those now present; therefore, he was able to reply. This is not found in other sutras.

2. Classification into Common and Particular

The seven accomplishments above are further divided into two kinds:

– The first two accomplishments constitute the Common Introduction.

– The latter five accomplishments constitute the Particular Introduction.

Within these, the Common Introduction has five parts:

1) General indication of what was heard.

2) The time when the teaching was delivered.

3) The teacher who delivered the teaching.

4) The place where beings were taught and transformed.

5) The capacities for whom the teaching was intended.

The foregoing meanings merge into many meanings, but the meaning constituting the Introduction is contained solely in the four words, “Thus have I heard.” This is the opening statement, intended to inspire those who hear the sutra with confidence that the reciter personally heard the Buddha teach this sutra.

The root text of the Treatise states only that the Introduction has two accomplishments: first, the city; second, the mountain. These two places are especially excellent and differ from those in other sutras. Although the time when the sutra was heard and the Buddha who taught it are specifically explained, they do not differ from those in other sutras; hence, although the sutra contains them, they are not presented as distinctive features.

B. EXPLANATION OF THE SCRIPTURAL TEXT

-Scriptural text: “Thus have I heard.”

The Commentary says: This is the opening statement of all sutras. In this chapter, distinctions are made through three approaches:

– I. The reasons for teaching the sutra.

– II. The purpose of establishing these words.

– III. The formal explanation of the scriptural text.

I. THE REASONS FOR TEACHING THE SUTRA

As accounts of the original causes and conditions are taught in the Great Art Sutra and other texts, when the Buddha was about to enter nirvana, he told those who had doubts to ask their questions. Upali and Aniruddha instructed Ananda to request permission to ask four questions:

First, after the Buddha’s parinirvana, whom should the bhikshus and others take as their teacher?

Second, upon what should they rely and abide?

Third, how should ill-natured bhikshus be disciplined?

Fourth, what words should be placed at the beginning of all sutras?

The Buddha taught: “After my nirvana, take the Pratimoksha as your great teacher; rely upon the precepts in your cultivation; rely upon the Four Foundations of Mindfulness to abide securely in your original mind. As for ill-natured bhikshus, discipline them by means of the brahma-danda, for the brahma-danda is silence: there is no need to strike or revile them; simply remain silent and expel them. At the beginning of all sutras, place the words, ‘Thus have I heard.’”

Later, when Ananda entered the assembly for the compilation of the Buddha’s sutras, he followed the Buddha’s instructions exactly and gave a detailed account of the circumstances, all as explained in the sutras.

II. THE PURPOSE OF SETTING FORTH THESE WORDS

The purpose is to cause sentient beings to have faith and accept the teaching.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “‘Thus have I heard’ is intended to give rise to faith. ‘Faithfully accepting and putting it into practice’ gives rise to wisdom.”

Through faith one is able to enter; through wisdom one is able to cross over. Faith is the initial foundation for entering the Dharma, while wisdom is the ultimate, profound means. When there is faith, the principle expounded will be accepted; when it is accepted, the relationship in which the Way serves as teacher will be established. Because of faith, the Dharma that is taught can be followed. Because of acceptance, the relationship between the teacher who speaks and the disciple who listens is established.

Regarding this faith, its explanation may be summarized under ten points:

1) It is the initial cause for advancing toward the ultimate fruit. As taught in the Sutra of Benevolent Kings and other scriptures, it is the initial cause for attaining the noble stages. Therefore, among the forty minds, faith is placed first.

When initially arousing the aspiration for great bodhi, one must possess ten virtues and initiate the three sublime contemplations. The mind of great bodhi takes wholesome roots as its essence, spiritual friends as its supporting conditions, and non-retrogression as the encouragement for arousing the aspiration. Wholesome roots are faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.

Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha states: “Purity, superior power, a steadfast mind, and supreme progress—this is called a bodhisattva, who from the outset must cultivate for three incalculable great kalpas.”

2) It is the foundation for gradually awakening to and entering the truth of the Noble Truths. The treatises all state: “When one is about to enter the noble stages, there are the faculty of faith and the power of faith. Because there is the faculty of faith, the myriad wholesome qualities arise from it. Because there is the power of faith, none of the four kinds of mara can subdue one.” Therefore, these words are placed at the beginning of the sutra to engender faith in the listener.

3) It is verified purity that communicates with the wondrous truth. It enables one to transcend the evil destinies and abandon the causes of poverty and lowliness; thus, after entering the noble path, one realizes the four kinds of unshakable faith. Through faith in the Three Jewels, one transcends the evil destinies. Through faith in the precepts, one abandons the causes of poverty and lowliness. Therefore, the treatises also speak of the direct contemplation of faith.

4) It is the excellent support for supreme virtues. The Vibhasha Treatise states: “Faith is the skillful hand that partakes of the flavor of the Dharma. A student of the Buddhadharma is like a great naga-elephant: taking Faith as the hand, Generosity as the tusks, Mindfulness as the neck, and Wisdom as the head, it bears upon its shoulders the accumulated wholesome dharmas.” An elephant—that is, a naga-elephant—uses its trunk as a hand when eating and drinking; therefore, a student of the Buddhadharma must first give rise to faith.

5) It is the initial seed of the seven kinds of noble wealth. It is the first Dharma-wealth of the practitioner, just as initial capital is for a great merchant. Through the instruction of the Dharma Jewel, one obtains noble wealth; therefore, faith must arise first. The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Noble Teaching states: “The seven kinds of noble wealth are Faith, Moral Discipline, Learning, Generosity, Wisdom, Moral Shame, and Moral Dread.” Faith is one of these.

6) It is the excellent path to the fundamental cause of all wholesome dharmas, for it is the foundation of wholesome dharmas. The Yogacara Treatise states: “For entering the wholesome dharmas, aspiration is the foundation; they are produced through attention, gathered and aroused through contact, and drawn in through feeling. Meditative concentration is predominant, wisdom is supreme, liberation is steadfast, and emancipation is the culmination.”

Aspiration is the foundation because it gives rise to hope. Since it is produced through attention, one must remain constantly vigilant. Since it is gathered and aroused through contact, the superior conditions of mind and mental factors are brought into harmony. Since it is drawn in through feeling, it is received and comprehended within the mind. Concentration is predominant because the mind is originally tranquil. Wisdom is supreme because it discriminates between good and evil. Liberation is steadfast because it diminishes and removes entangling bonds. Emancipation is the culmination because the path of awakening is perfected. Since faith is the support of aspiration, it must first be caused to arise.

7) It is the strong hand that opens the door of spiritual potential, for it is the hand that receives the teaching. The Abhidharma-kosha Treatise states: “To rescue sentient beings from the mire of birth and death, and thereafter to present the principal teaching to them—this is the hand of the Buddha’s teaching.” The Introductory Chapter causes sentient beings to give rise to faith; this is the hand of sentient beings, for these two hands grasp one another to emerge from the mire.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “It is like a person with hands who reaches a mountain of jewels and takes whatever he wishes. If he has no hands, he has gone there in vain and can take nothing. A person with a mind of faith who enters the Buddha’s jeweled mountain attains the fruits of the various paths.

Without a mind of faith, even if one understands the meaning of the scriptural passages, one gains nothing.”

8) It is the purifying jewel that causes the water of the mind to become clear and still, for it purifies the mind. The Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only states: “Faith is like a water-purifying jewel capable of clarifying turbid water, for it counteracts the defilement opposed to the nature of faith.”

9) It is the excellent condition for establishing the path of a good name. Xuanni—that is, Confucius—said: “Of the three things—arms, food, and trust—trust cannot be relinquished. Since ancient times, everyone has had to die, but if people have no trust, they cannot stand firm. It is like a large carriage without its crossbar or a small carriage without its yoke-bar. If people have no trust, one does not know what they can accomplish.”

10) It is the excellent communication of a sincere heart. The Spring and Autumn Annals states: “If one possesses radiant trust, then even wild plants such as pin and fan, and pondweeds and rushes from marshes, ponds, springs, and streams, may all be offered to spirits and used to entertain kings and lords—how much more so the trust by which gentlemen establish relations between two states.”

Of these ten meanings, the first eight accord with ultimate truth, while the last two accord with conventional truth.

Faith is of such importance that the words “Thus have I heard” are placed at the beginning of the sutra to demonstrate that the meaning of the sutra as presented was personally heard from the Buddha’s own teaching. This avoids the fault of additions or omissions and causes sentient beings to arouse faith and willingly undertake study and cultivation.

III. FORMAL EXPLANATION OF THE SCRIPTURAL TEXT

-Scriptural text: “Thus have I heard.”

The Commentary states: The Treatise on the Buddha Grounds explains that “thus” is interpreted according to four meanings:

1) According to analogy, as when it is said: “Wealth and honor are thus.” Just as the Dharma of Vaishravana was transmitted, so was it heard; just as the Buddha taught it, it is certainly no different and is assuredly the cause of skillful means that bring benefit and happiness. Alternatively, the wording spoken by the Buddha at that time was thus, exactly as I formerly heard it.

2) According to instruction, as when it is said: “You should read and recite sutras and treatises thus.” Here, viewed remotely, “thus” is the Buddha’s instruction; viewed immediately, it is the admonition of the transmitter of the Dharma. Alternatively, it tells the assembly at that time: “You should listen to what I formerly heard thus.”

3) According to question and answer, it means that if someone were to ask: “Are you going to expound what you certainly heard in the past?” the reply given here would therefore be: “Thus have I heard.”

4) According to assent, as when one sometimes says: “I shall think thus for you, act thus, and speak thus.” This means that at the time of compilation, the assemblies of bodhisattvas all requested together: “You should expound again exactly as you heard it.” The bodhisattva transmitting the Dharma then assented and said: “I shall speak exactly as I heard it.” Or, affirming it with confidence, he said: “The matter is thus.” This means: “I formerly heard the Dharma thus; the matter is thus, exactly as stated, and certainly not otherwise.”

Because of the four meanings above, every sutra begins with the four words: “Thus have I heard.”

Tripitaka Master Paramartha said: “The Vinaya of Subtle Details explains that when Ananda ascended the seat to compile the Dharma treasury, his body resembled that of the Buddhas and was endowed with all the excellent marks; when he descended from the seat, he returned to his original appearance.” The Account of the Compilation of the Treasury also says the same. Consequently, the great assembly entertained three doubts:

1/- They wondered whether the Buddha, out of great compassion, had arisen again from the realm of nirvana to teach further wondrous Dharma.

2/- They wondered whether another Buddha had come from a different direction to abide here and teach the Dharma.

3/- They wondered whether Ananda had transformed himself into a Buddha and was teaching the Dharma to the great assembly.

The present statement clarifies that the Dharma thus taught was the Dharma that I personally heard in former times while serving as the Buddha’s attendant. It was not that the Buddha had arisen again, nor that a Buddha had come from another realm, nor that Ananda had transformed himself into a Buddha. To dispel these doubts, the words “Thus have I heard” were placed at the beginning of the sutra. The circumstances of the compilation are explained in the sutra chapter.

The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra says: “‘Thus’ means in accordance with the auspicious sign of sympathetic response, so called because it accords with the capacities of beings. ‘So’ means ‘not mistaken.’ Sentient beings, seeing that it is ‘not mistaken,’ evoke a response; the Buddha, seeing that it ‘accords with their capacities,’ responds. The transmitter of the sutra wished to make clear that the verbal teaching arose from this sympathetic response, and therefore established the words ‘thus so.’”

The Commentary on the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings says: “When it comes to the person who teaches the Dharma, one simply says ‘thus’; only ‘thus’ is correct, and therefore it is said, ‘thus so.’”

Master Bao said: “To be free from five kinds of slanderous objection, the words ‘thus so’ are used:

The first statement: ‘Thus so’—this sutra is free from the slander of attachment to existence, namely that something has been added.

The second statement: ‘Thus so’—this sutra eliminates the slander of attachment to nonexistence, namely that something has been omitted.

The third statement: ‘Thus so’—this sutra is free from the slander of attachment to both existence and nonexistence, which contradict one another.

The fourth statement: ‘Thus so’—this sutra is free from the slander of the deluded attachment to neither existence nor nonexistence.

The fifth statement: ‘Thus so’—this sutra is free from the slander of attachment to the frivolous speculation of neither non-existence nor non-nonexistence.”

Master Guangzhai said: “‘Thus so’ refers to what was heard. It introduces an entire sutra that was previously heard when it was expounded and is now being transmitted. This entire sutra, ‘thus so,’ I personally heard from the Buddha. The words ‘I heard’ are spoken to call upon people to pay attention and listen closely.”

Emperor Wu of Liang said: “‘Thus so’ means ‘in this manner.’ These are words spoken by the Buddha, and therefore it is said, ‘thus so.’”

Tripitaka Master Chang’er said: “‘Thus so’ has three meanings:

First, with respect to the Buddha. The Buddhas of the three times all teach identically, without difference, and therefore it is called ‘thus.’ Because their teachings are alike, it is called ‘so.’

Second, with respect to the Dharma. The true aspect of all dharmas has never differed from the beginning, and therefore it is called ‘thus.’ Because it is taught in accordance with thusness, it is called ‘so.’

Third, with respect to the Sangha. Ananda hoped that what he transmitted would not differ from the Buddha’s original teaching that he had heard, and therefore it is called ‘thus.’ Because it was absolutely without error, it is called ‘so.’”

Because the teachings are alike in this manner, accord with principle without error, and are transmitted without alteration, this sutra is worthy of trust.

Altogether, fifteen explanations have been given above.

The words “I heard” mean that the transmitter of the Dharma ostensibly refers to himself. They mean: “I personally heard the Dharma thus from the Buddha,” and therefore it is called “I heard.” They do not mean that the “I” necessarily belongs to a real individual. “I” is merely the conventional, provisional designation of the skandhas.

There are, however, three kinds of “I”:

The first is the falsely grasped self, namely the self falsely grasped by non-Buddhist practitioners.

The second is the provisionally posited self, namely the self in Bliss, Purity, Permanence, and Self, provisionally established in the Great Nirvana Sutra to eliminate the erroneous views of followers of the two vehicles.

The third is the “I” transmitted in worldly usage, referring to expressions such as “bestowed by heaven” and “bestowed by the spirits” that are commonly transmitted in the world. Here, the transmitter of the Dharma, in conformity with worldly usage, simply refers to himself as “I.” This differs from the two kinds of “I” mentioned above; it is the great self that is no-self.

1 - QUESTION: The Buddhas teach the Dharma in order to eliminate attachment to self. Why, then, do they not say “no-self,” but instead say “I heard”?

ANSWER: There are four meanings:

1) To facilitate speech. If, in speaking of no-self, one referred only generally to the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas, how could one know who was speaking here?

2) To conform to worldly usage.

3) To remove fear of no-self. If no-self were spoken of, who would undertake cultivation and study?

4) Because there are distinctions between self and others, defilement and purity, cause and effect, undertakings, and so forth. Therefore, the word “I” is used.

2 - QUESTION: If so, why does he not state his name, but only say “I”?

ANSWER: There are three meanings:

1) To show that it does not contradict worldly convention. The fundamental purport is to reveal and promote ultimate truth, yet the language does not contradict worldly convention. Although the principle to be revealed is subtle and wondrous, the wording cannot be contrary to common usage, because it is intended to make clear that ultimate truth is not separate from conventional truth.

2) The word “I” means a sovereign who possesses mastery. The Account of the Compilation of the Dharma says that there are three Anandas:

The first is Ananda, meaning Rejoicing, who preserves the Sravaka treasury. The second is Anandabhadra, meaning Joyful Worthy, who preserves the Pratyekabuddha treasury. The third is Anandasagara, meaning Ocean of Joy, who preserves the Bodhisattva treasury. These are merely one person, called by different names according to his various virtues.

Because this Ananda was foremost in extensive learning, retained what he heard, accumulated what had entered his ears, fully possessed the three kinds of wisdom, remembered both words and meanings, and had sovereign mastery through comprehensive retention of the teachings of the Tripitaka, if he had stated his name, it would indeed have accorded with correct principle, but would not have conveyed the meaning of “possessing sovereign mastery of all dharmas.” Therefore, he said “I,” rather than “Ananda.”

3) “I” signifies personal experience. People in the world also say, “I saw” or “I heard,” regarding this as direct personal testimony. If it were said that Ananda heard it, he might not have personally heard the Buddha teach it, but might instead have received it through transmission from someone else.

Here it is clarified that he personally heard the Buddha teach the Dharma and did not receive it through another person’s transmission. Therefore, to destroy the net of doubt, he did not state his name but simply said, “I heard.”

“To hear” means that the faculty of the ear hears, receives, and comprehends what the Buddha says. Here the analytical distinction that it is the ear that hears is set aside, and the general designation “I” is used; therefore it is said, “I heard.” According to the Mahayana, hearing occurs only when the faculty, consciousness, and associated mental factors harmoniously converge upon an object.

Nevertheless, the faculty has five respects in which it is superior to consciousness; therefore, the faculty is said to hear. The five meanings of the faculty are: being the basis, giving rise, belonging, assisting, and corresponding to the faculty. “Corresponding to the faculty” means that, according to whether the faculty is clear or obscured, consciousness is likewise clear or obscured.

If there is merely the hearing of sound, this may pertain only to the ear; but once Names and Meanings are taken as objects, it pertains to the mind. Therefore, the Yogācārabhūmi says: “Hearing is inferential cognition.” The ear faculty is said to hear because it directly hears sounds; yet it must operate together with the mind, with the mind as the principal factor, before there can be comprehension of what is heard. Taking the second—that is, the mind—as principal, and through repeated perfuming by what has been heard, both are subsumed under the common designation “hearing.” Thus, without separately distinguishing the ear faculty and the mental faculty, it is collectively said, “I heard.”

3—QUESTION: At that time Ānanda also personally saw, experienced, and clearly knew that the Buddha was teaching the Dharma. Why does he say only, “I heard,” rather than “I saw,” and so forth?

ANSWER: There are three meanings:

1) To realize the profound principle, one must first hear the Dharma and then understand its meaning; Names express Meanings, rather than expressing Form.

2) Because in this realm, sounds are used to perform the work of the Buddha, and Names depend upon Sound.

3) Because, to realize bodhi, one must be perfumed through hearing; through the perfuming of hearing, one becomes a supramundane being.

Therefore, at the beginning of the sutra it does not say, “I saw, experienced, and knew.” It says only, “I heard.”

In fact, at that time Ānanda also saw the Buddha speaking and saw other Buddha-realms performing the work of the Buddha through the Buddha’s radiant light. Thus, one may also speak of seeing, and so forth. This meaning should likewise be distinguished.

4—QUESTION: Since this was Dharma spoken by the Buddha, is it said, “I heard,” or did the Buddha not speak, although it is still said, “I heard”?

ANSWER: There are two explanations:

1) Master Nāgasena said: The Buddha possesses only three dharmas—great samadhi, wisdom, and compassion. Having long since abandoned conceptual proliferation, he never taught the Dharma. Through the power of conditions and the Buddha’s original compassionate vows, the appearances of text and meaning arise within the consciousnesses of sentient beings. Although these appearances of text and meaning arise directly in dependence upon the power of their own wholesome roots, because the Buddha provides the powerful influence, it is said that “the Buddha spoke.” Since they are transformed through the power of one’s own ear faculty and mental consciousness, it is called “I heard”; this is taken as its essential nature.

Therefore, Master Asvabhāva said: At any time, all that the Buddha directly spoke or did not directly speak appears within the consciousness of the hearer; this is taken as its essential nature. He then asks: If that is so, how can a bodhisattva teach the Dharma? At the beginning, that treatise says that the Bhagavat had previously entered the chapter on the Bodhisattva’s exposition of the Mahayana in the Compendium of the Mahayana in order to demonstrate the greatness of the essence of the Mahayana; hence this question is posed. The treatise itself answers: Because he was a being born through the predominant power of the Buddha, he delivered this exposition, just as, through the predominant power of the devas, one may receive a treatise and its commentary even in a dream.

The sutra also says: From the time the Buddha first attained the Way until his final entrance into nirvana, throughout that intervening period he did not utter a single word. It is like a mother merely showing her teeth as a sign to her child, whereupon the child understands that the mother is calling.

2) Master Bandhuprabha said: The Buddha’s body is fully endowed with the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, and so forth. Because it is free from discrimination, it is called free from conceptual proliferation; how could not teaching the Dharma be what is meant by freedom from conceptual proliferation? This means that, in accord with the conditions and the power of the original vows and wholesome roots of the hearers, the appearances of text and meaning arise within the Tathagata’s consciousness.

These appearances of text and meaning arise from the Buddha’s wholesome roots of benefiting others; this is called “the Buddha spoke.” Although they are not directly and independently obtained within the hearer’s consciousness, appearances resembling them manifest clearly; therefore, it is called “I heard.”

Master Vasubandhu said: This means that, because various distinct phenomena arise continuously within one stream of consciousness, they cause distinct phenomena to arise within another continuous stream of consciousness, mutually supporting one another and becoming predominant conditions. Therefore, the sutra says: “The Dharma I have spoken is like the leaves in my hand. The dharmas not yet spoken are like the leaves in the forest, for they are like the celestial drum and the mani jewel, which perform the work of the Buddha without thought.”

Of these two explanations, each should be further interpreted in accordance with its respective passage, so that they complement one another.

It should be understood that the statement “Thus have I heard” is intended to avoid the fault of omitting anything or adding something else. It means: Dharma such as this I heard from the Buddha; it was not made known to me through successive transmission by others. When a hearer is capable of hearing and comprehending, what they hear contains neither addition nor omission. This is unlike a foolish person who is incapable of hearing and comprehending, for whom what is heard may sometimes contain additions or omissions.

When the Dharma was compiled, the person transmitting the Buddha’s teaching followed exactly what the Buddha had taught. Therefore, this statement had to be spoken first, so that sentient beings would respectfully believe and accept it. It means: Dharma such as this I heard from the Buddha; its text and meaning certainly contain neither addition nor omission. Therefore, hearers should listen correctly, reflect upon it in accordance with principle, and diligently cultivate and study it.

*

—Sutra text: “At one time.”

Commentary: Second is the explanation of the time.

Here there are two meanings:

1. When the Dharma King begins his teaching, the capacities, conditions, spatial circumstances, and time are all complete. When the teaching and hearing of the Dharma have been concluded, this is collectively called “one time.”

2. The teacher of the Dharma and the hearers of the Dharma assemble together, with no differentiation in time; therefore, it is called “one time,” because the time of beings’ capacities and responsiveness and the time of the responsive manifestation are not separately distinguished. First, with reference to the uninterrupted succession of kshanas, when the teacher and the hearers proceed until the matter is brought to completion, this is provisionally called “one time.”

Here there are two explanations:

1) Time according to principle: Although, for both the teacher of the Dharma and the hearers of the Dharma, there are only the presently existing conditioned activities of the five skandhas, arising and ceasing from kshana to kshana, this very present dharma bears the meaning of responding to what came before and leading to what follows. Thus, that to which it responds is provisionally designated “the past,” and that to which it leads is provisionally designated “the future”; in contrast to these two, it is spoken of as “the present.” These periods of past and future are both provisionally established within present dharmas.

That is, for the teacher of the Dharma and the hearers of the Dharma, the dharmas of the five skandhas arise and cease in each kshana, continuously succeeding one another from beginning to end. When the matter is completed, the three times are provisionally designated and collectively called “one time”; it is not the “one time” of a single arising and cessation.

2) Time according to Consciousness-Only: In the mental consciousnesses of both the teacher and the hearers, appearances of the three times arise through transformation. In reality, they are present; but according to the limits of the mind, they are transformed into events of shorter or longer duration. When the event is completed, it is collectively called “one time.” Although the things seen in a dream are many, upon awakening one knows that they were merely manifestations transformed by the mind and that no real objects existed. The minds of those who hear the Dharma transform the three times in the same way; they are merely objects of mental cognition.

Among the formations dissociated from mind, included within the Dharma dhatu and the Dharma ayatana, what is called “one time” here is as follows:

First, the number of kshanas is indeterminate.—

Second, the duration of the continuity is indeterminate.—

Third, whether it comprises four periods, six periods, eight periods, or twelve periods is indeterminate.—

Fourth, the number of years after the attainment of the Way is indeterminate. This is called “one time.”

Nevertheless, those who hear the Dharma, their faculties having matured, apprehend what the Buddha teaches, while the Dharma teacher, out of compassion, teaches in accordance with their capacities. When the teaching and hearing of the Dharma have been completed, this is collectively termed “at one time.”

An explanation of the four kinds of indeterminacy in the phrase “at one time” mentioned above:

1. The number of kshanas is indeterminate. This means that those hearing the Dharma may sometimes possess dull faculties: although the time spent teaching the Dharma is short, the time required for them to hear and understand it is long. Or the Dharma teacher may speak at length, and the listeners may also take a long time; they are still unable to understand within a single kshana. Therefore, it is not merely one kshana.

2. Continuity is also indeterminate. This means that one skilled in teaching the Dharma, having attained dharani, may utter only a single word, yet all its meanings are fully understood.

Or one skilled in listening, having attained purity of the faculty of hearing and the mental faculty, may hear only a single word and immediately understand everything. Therefore, it is not necessarily continuous. Since the faculties of the listeners in a single assembly may be sharp or dull, the Tathagata, through his spiritual power, may sometimes extend a brief thought-moment into a long kalpa, and at other times compress many kalpas into a brief thought-moment.

This too is indeterminate. Therefore, when the teaching and hearing of the Dharma have been completed, this is collectively termed “at one time.”

3. Divisions of time into four periods, six periods, eight periods, twelve periods, and so forth are also indeterminate. This means that one sun and one moon illuminate the four continents, yet the duration, heat and cold, proximity and distance, and day and night in the various directions are indeterminate, for at any given time they function together in only two continents. Moreover, apart from the various heavens, whether higher or lower, there are no divisions into four or eight periods such as those used here. The sutras are intended to circulate universally throughout all directions, above and below. If they specified four periods and so forth, their circulation would not be universal.

4. The number of years after the attainment of enlightenment is also indeterminate. This is because ordinary beings and noble ones of the Three Vehicles perceive the Buddha’s reward body and transformation body differently: the length of his lifespan and the remoteness or proximity of the time since his attainment of enlightenment vary from place to place. Since the sutras are intended to be heard by ordinary beings and noble ones of the Three Vehicles alike, they do not separately specify how many years or months had elapsed after the attainment of enlightenment. Nevertheless, the sutras do speak of continuity.

Later, this sutra says: “He taught this Lotus Sutra for a full sixty minor kalpas.” This is precisely an instance of such continuity.

Some sutras speak of four periods, as the Nirvana Sutra speaks of the full-moon day of the second month. Sometimes they speak of six periods, eight periods, or twelve periods. Thus, the Nirvana Sutra speaks of the early morning, at the time of chewing a willow twig to clean the teeth; the Diamond Prajnaparamita Sutra speaks of the time at midday when, after eating his meal, the Buddha put away his robe and bowl, washed his feet, arranged his seat, and sat down; the Sutra on Maitreya’s Rebirth Above speaks of the beginning of the night, when light streamed forth from his entire body; and the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching speaks of midnight, when all was still and silent.

Some sutras speak of the years and months following the attainment of enlightenment. Thus, the Ten Stages Sutra says: “In the second seven-day period, he taught the Avatamsaka Sutra in the Mani jeweled palace of the Heaven of Those Who Delight in Others’ Emanations; in the third seven-day period, after carefully reflecting, he turned the Dharma wheel of the Four Noble Truths in Varanasi.” Furthermore, the Sutra of Innumerable Meanings says: “Since I attained enlightenment, more than forty years have passed.” Although such statements are made, they are based upon what the beings converted in a particular direction or region heard and saw and subsequently compiled.

Moreover, those words were not spoken in the initial general preface to the teaching of the Dharma. Therefore, all must be expressed collectively as “at one time.”

—QUESTION: The Place may be pure or defiled. If it accords with beings’ capacities, then surely ordinary beings and noble ones must differ with respect to the Place and Time in which the Dharma is taught. How, then, can these be stated without distinction?

ANSWER: The place where the Dharma is taught may be clearly identified as pure or defiled, because its purity or defilement can be known with certainty. The time when the Dharma is taught may be short or long, and cannot be fixed precisely for ordinary beings and noble ones. Within a single assembly, some possess sharp faculties and others dull faculties; since the duration differs for each, how could it be determined with certainty? Therefore, the Place may be specified, whereas the Time is stated only collectively as “at one time.”

*

—Sutra text: “The Buddha.”

Commentary: Third is the Teacher who expounds the Dharma.

In Sanskrit, the term is Buddha. Here it is abbreviated as “Buddha,” meaning the Lord endowed with wisdom. In the language of the Tang—that is, Chinese—it is rendered “the Awakened One.”

Awakening has three meanings:

First is awakening oneself, in which he surpasses ordinary beings, for ordinary beings do not awaken themselves.

Second is awakening others, in which he surpasses those of the Two Vehicles, for they do not awaken others.

Third is the perfection of awakened conduct, in which he surpasses the bodhisattvas, for although bodhisattvas are still cultivating, their practice regarding the two awakenings—awakening oneself and awakening others—is not yet perfect.

The Treatise on the Buddha Ground says: He perfectly possesses omniscience and knowledge of all modes. He is able to awaken himself and also to awaken all sentient beings. Like one who awakens from a dream and like a lotus blossom opening, he is therefore called Buddha.

(a) Omniscience is the wisdom capable of awakening oneself. Like awareness upon awakening from a dream, it possesses the power to contemplate the wisdom of emptiness, wisdom of principle, wisdom of ultimate reality, and nonconceptual wisdom. In summary, it eliminates the afflictive hindrances.

(b) Knowledge of all modes is the wisdom that awakens sentient beings. It is wisdom like an opening lotus blossom, possessing the power to contemplate the wisdom of existence, wisdom of phenomena, conventional wisdom, and subsequently attained wisdom in all their varieties. In summary, it eliminates the cognitive hindrances.

In the Sanskrit versions of the sutras, the Buddha is called the Original Teacher and Bhagavat. The Buddhist teaching established this term because it encompasses the various virtues. The chief translators, wishing to be concise and to employ a suitable local designation, therefore used the name “Buddha.”

—QUESTION: Of these three bodies, which is provisionally included here?

ANSWER: According to the place and the capacities of the audience, when responding to shravakas, it is the Transformation Buddha; according to the teaching and the receptivity of the audience, when instructing bodhisattvas, it is the reward body.

Because those who perceive him differ in their faculties and categories, the Buddha manifests an appropriate response body. Therefore, both the reward body and transformation body are included. His appearance in Rajagriha, on Vulture Peak, to teach Shariputra and beings from the First Dhyana Heaven downward was the Transformation Buddha.

“Our land is peaceful and secure, and our lifespan is exceedingly long”; and Manjushri’s manifestation within this land pertain to the reward body. Nevertheless, response and transformation bodies are not the true Buddha, nor are they the one who teaches the Dharma.

When manifestations are traced back to their essence, this is the Dharma body. Thus, dwelling in the treasury of the Dharma realm and extolling the merits of the Mahayana sutras demonstrates that it is the Dharma body that teaches.

The Sutra of the Buddha Ground and other texts speak of eighteen kinds of perfection and of dwelling in the King of Jeweled Flowers; this is precisely the teaching of the reward body.

The events in Rajagriha recounted in this sutra are the teaching of the Transformation Buddha.

In principle, the teaching actually encompasses all three Buddha bodies. The Buddha manifests a body according to the beings to whom he responds and is not confined to any single body. The Lankavatara Sutra says that the three Buddha bodies each teach the Dharma differently, for all of them teach the Dharma. Thus, when the elder Ghoshila saw the Buddha manifest a form three feet tall, he aroused the aspiration for enlightenment. Five hundred brahmins saw arhats use the samadhi of fire-radiance to burn their bodies to ashes and thereby gave rise to faith. A bodhisattva’s boundless body reaches the utmost limit of the higher realms and extends beyond them. Ordinary beings abiding in the lesser noble fruit behold the Buddha’s body as sixteen feet tall, yet perceive it as inexhaustible.

Here, to demonstrate the nobility of the Teacher and that his transformative instruction accords with beings’ needs and is assuredly excellent, the Teacher is proclaimed first so that the listeners may give rise to joy.

*

—Sutra text: “He dwelt on Mount Gridhrakuta in the city of Rajagriha.”

The Commentary says: Fourth is the place where those to be taught were transformed.

To travel about teaching and to reside is called “dwelling.” Dwelling means residing, traveling about teaching, and abiding. Residing on the mountain and traveling about teaching in the city constituted the Buddha’s bodily activity throughout his life of practicing the Way. On this basis, the ancients explained various kinds of dwelling: noble dwelling, heavenly dwelling, Brahma dwelling, and Buddha dwelling. Although the names of these dwellings are the same, their meanings are entirely different.

In the sutras there are passages whose principles are profound and whose meanings are deeply concealed, yet the translators paid them no attention. In composing their translations, they used identical terms for different meanings and principles. To parade such insubstantial citations as evidence is unacceptable.

In Sanskrit, the city is called Kusagrapura; in the language of the Tang—that is, Chinese—it is called “City of Superior Kusa Grass.” It lies in the center of the kingdom of Magadha and was the capital of ancient kings. This place abounded in the finest auspicious kusa grass, from which the city took its name.

Lofty mountains surround it on all four sides, forming its outer walls. To the west it connects with a narrow passage, and to the north a gateway opens through the mountains. The terrain extends lengthwise from east to west and is narrow from south to north, with a circumference of more than 150 li. The palace city has a circumference of forty li. Kanika trees were planted all along the roads. Their flowers have an exceptionally exquisite fragrance and shine like pure gold. In the final month of spring, the entire forest glows with golden splendor.

Outside the northern gate of the palace city stands a stupa. This is where Devadatta formed a close alliance with King Ajatashatru and together released the drunken elephant Dhanapala in an attempt to harm the Tathagata. From the tips of the Tathagata’s fingers, however, five lions emerged and subdued the drunken elephant.

Next, to the northeast, there is also a stupa. This is where Shariputra met the bhikshu Ashvajit and, after a brief exchange, attained the first fruit. Next, not far due north, there is a large, deep pit. In Sanskrit, the man associated with it is called Shrigrupta; here he is called Victorious Secret. This is the place where a fire pit and poisoned rice were prepared in an attempt to harm the Buddha.

Proceeding northeast from the palace city for some fourteen or fifteen li, one reaches Mount Gridhrakuta. In the language of the Tang—that is, Chinese—it is called Vulture Peak and is also known as Vulture Terrace. Standing alone and lofty, it joins the northern mountains. It is said to be a place where vultures alight, and it also resembles a terrace of deep blue-green silhouetted against the pale blue sky. For nearly fifty years after attaining the Way, the Buddha often stayed on this mountain and extensively expounded the wondrous Dharma.

The old translation rendered its name as Mount Qishejue, and it was also called Sacred Vulture Mountain. Because vultures there fed upon human corpses, calling it “Sacred Vulture” is both erroneous and an abbreviated designation. To hear the Dharma, King Bimbisara ordered people to fit stones together into steps more than ten paces wide and five or six li long, traversing desolate caves, steep slopes, and mountain passes all the way from the foot to the summit.

Along the route stand two stupas. One is called “Dismounting from the Carriage,” for upon reaching it the king would continue upward on foot. The other is called “Turning Back the Ordinary,” signifying that ordinary people were excluded and not permitted to ascend with him.

The summit of this mountain is long from east to west and narrow from north to south. On the western plateau beside the cliff stands a brick monastery, lofty and spacious in scale and unusual in design, with its entrance facing east. While the Tathagata was in the world, he often stayed here to teach the Dharma.

A statue of the Buddha teaching the Dharma has now been made there, equal in size to the Tathagata’s body.

East of the monastery is a long slab of rock where the Buddha practiced walking meditation. Beside it is a great rock, a little more than one zhang in height and over thirty paces in circumference. This is where Devadatta, also called Devaratta, hurled a rock from afar and caused the Buddha’s foot to bleed. South of the monastery stands a stupa marking the place where the Buddha taught the Lotus Sutra. Proceeding a little more than one li beyond the northern gate of the mountain city, one reaches the Karanda Bamboo Grove, where there is a stupa built by King Ajatashatru to enshrine and make offerings to the share of the Buddha’s relics allotted to him.

Traveling five or six li southwest from the Bamboo Grove, one reaches the southern mountain. In the bamboo forest there is a large stone cavern where Mahakashyapa compiled the treasury of the Dharma. More than two hundred paces north of the Bamboo Grove lies Karanda Pond. About two or three li northwest of this pond stands the city of Rajagriha, called “Royal Residence” in the language of the Tang—that is, Chinese. The outer city has fallen into ruin, without a fragment of wall remaining. Although the inner city has also been destroyed, its foundations still survive.

This city has a circumference of more than twenty li, with one gate on each side. In ancient times, King Bimbisara established his capital in the palace city of Superior Kusa Grass. The common people’s houses frequently caught fire; through the carelessness of one household, all the neighboring households on four sides would suffer disaster.

The people lamented because they could not live and work in peace. The king said, “Because I lack virtue, the people suffer calamity. What virtuous deed must I cultivate to eliminate this disaster?” His ministers replied, “The Great King practices transformation through virtue, but the common people are careless.

We therefore request that strict laws and punishments be established to warn future generations against transgression. If anyone transgresses again, let that person be moved to the Cold Forest. The Cold Forest is where corpses are cast away.

It is commonly called an inauspicious place, and no one wishes to pass through it or visit it for recreation; thus, dwelling there would be like being cast away as a corpse. Since the people regard being compelled to move there as a disgrace, they will naturally exercise due care.”

The king accepted this counsel and established strict laws and ordinances for enforcement. Unexpectedly, however, the palace itself was the first to catch fire. The king said, “I must move!” He then ordered the crown prince to remain behind and govern the kingdom as regent, while he himself moved to that forest. When the king of Vaishali heard that King Bimbisara was dwelling in the open country, he led an army to attack him. Border scouts learned of this and reported it, so the king built a city and resided there. Because the king was the first to build a residence in that place, it was called the City of Royal Residence, Rajagriha.

Some say that this city was not built until Ajatashatru succeeded to the throne. In fact, he merely made its walls higher and thicker; he did not build a new city. When King Ashoka later moved the capital to Pataliputra, he donated Rajagriha to the brahmins. Therefore, today this city is inhabited solely by brahmins, with no common people remaining. Altogether there are one thousand households. Some ancients said that the mountain city of Rajagriha contained nine hundred million households. Others said that it housed one thousand kings. All such accounts are mistaken.

The king’s capital was established at Rajagriha, while the Buddha dwelt on Vulture Peak. Both the city and the mountain are mentioned: the two sites of teaching and transformation, the Buddha’s own and that of others, are both set forth, for the benefit of both the monastic and lay assemblies.

The Treatise says that “the accomplishment of the introductory section” means that this Dharma gateway reveals the accomplishment of two meanings:

1) It is supreme among all Dharma gateways, just as Rajagriha is supreme among all other cities and dwellings. This city was the royal capital and lay at the very center of the kingdom of Magadha. It symbolizes the One Vehicle as the middle way of the Three Vehicles and as the dwelling place of the Dharma King. Just as this city surpasses other cities, so this sutra surpasses other sutras.

2) It reveals the sovereign mastery of its virtues. Thus, just as Mount Gridhrakuta surpasses other mountains, it is clear that this Dharma also surpasses all others. Kusumapura was a mountain city near Rajagriha, an area with many mountains; yet this mountain alone was preeminent, being both lofty and conspicuous. It symbolizes that this Dharma towers distinctly above the Two Vehicles and is fully endowed with every sublime and sovereign virtue.

Alternatively, just as this city surpasses other cities because there is no beautiful thing it does not contain, this Dharma surpasses other dharmas because there is no excellent virtue with which it is not fully endowed. Just as this mountain surpasses other mountains because it is where beautiful birds alight, this Dharma surpasses other dharmas because it is the place where superior beings roam.

It is further said: the analogy of wondrousness applies generally to both the Teaching and the Principle. The Teaching is wondrous like a city because it contains the wondrous Principle; the Principle is lofty like a mountain because it far surpasses the Two Vehicles. Therefore, this sutra’s statement that it was taught at Vulture Peak in the city of Rajagriha has a symbolic meaning. Prajna wisdom thoroughly penetrates the five gates, and the city of Sravasti abounds in the four virtues; therefore, teachings were often given there rather than elsewhere. Gold is produced in places of beautiful rivers and waters—this is a proverb long transmitted in the East.(*-)

An ancient explanation states that this sutra was taught in four places altogether. First, it was taught at Vulture Peak; next, within the stupa that emerged and rose into the sky; then, in the pure land created by the Buddha for the assembly; and finally, after the emanation-bodies of the Buddha returned in the Entrustment Chapter, it was taught again in the defiled land.

The present explanation is that there were three places, but the teaching occurred in only two.

a. Concerning the places:

+ There were three places: this means that there was no further return to the defiled land. From the Entrustment Chapter onward, while the emanation-bodies that had newly arrived in this land remained until the end of the sutra, it was entirely a pure land. When the emanation-bodies returned to their original lands and this land again became defiled, the teaching of the sutra had already concluded.

+ There were only two states, pure and defiled: first, it was initially in the defiled land at Vulture Peak; second, when the emanation-bodies of the Buddha and the other Buddhas assembled, it was transformed into a pure land. Together with the stupa rising into the sky, these constitute three places.

b. Concerning the teaching of the Dharma, it occurred in only two places:

+ First, the assembly was convened on the ground at Vulture Peak to proclaim the One Vehicle to those of the Two Vehicles.

+ Afterward, the stupa rose into the sky and the emanation-bodies of the Buddha assembled. Sakyamuni and Prabhutaratna shared the same seat and exhorted the assembly to have faith in this sutra, continuing until the end of the sutra. The Buddha told each one to return, and only after the teaching of the sutra had ended did the Buddha descend to the ground. Thereafter, he no longer taught the Lotus Sutra. Thus it is known that there were only two places where the Dharma was taught.

Here, to indicate the convening of the assembly, the city and mountain are mentioned, the essential purpose being to identify the place of instruction and transformation. The Buddha spoke of the transformation body of the Buddha because he wished to cause all those of the Three Vehicles joyfully to delight in the One Vehicle, thereby revealing the Buddha’s profound compassion. Both the Vehicle and the body are wondrous, for the work of instruction and transformation could be carried out even in a defiled land. If the reward body were exalted and the pure land manifested, it was feared that those of the Two Vehicles would suspect these were not their portion, since they would be unable to cultivate them. Therefore, only the defiled place and the transformation body were revealed.

*

-Sutra text: “Together with a great assembly of twelve thousand bhiksus.”

Commentary: This is the Accomplishment of the Assembly, the second of the seven accomplishments.

The Accomplishment of the Assembly is explained through five gates:

First, revealing the reason for their presence;

Second, clarifying the provisional and the real;

Third, determining their number, whether many or few;

Fourth, explaining their sequence;

Fifth, explaining them according to the treatise.

1. The reason for their presence: there are five reasons for the great bhiksus’ attendance at the Dharma assembly:

1.1- To establish faith, because the audience helped attest that what Khánh Hỷ (that is, Ananda) heard of the Dharma was trustworthy. The assembly could have three doubts: first, that these were Khánh Hỷ’s own words; second, that these were words Ananda had heard reported by someone else; and third, that they had been taught by someone else. It is now made clear that they heard them together and attested that this sutra is trustworthy. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “The time, place, and listeners are specified in order to inspire people’s faith.”

1.2- To reveal virtue: just as Sakra, Lord of the Devas, is surrounded by devas, and Great Brahma, the heavenly king, is surrounded by the Brahma host, so here it is revealed that the Dharma King is surrounded by sages.

1.3- To request the teaching of the Dharma from the Buddha. The way to benefit sentient beings is to respond to their aspirations and teach the Dharma in due sequence: first speaking of the cause and then of the fruit. The body is the manifestation of the fruit, practice is the nature of the cause, and the Vehicle is that which must be learned.

In the Skillful Means Chapter, Thu Tử (that is, Sariputra) requested the Buddha three times to teach about the provisional and the real among the Vehicles; therefore, the Blessed One clarified the matter, causing sentient beings to abandon the provisional objects and adopt the Real Vehicle.

In the Peaceful Practices Chapter, Manjusri earnestly made a request precisely so that it might be clarified that one should not cultivate according to the Provisional Vehicle but should practice according to the Real Vehicle.

In the Lifespan Chapter, Maitreya requested the Buddha three times to speak about the provisional and the real concerning the body; therefore, it was revealed that one must abandon the fruit of the Provisional Vehicle and seek the fruit of the Real Vehicle.

The sutra explains causes and conditions in order to eliminate pride in the Dharma. If the Dharma were taught without being prompted by a request, it would be difficult for a mind of thirsting aspiration to arise. Thus, when the sravakas requested the Buddha to teach the object of the One Vehicle, this was precisely directed toward their capacities so as to cause them to awaken. When bodhisattvas requested the Buddha to teach the practice and fruit of the One Vehicle, praising the realization—the fruit of the One Vehicle—and its cause also benefited them.

1.4- To suit the capacities of the audience: those who had regressed from the resolve for bodhi comprehended according to three differing capacities; therefore, the Buddha had to teach the One Vehicle three times.

When the Blessed One taught the Lifespan Chapter and so forth, the bodhisattvas and listeners comprehended according to their respective capacities and obtained different benefits. Ordinary sravakas became free from dust and defilement and aroused the resolve for bodhi; the sages among them dedicated themselves to the Mahayana. Ordinary bodhisattvas—that is, ordinary beings among the bodhisattvas—all cast off the net of doubt, realized the truth, and attained the fruit of sagehood. The sages among the bodhisattvas who realized the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas would attain bodhi. Therefore, the Buddha taught this wondrous Dharma for those of these three capacities.

1.5- To attract and gather beings: at that time, the assembly of bhiksus gathered in order to attract and gather other sentient beings, thereby causing them to arouse the resolve. The sutra presents the foregoing fully in order to guide sentient beings of the present age to arouse the resolve. Without the support of good spiritual friends, pure faith will not arise.

The Treatise on the Buddha Land states: “The bodhisattvas are enumerated to indicate the perfection of assistance, and the devas, nagas, and others are enumerated to indicate the perfection of the retinue.” If this is so even in a pure land, how much more so in a defiled land.

The five meanings above all concern the reason for their presence.

2. Clarifying the provisional and the real.

The Treatise on the Buddha Land states: in a defiled land or pure land of a transformation Buddha, the sravakas are real and the bodhisattvas are provisional. In a reward land, the bodhisattvas are real and the sravakas are provisional. Here, both transformation and reward are present; appearing in response to capacities, there are two that are real and two that are provisional.

First, the transformation Buddha is presented at the assembly on Vulture Peak; here, the bodhisattvas are provisional. Sentient beings see the world consumed by fire at the end of the kalpa, but in reality the Tathagata’s pure land is ever peaceful and blissful, and the Tathagata’s lifespan is truly boundless. The sravaka assembly in the reward land of the reward body is not real; how much less so are the Buddha Prabhutaratna and the emanation-bodies of the Buddhas, all of whom are transformational manifestations. Thus one clearly understands the principle of reward and transformation, the provisional and the real.

The treatise speaks of transformed sravakas such as Mãn Từ (that is, Purna) and others. In addition, there are other transformed assemblies, such as the Buddha Prabhutaratna, the emanation-bodies, and so forth.

3. Determining their number, whether many or few.

3.1- At the beginning there were fifteen assemblies:

1) The assembly of greatly virtuous ones of eminent renown,

2) The assembly of unnamed greatly virtuous ones,

3) The assembly of revered bhiksunis,

4) The assembly of bhiksunis who were members of the inner retinue,

5) The assembly of those whose sacred virtue was inconceivable,

6) The assembly of Sakra and the devas,

7) The assembly of the three luminaries and the Four Heavenly Kings,

8) The assembly of the two Isvaras,

9) The assembly of devas of the Form Realm,

10) The assembly of nagas,

11) The assembly of kimnaras,

12) The assembly of gandharva kings,

13) The assembly of asuras,

14) The assembly of garudas,

15) The assembly of human kings.

3.2- Later, six more assemblies were added:

1) Many Treasures,

2) Emanation bodies,

3) Dragon palace,

4) Emerging from the Earth,

5) Wondrous Sound,

6) Universal Worthy.

These assemblies are divided into pairs: those who hear the Dharma and realize the Dharma, those who practice the Dharma and uphold the Dharma, and those who expound the Dharma and protect the Dharma, respectively.

3.3- Here there are six further distinctions: