阿毘達磨俱舍論本頌

Translated from the Sanskrit version

Analysis of the Dhatus

PRATHAMAṂ KOŚASTHĀNAM

(Dhātunirdeśaḥ)

I. Homage

^[1] He by whom all darkness has been utterly destroyed in every way,^[1]

Who has drawn the world out of the mire of samsara;

Having paid homage to that Teacher of truth,

I shall expound the Abhidharmakośa treatise.^[2]

When intending to compose the treatise, in order to proclaim the greatness of his Teacher, the author first pays homage to him.

The relative pronoun “he by whom”^[3] refers exclusively to the Buddha, the Blessed One.^[4] In him, or through him, darkness has been destroyed; hence it is said, “by whom all darkness has been destroyed.” Darkness has been destroyed in every form and in every respect; hence it is said, “all darkness has been utterly destroyed in every way.” Ignorance^[5] itself is darkness, because it obstructs the vision of the true meaning.

The Buddha, the Blessed One, alone, through attaining the antidote,^[6] has utterly destroyed that ignorance so that it can never arise again with regard to any object of knowledge.^[7] Therefore, it is said that he has utterly destroyed all darkness in every way.

Pratyekabuddhas and śrāvakas have, of course, also destroyed darkness in every respect. Although they have destroyed defiled delusion,^[8] they have not done so completely; therefore, their destruction is not “utter.” Indeed, they still possess undefiled ignorance concerning the qualities of a Buddha,^[9] objects remote in space and time, and the infinitely varied categories of meaning.

Having thus praised the accomplishment of the quality of benefiting oneself, the author praises the Blessed One for accomplishing the quality of benefiting others; hence it is said, “who has drawn the world out of the mire of samsara.” The cycle of samsara^[10] is truly that in which the world is mired and from which it is difficult to escape; it is therefore called a mire. Out of compassion for the world submerged therein and unable to cross beyond it, the Blessed One, according to what is appropriate in each case, extends the exposition of the true Dharma like a hand of rescue.

“Having paid homage” means having bowed one’s head in reverence to him who has accomplished such qualities of benefiting both himself and others.

“Teacher of truth” (yathārthaśāstra) means one who teaches the true meaning as it really is, without distortion. Through this meaning, the author indicates the means by which benefit is rendered to others. The Blessed One is the Teacher who drew the world out of the mire of samsara through teaching reality as it is, not through supernatural powers, favors, or might.

Having thus paid homage, what will he do? The author says, “I shall expound the treatise.” Because it is intended to instruct disciples, it is called a “treatise” (Śāstra). What treatise? The Abhidharmakośa treatise.

What is this Abhidharma?

II. Definition of Abhidharmakośa

a. Abhidharma

[1a] Abhidharma is undefiled prajñā^[11] and its concomitants.

Here, prajñā is the investigation of dharmas.^[12] “Undefiled” (amala) means uncontaminated (anāsrava). “Concomitants”^[13] means that which accompanies it.^[14] In brief, the five uncontaminated skandhas (anāsravaḥ pañcaskandhako) are said to be Abhidharma. This is Abhidharma in the ultimate sense.^[15] In the conventional sense,^[16] however, it is:

[1b] And the prajñās and treatises intended for the attainment of that prajñā.

“And the prajñās” here refers to the contaminated prajñās produced through hearing, reflection, and cultivation (śruta-cintā-bhāvanāmayī), and those acquired by birth (upapatti-pratilambhika), together with their concomitants. The treatise^[17] intended for attaining that uncontaminated prajñā is also called Abhidharma, because it is an instrument for its attainment.

Etymologically, because it bears its own intrinsic characteristic (svalakṣaṇa), it is called a dharma.^[18] The Dharma called Abhidharma is the supreme Dharma—namely, nirvana—or that which directly confronts^[19] the intrinsic characteristics of dharmas (dharmasvalakṣaṇa).

The meaning of Abhidharma has now been explained.

b. Kośa

Why is this treatise called Abhidharmakośa?

[2cd] Because its meanings are included^[20] herein,

And because it is also the basis of this treatise, this is called Abhidharmakośa.

The treatise bearing the title Abhidharma is so called because, in the distinctive sense, the Abhidharma is included within this treatise; thus, the treatise is the receptacle (kośasthānīya) of the Abhidharma.^[21] Alternatively, the Abhidharma is the basis and source of the treatise; thus, the Abhidharma is the treasury (kośa) of the treatise.^[22] Therefore, this treatise is called the Abhidharmakośaśāstram.

III. The Purpose of the Abhidharma

For what purpose was the Abhidharma taught? And who first proclaimed that which the author reverently expounds? The verse says:

^[3] Apart from the discernment of dharmas, there is

No excellent means for completely extinguishing the defilements.

Because of the defilements, the world wanders in the ocean of existence.

Therefore, according to tradition, the Abhidharma was taught by the Teacher.

Without the discernment of dharmas (dharmapravicaya),^[23] there is no superior means for completely extinguishing the afflictions. It is precisely because of the afflictions that the world wanders in this ocean of existence. For this reason, and for the purpose of investigating dharmas, the Teacher—that is, the Buddha—according to tradition (kila),^[24] taught the Abhidharma. Indeed, if the Abhidharma had not been taught, the disciples would have been incapable of reflecting upon and discerning the dharmas. The Blessed One, however, taught the Abhidharma in scattered passages; the Venerable Kātyāyanīputra and others later collected and arranged them. In the same manner, the Venerable Dharmatrāta collected verses and formed the chapter called “Udānavagga.” Thus say the Vaibhāṣikas.

Notes:

^[1] Skt. sarvathā sarvahatāndhakāraḥ; Xuanzang: “all kinds of darkness destroyed” 一切種諸冥滅. The Guang ji, fascicle 1, reads it as follows: “all kinds of darkness destroyed” refers only to the destruction of undefiled ignorance, while “the various darknesses destroyed” refers to the destruction of ignorance that remains defiled. This reading understands sarvathā as an adjective; in Sanskrit, however, it is an indeclinable or adverb and is therefore understood to mean “utterly” or “in every way.” Paramārtha: “the knowledge of all modes destroys every darkness” 一切種智滅諸冥.

^[2] yaḥ sarvathāsarvahatāndhakāraḥ saṃsārapaṅkaj jagad ujjahāra/ tasmai namaskṛtya yathārtha-śāstre śāstraṃ pravakṣyāmy abhidharmakośam //1/ Xuanzang: 諸一切種諸冥滅拔眾生出生死泥敬禮如是如理師對法藏論我當說. Paramārtha: 一切種智滅諸冥　拔出眾生生死泥頂禮大師如理教　對法俱舍我當說.

^[3] Skt. yaḥ, a singular relative pronoun: yad ... tasmai. Xuanzang: 諸. The Guang ji (T41n1821 p2c5) understands it as plural and explains: “The word ‘various’ expresses impartiality.”

^[4] Skt. buddho bhagavān. Sphuṭ., p. 5: the commentators on the Vinayavibhāṣā distinguish four cases: 1. A Buddha but not a Blessed One: this refers to pratyekabuddhas, who awaken by themselves but are unable to teach the Dharma. 2. A Blessed One but not a Buddha: this refers to a bodhisattva in his final existence. 3. Both a Buddha and a Blessed One. 4. Neither a Buddha nor a Blessed One.

^[5] Skt. ajñāna; Xuanzang: “ignorance” 無知; Paramārtha: “nescience” 無明. There are two kinds of ignorance: defiled ignorance (kliṣṭam ajñānam) and undefiled ignorance (akliṣṭam ajñānam).

^[6] Skt. pratipakṣa; Xuanzang: “the factor of antidote” 對治分, the opposing factor; this refers to the factors of the path that possess the power to counteract defiling afflictions.

^[7] Skt. jñeya; Xuanzang: “object of knowledge” 所知.

^[8] Skt. kliṣṭasaṃmoha. Xuanzang: defiled ignorance 染污無.

^[9] Here, the Buddha-dharmas refer only to the eighteen unique qualities (āvenikā buddhadharmāḥ), qualities individually and exclusively possessed by a Buddha. (Sphut., p. 7)

^[10] Skt. saṃsāra, cyclic wandering or transmigration. Ht., Cđ.: birth and death 生死.

^[11] Skt. prajñā amalā, stainless wisdom. Ht., pure wisdom 淨慧; Cđ., pure knowledge 淨智.

^[12] Skt. dharma-pravicaya, discriminative or selective reflection, investigation, examination of dharmas. Ht., Cđ.: investigation of dharmas 擇法.

^[13] sānucara, accompanying; retinue. Ht., attendants 隨行; Cđ., supporting companions 助伴.

^[14] Skt. saparivāra, retinue, escort. Ht., retinue 眷屬; Cđ., causal conditions and provisions 因緣資糧.

^[15] Skt. pāramārthiko’ bhidharmaḥ. Ht., Abhidharma in the ultimate sense 勝義阿毘達磨; Cđ., true Abhidharma 真實阿毘達磨.

^[16] Skt. sāṃketika, that which has been agreed upon, conventional. Ht., conventional 世俗; Cđ., nominal designation 假名.

^[17] Treatise, Skt. śāstra, may also be understood as Abhidharma-śāstra, an Abhidharma treatise, namely the Abhidharmapiṭaka, the Treatise Basket. Alternatively, this refers to the Jñānaprasthāna, the Treatise on the Foundation of Knowledge, and its attendants, the six ancillary treatises (“foot treatises”), ṣad pādā. Sphut., p. 12.

^[18] Definition of the word dharma, Skt.: svalakṣaṇadhāraṇād dharmaḥ. Accordingly, dharma is a noun derived from the verb dhṛ: to maintain, to preserve.

^[19] The commentary explains the prefix abhi- as praty-abhimukha, turning toward, facing. Ht. renders this in two senses: directed toward 對向 (nirvana) and direct contemplation 對慣 (of the Four Noble Truths); Cđ.: directly present 現前.

^[20] Skt. samanupraveśāt. Ht.: inclusion 攝; Cđ.: entry and inclusion 入攝.

18 Sphut., p. 13: yatra hy asiḥ praivaśati sa tasya kośaḥ: “That into which one inserts a sword is its sheath.” Accordingly, kośa means “sword sheath.”

^[22] Cf. Nyāyānusāra 1, p. 329c1: “Tạng 藏 (properly pronounced tàng) means firm and substantial 堅實, like the heartwood of a tree.... Alternatively, tạng means a basis, like a sword sheath (đao tàng 刀藏).”

20 Skt. dharmapravicaya, investigation of dharmas. Ht.: investigation of dharmas 擇法; Cđ.: discrimination of dharmas 簡擇法. In the commentary, Cđ. clearly states: the awakening factor of investigation of dharmas, one of the seven factors of awakening (bodhyaṅga). Sphut., p. 14: (...) rūpaṃ vedanānityaṃ duḥkham ity evam ākārena, “(with) such an aspect as this: form and feeling are impermanent and suffering.”

^[24] Skt. kila, it is said thus. Nyāyānusāra 1, p. 329c: “The Sūtra Master says ‘according to tradition,’ thereby demonstrating that he does not believe the Abhidharma was spoken by the Buddha himself.”

Section 1: General Exposition of Dharmas

I. The Essential Nature of Dharmas

A. Root Verses

Dharmas are with outflows and without outflows.

Conditioned dharmas, except for the Truth of the Path,

Are with outflows, because the outflows

Lie dormant within them.

Without outflows are the Truth of the Path,

Together with the three unconditioned dharmas:

Space and the two cessations.

Here, space is non-obstruction.

Cessation through discernment is the individual

Release from individual bonds.

Apart from this, the obstruction that causes permanent non-arising

Is cessation not through discernment.

B. Commentary

1. General Exposition

What are the dharmas for the purpose of discerning which the Abhidharma is taught? The Treatise says:

[4a] Dharmas are with outflows and without outflows.

This is a general exposition of all dharmas.

2. With Outflows

Among these, what are the dharmas with outflows (sāsrava)^[1]?

[4b] Conditioned dharmas, except for the Truth of the Path,

Are with outflows.

Except for the Truth of the Path (mārgasatya), all other conditioned dharmas (saṃskṛta) are with outflows. Why?

[4c-d] (They are with outflows), because the outflows

Lie dormant within them.

Indeed, the outflows (āsrava) also arise through taking Cessation and the Truth of the Path as their objects, but they do not lie dormant (anuśerate)^[2] within them; therefore, neither is with outflows. What is meant here by “not lying dormant” will be explained in detail later, in the chapter on the “Latent Tendencies.”

3. The Unconditioned

What is without outflows?

[5a-b] Without outflows are the Truth of the Path,

Together with the three unconditioned dharmas.

What are those three?

[5c] Space and the two cessations.

What are the two? Cessation through discernment^[3] and cessation not through discernment. These three unconditioned dharmas—space and the two cessations—together with the Truth of the Path, are dharmas without outflows. Why? Because the outflows do not lie dormant within them.

a. The Unconditioned Dharma of Space

Of the three unconditioned dharmas mentioned,

[5d] Here, space is non-obstruction.

The essential nature of space^[4] is non-obstruction (anāvaraṇa)^[5], within which form proceeds.

b. The Unconditioned Dharma of Cessation through Discernment

[6a-b] Cessation through discernment is that which is

Released from bonds.

That which is released from bonds^[6] in relation to what is with outflows is called cessation through discernment (pratisaṃkhyānirodha). The cessation attained through distinctive wisdom^[7] that individually reflects upon and comprehends^[8] the Noble Truths of suffering and so forth is cessation through discernment. It is like the expression “ox cart,”^[9] which is formed by omitting the intervening terms.

Is there only one cessation through discernment for all dharmas with outflows? The Treatise says: No. Why?

[5b] Individually and individually.^[10]

Indeed, there are as many entities released from bonds as there are bound entities (saṃyogadravya).^[11] If this were not so, then when one personally realized the cessation of the afflictions abandoned at the stage of seeing the Truth of Suffering, one would at that time also personally realize the cessation of all afflictions. If so, cultivating distinct antidotes would be useless.

Here it is said that cessation is dissimilar (asabhāga); what does this mean? It means that nothing serves as its homogeneous cause (sabhāgahetu), and it serves as the homogeneous cause of nothing; it does not mean that it has nothing of the same kind.^[12]

C. The Unconditioned Dharma of Cessation Not through Discernment

[6c-d] Apart from this, the obstruction that causes permanent non-arising

Is cessation not through discernment.

Distinct from cessation through release from bonds, cessation through obstruction, whereby future dharmas permanently fail to arise, is cessation not through discernment, or non-discriminative cessation (apratisaṃkhyānirodha). That is, cessation is attained not through discernment but through a deficiency of conditions.

For example, when the eye and the mind focus upon form as their object, those things that are not form—namely sound, odor, taste, and tangible objects—pass away. The five classes of consciousness (vijñānakāya) that would take them as objects can then no longer arise, because they cannot take past objects as their objective supports. Thus, with respect to them, cessation not through discernment is attained because of a deficiency of conditions.

Here there are four cases:

1/ There are dharmas with respect to which cessation through discernment is attained: past and present dharmas with outflows that are tending toward arising.

2/ There are dharmas with respect to which there is cessation not through discernment: conditioned dharmas without outflows that are not tending toward arising.

3/ There are dharmas with respect to which both are attained: dharmas with outflows that are not tending toward arising.

4/ There are dharmas with respect to which neither is attained: past and present dharmas without outflows that are not tending toward arising.

The exposition of the three unconditioned dharmas is complete.

II. Empirical Dharmas

A. Root Verses

Furthermore, those conditioned dharmas

Are the five skandhas, beginning with form.

They are also the pathways of the world, the bases of discourse,

Possessed of departure, and possessed of causes.

Those with outflows are the skandhas of clinging.

They are also those that possess contention,

Suffering, origination, the world,

The abode of views, and existence.

B. Commentary

1. The Conditioned

a. Definition

The root verse says, “Conditioned dharmas, except for the Truth of the Path, are with outflows.” What are these conditioned dharmas?

[7a-b] Furthermore, these conditioned dharmas are the five skandhas, comprising form, and so forth.

The form skandha, feeling skandha, perception skandha, formations skandha, and consciousness skandha—these are conditioned dharmas (saṃskṛta). They are gathered and combined (sametya, sambhūya); they are produced by conditions and are therefore called conditioned, that which is formed through combination. Indeed, nothing whatsoever is produced by a single condition alone. Because of their homogeneous nature, there is no contradiction with regard to future occasions, as in the case of milk that is drawn (dugdha).^[13]

b. Synonyms

[7c-d] They are also temporal courses, bases of discourse, possessed of escape, and possessed of causes.

1/ These conditioned dharmas are also called temporal courses (adhvan)^[14], because they have gone, are going, and will go; or because they are devoured by impermanence.

2/ Discourse (kathā)^[15] means language. The substance (vastu)^[16] of language is the name (nāma). The conditioned is called the basis of discourse, the substance of discourse (kathāvastu), because it contains substances bearing meaning. Were it otherwise, this would contradict the Prakaraṇagrantha. That treatise says, “The substances of discourse are encompassed by the eighteen dhatus.^[17]”

3/ Escape (niḥsaraṇa) means release (niḥsāra), namely the nirvana of all dharmas. Conditioned dharmas possess this characteristic of escape and are therefore said to be possessed of escape (saniḥsāra).

4/ Because they possess causes, they are said to be possessed of causes (savastuka).^[19] Substance (vastu) is a synonym for cause (hetu); such is the tradition of the Vaibhāṣikas.

These are the alternative names for conditioned dharmas.

2. Contaminated

Furthermore, these conditioned dharmas are:

a. Skandhas of clinging (upādānaskandha)

[8a-b] The contaminated are the skandhas of clinging.

How is this established here? The skandhas of clinging (upādānaskandha)^[20] are also skandhas. Yet there are also skandhas that are not skandhas of clinging. These are the uncontaminated formations (anāsravāḥ saṃskārāh).^[21]

Here, clingings (upādāna) are the afflictions (kleśa).^[22] Or, because the skandhas arise from clinging, they are called skandhas of clinging, as one speaks of “straw fire.”^[23] Or, because the skandhas are dependent upon clinging, they are called skandhas of clinging, as one speaks of “royal ministers.”^[24] Or, because clingings arise from the skandhas, they are called skandhas of clinging, as one speaks of a “flowering tree.”^[25]

b. Possessed of conflict (saraṇa)

These contaminated dharmas are also said

[8c] To be possessed of conflict.

Conflict or strife (raṇa) refers to the afflictions. Because they cause harm to oneself and others,^[26] and because the afflictions lie latent within them,^[27] they are said to be possessed of conflict, just as one says “contaminated.”

c. Other names

Furthermore:

[8c-d] They are suffering, origin, world, the abode of views, and existence.

1/ Because they are contrary to the wishes of the Noble Ones, they are called suffering (duḥkha).

2/ Because suffering arises from them, they are called origin (samudaya).

3/ Because they are subject to disintegration, they are called the world.^[28]

4/ Because views abide and lie latent here, they are called the abode of views (dṛṣṭisthāna).^[29]

5/ Because it exists, it is called existence.^[30]

These are the alternative names for the contaminated.

III. Analysis of the Skandhas

A. Root Verses

Form comprises the five faculties, the five objects, and the non-informative as well.

The eye and so forth are subtle forms, based in form, which serve as the supports of their corresponding consciousnesses.

Visible form is of two kinds, or twenty kinds. Sound, however, is only of eight kinds.

Taste is of six kinds. Odor is of four kinds. Tangibility has eleven intrinsic natures.

For those whose minds are distracted, and even for those without mind, whatever is continuous, pure or impure,

And is produced from the four great elements, is called the non-informative.

The great elements are the four dhatus: earth, water, fire, and wind.

They perform the functions of supporting, and so forth. Their natures are solidity, cohesion, heat, and motion.

Earth, according to worldly convention, is spoken of in terms of color and shape.

So too are water and fire. Wind, however, is precisely the element itself. And likewise.

These faculties and objects are regarded as the ten ayatanas and dhatus.

Feeling is experience. Perception has the nature of apprehending characteristics.

What is other than the four skandhas is the formations skandha. Furthermore, these three skandhas,

Together with the non-informative and the unconditioned, are called the dharma ayatana and the dharma dhatu.

Consciousness is discriminative cognition; and it is the mind ayatana;

It is also the seven mind dhatus, namely the six consciousnesses together with mind.

The six consciousnesses of the immediately preceding past are, in fact, mind.

For the purpose of establishing a support for the sixth consciousness, one should remember that there are eighteen dhatus.

B. Commentary

1. Form Skandha (rūpaskandha)

i. General Summary

Regarding the statement “the five skandhas: form, and so forth,” here:

[9a-b] Form comprises the five faculties, the five objects, and the non-informative as well.

The five faculties (pañcendriyāni)^[31] are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. The five objects (pañcārthās),^[32] the corresponding objects of the faculties of the eye and so forth, are the five objective domains: visible form, sound, odor, taste, and tangibility. Together with the non-informative (avijñapti), these constitute the form skandha (rūpaskandha).

Here, the five objects—visible form and so forth—have been stated.

ii. The Five Faculties (pañcendriyāṇi)

[9c-d] The eye and so forth are subtle forms, based in form, which serve as the supports of their corresponding consciousnesses.

Those which serve as the supports for the cognitions corresponding^[33] to visible form, sound, odor, taste, and tangibility are five kinds of subtle form^[34] whose intrinsic nature is form. One should understand that, in order, they are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. As the Blessed One said: “The eye, O bhikshu, is an internal ayatana, a subtle form produced from the four great elements.”

Alternatively, the faculties of the eye and so forth are subtle forms serving as supports for their corresponding consciousnesses, namely eye-consciousness and so forth, as already stated. This is the meaning of saying that subtle form is the support of eye-consciousness and so forth. This statement accords with the Prakaraṇagrantha,^[35] according to which: “What is the eye? It is a subtle form, based in form, that serves as the support of eye-consciousness.”

The explanation of the five faculties is complete.

iii. The Five Objects (arthāḥ pañca)

The five objects will now be explained as follows:

a. Visible Form

[10a] Visible form is of two kinds.

These are color^[36] and shape.^[37] Of these, color is of four kinds, beginning with blue, and so forth. Other colors are distinctions derived from these. Shape is of eight kinds, beginning with long and ending with uneven.

These forms are also called the visible-form ayatana (rūpāyatana).

[10a] Or twenty kinds

Namely: blue, yellow, red, white; long, short, square, round, high, low, even, uneven; cloud, smoke, dust, mist, shadow, sunlight, radiance, and darkness. Some add the color of the sky^[38] as an eleventh color.^[39]

Here, even (sātam) means a level shape.^[40] Uneven means a shape that is not level. Mist (mahikā) means fog (nīhāra).^[41] Sunlight (ātapa)^[42] means the light of the sun. Radiance (āloka)^[43] means moonlight, starlight, firelight, and the light of jewels. Shadow (chāyā)^[44] is where visible form remains perceptible. Its opposite is darkness (andhākara). The remaining terms are readily understood and are therefore stated only briefly.

There are forms belonging to the visible-form ayatana (rūpāyatana) that possess only color and no shape.^[45] These are blue, yellow, red, white, shadow, sunlight, radiance, and darkness.

Or there may be shape without color. This is the bodily part shaped as long and so forth that constitutes the intrinsic nature of bodily expression (kāyavijñapti).^[46]

All remaining visible forms possess both.

Some say that only sunlight and radiance are colors, because blue, red, and the others are perceived in shapes such as long and short.

How can both exist in a single entity?^[47] Because here there is cognition of both by consciousness. In this context, the verbal root vid conveys cognition (prajñāna), not existence (satta).^[48]

The explanation of the visible-form ayatana is complete.

b. Sound

[10b] Sound, however, is only of eight kinds

Basically, there are four, namely: sound originating from appropriated or unappropriated great elements (upāttānupāttamahābhūtahetuka), belonging to sentient beings or non-sentient things (sattvāsattvākhya).^[50] Each kind is either agreeable or disagreeable (manojñāmanojña), thus making eight kinds of sound.^[51]

Among these, sound originating from appropriated great elements includes sounds produced by the hand and by speech. Sound originating from unappropriated great elements includes the sounds of wind, forests, and streams. Sound belonging to sentient beings is the manifestation of speech (vāgvijñapti).^[52] The rest belongs to non-sentient things.

Some maintain that there is sound originating from great elements that are both appropriated and unappropriated. This is the sound produced by the hand and a drum. This is not accepted, because no single atom of visible matter forms two aggregates of the four great elements.

The explanation of sound is complete.

c. Taste

There are six kinds of taste.

They are sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter, and bland.

d. Odor

[10c] There are four kinds of odor.

This is because pleasant and unpleasant odors may be either mild or strong. Yet the Fundamental Treatise^[53] enumerates only three kinds: pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral.^[54]

e. Tangible Objects

[10d] Tangible objects have eleven intrinsic natures.

There are eleven intrinsic natures that may be touched:^[55] the four great elements, smoothness, roughness, heaviness, lightness, cold, hunger, and thirst. Of these, the great elements will be discussed below. Smoothness (ślakṣṇatva) means softness (mṛdu).^[56] Roughness (karkaśa) means coarseness and hardness (paruṣtā). Heaviness (gurutva) is that by reason of which an object can be weighed. Its opposite is lightness (laghu). Cold (śīta) is the desire for warmth. Hunger (jighatsā) is the desire for food. Here the effect is provisionally designated by the name of its cause. As it is said:

“Blessed is the appearance of the Buddhas.

“Blessed is the exposition of the true Dharma.

“Blessed is the harmony of the Sangha.

“Blessed is the diligent cultivation of the assembly.”^[57]

In the form realm (rūpadhātu), hunger and thirst do not exist. The other tangible objects remain. Moreover, in the form realm, individual garments cannot be weighed, but when gathered together they can be. Tradition^[58] says that in this realm there is no harmful cold, but beneficial cold does exist.

The many kinds of form have now been explained. Among them, eye-consciousness sometimes arises in relation to a single object, namely, when the form of that object is distinguished separately. Sometimes it arises in relation to many objects, namely, when they are not distinguished separately. For example, this occurs when one sees from afar an aggregate of shapes and colors belonging to an army or a heap of jewels.^[59]

The same should be understood regarding ear-consciousness and the other consciousnesses.

Another doctrine, however, holds that body-consciousness arises in relation to at most five tangible objects: the four great elements and one of the other tangible objects, such as smoothness and so forth. Yet another doctrine holds that it may arise in relation to all eleven tangible objects at most.^[60]

If so, would the five groups of consciousness apprehend objects having universal characteristics (sāmānya-lakṣaṇa)^[61] rather than objects having particular characteristics (svalakṣaṇa), since their objects are aggregates?

There is no such fault. A particular object is understood as particularity with respect to an ayatana, rather than the particularity of an entity (dravya).^[62]

This matter should be examined. When the faculties of touch and taste apprehend their objects simultaneously, which consciousness actually arises first? The consciousness whose object is stronger. If the objects are equal in strength, taste-consciousness arises first, because the impulse to eat serves to sustain the body.

The explanation of the objects of the five faculties and their apprehension is complete.

iv. Non-Manifest Form

Non-manifest form^[63] will now be explained.

^[11] For those whose minds are distracted, and even for those without mind, a continuous series, pure or impure,

Produced by the four great elements—these indeed are called non-manifest forms.

“Distracted mind” (vikṣipta) refers only to a mind different from the mind in question.^[64] “Without mind” (acittaka) refers to one who has entered the absorption of non-perception (asaṃjñisamāpatti) or the absorption of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti). The word “even” (api) also includes those whose minds are undistracted and those who possess mind. “Continuous series” (anubandha)^[65] refers to an uninterrupted continuum (pravāha).^[66] “Pure and impure” refers to wholesome and unwholesome.

In regard to the wholesome and unwholesome, to distinguish this from the similar continuum of acquisition (prāpti),^[67] it is said to be produced by the four great elements. The Vaibhāṣikas^[68] say that “produced” (upādāya) has the meaning of cause (hetu), because the great elements are the cause of its arising and so forth.^[69] This is non-manifest form. The words “indeed” (hi) indicate the reason for the designation “non-manifest.” Although non-manifest form has the intrinsic nature of a material action, as does manifest form (vijñapti), it does not make that action known to others. The words “are called” (ucyate) indicate the statement of the Master (ācārya).^[70]

In brief, non-manifest form is wholesome or unwholesome matter produced by manifest action or meditative absorption (sāmadhi).

v. Great Elements (mahābhūta)

a. The Four Elements

It was said that non-manifest form is “produced from the great elements.” What, then, are the great elements?

[12a-b] The great elements are the four dhatus: earth, water, fire, and wind.

Because these four elements support^[71] derived matter (upādāyarūpa)^[72] and possess distinct intrinsic natures, they are called dhatus.^[73] These four dhatus are called the four great elements.^[74] They are called “great” because they are the basis of all other forms and because of their vast magnitude. Or they are so called because great masses of earth, water, fire, and wind, combined into aggregates, undergo flourishing transformation and increase.^[75]

b. Functions

What are the functions of these dhatus? What are their intrinsic natures?

[12c] Their functions are supporting and so forth.

Their functions, in the order of the dhatus, are supporting, cohesion, maturation, and expansion. Furthermore, expansion is understood as distribution and extension. These are their functions.

c. Intrinsic Natures

As for their intrinsic natures, in order they are:

[12d] Hardness, cohesion, heat, and motion.

Hardness is the intrinsic nature of earth; cohesion, that of water; heat, that of fire; and motion, that of wind. Through being set in motion, the continuum of elements is displaced so as to arise in another location. It is like speaking of the motion of a lamp’s flame.

In the Prakaraṇas^[76] and in the Sutra it is said: “What is the wind dhatu? It is the state of lightness.” The Prakaraṇa also says: “The state of lightness is derived matter.” The dharma whose intrinsic nature is motion is wind. Thus its intrinsic nature is described in terms of its function.

d. Conventional Designations

What is the difference between earth and the earth dhatu?

[13a-b] Earth, according to worldly convention, is said to consist of color and shape.

Indeed, to indicate earth, color and shape are indicated. As with earth, so too:

[13c] Water and fire.

These colors and shapes are spoken of according to worldly convention.

[13c-d] But wind is also precisely the dhatu.

Thus this very dhatu that is wind is also the wind spoken of in the world.

[13d] And likewise.

Just as earth is spoken of in the world in terms of color and shape, wind is spoken of likewise. Thus one speaks of a blue wind (nīlakā vātyā)^[77] and a circular wind (maṇḍalikā vātyā).^[78]

vi. The Concept of Form

Why is this matter, down to and including non-informative matter, called the “form aggregate”? Because it is subject to breaking down (rūpaṇa).^[79] As the Blessed One said: “It breaks down, it breaks down, O bhikshus; therefore it is called the form aggregate subject to clinging. By what is it broken down? It is broken down when touched by the hand or by a stone.”^[80] “It is broken down” means that it is impaired.^[81] Indeed, as stated in the Arthavargīya:^[82]

“For those who thirst after sensual desires,

When those desires are not fulfilled,

That person is broken down,

As though struck by a poisoned arrow.”

Moreover, what constitutes the impairment of form?^[83] It is the arising of alteration (vipariṇāma).^[84]

Another theory says that it is resisted by form.^[85]

If so, then here an ultimate particle of form (paramāṇurūpa)^[86] would not be form, because it is not subject to breaking down. That is true;^[87] however, an ultimate particle of form does not exist singly and separately. Since it exists within an aggregate, it too is subject to breaking down.

If so, would things belonging to the past and future not be form? They too are form, because they have undergone and will undergo alteration,^[88] and because they are of the same kind. It is like firewood.

If so, would non-informative matter not be form? It too is form, because through the breaking down of informative form it becomes subject to breaking down, just as, when a tree moves, its shadow also moves. This is incorrect, because non-informative matter undergoes no alteration (avikāra).^[89] Alternatively, when the informative form disappears, the non-informative matter also disappears, like a tree and its shadow.

Another theory explains that it is due to the breaking down of the form that serves as its basis.^[90] If so, would eye-consciousness and so forth also be regarded as form, because their basis breaks down? This objection is not valid. Here, non-informative matter exists in dependence upon the great elements, just as a shadow depends upon a tree and light depends upon a jewel. But the fact that eye-consciousness and so forth exist in dependence upon the eye faculty and so forth is not like this. The faculties are merely conditions marking the arising (utpattinimitta)^[91] of consciousness.^[92]

However, to say that a shadow exists in dependence upon a tree and light in dependence upon a jewel is not the doctrine of the Vaibhāṣikas. The Vaibhāṣikas say that every ultimate particle constituting the color of a tree’s shadow and the like depends upon its own four great elements. And even if such dependence exists, the analogy of the tree’s shadow and the jewel’s light cannot be applied to non-informative matter. For although the great elements that are the basis of non-informative matter cease, the non-informative matter does not cease. Therefore, this is still not an adequate answer.

There is yet another answer: distinctions must be made among the bases of eye-consciousness and so forth. Some are subject to breaking down, such as the eye and the other faculties. Some are not subject to breaking down, such as the mind.^[93] Non-informative matter, however, is not like this. Therefore, the conclusion is not the same. Thus, as stated above, it is called form because it breaks down.

The exposition of the form aggregate is complete.

2. The Non-Material Aggregates

i. Summary of the Aggregates, Ayatanas, and Dhatus of Form

The very entities of the form aggregate described above,

[14a-b] These faculties and objects are regarded as^[94] ten ayatanas and dhatus.

Within the category of the ayatanas,^[95] there are ten ayatanas: the eye ayatana,^[96] the form ayatana,^[97] and so forth, through the body ayatana^[98] and the tangible ayatana.^[99] Within the category of the dhatus,^[100] these same things are also ten dhatus: the eye dhatu, the form dhatu, and so forth, through the body dhatu and the tangible dhatu.

The exposition of the form aggregate and the ayatanas and dhatus of form is complete.

Now feeling and the other aggregates will be discussed. Among them:

ii. The Feeling Aggregate (vedanāskandha)

[14c] Feeling is experience.

Three modes of experience^[101] are called the feeling aggregate: painful, pleasant, and neither painful nor pleasant. Furthermore, six classes of feeling^[102] must be distinguished: feeling arising from eye-contact, and so forth, through feeling arising from mind-contact.

iii. The Perception Aggregate (saṃjñāskandha)

[14d] Perception has the nature of apprehending characteristics.

The apprehension of characteristics such as blue, yellow, long, short, male, female, painful, and not painful is the perception aggregate. Furthermore, six classes of perception^[104] must be distinguished, just as with feeling.

iv. The Formation Aggregate (saṃskāraskandha)

[15a-b] What is other than the four aggregates is the formation aggregate.

a. Formation as Volition

Apart from the formations included in the four aggregates of form, feeling, perception, and consciousness, all remaining formations constitute the formation aggregate. Yet in the Sutra the Blessed One said: “There are six classes of volition.”^[105] This was stated according to its predominance. Indeed, because their essential nature is activity, formations are preeminent in producing and fashioning.

Therefore, the Blessed One also said: “It fashions the conditioned; therefore it is called the formation aggregate subject to clinging.”^[106] If this were not so,^[107] the remaining mental factors and non-associated formations would not belong to the truths of suffering and its origin, and consequently could neither be fully understood nor abandoned. And the Blessed One said: “If a dharma^[108] is not penetrated and not fully understood, I say that the limit of suffering cannot be reached.” The same was also said concerning “not being abandoned.”^[109]

Therefore, these dharmas must necessarily be accepted as belonging to the formation aggregate.

b. Summary of the Aggregates, Ayatanas, and Dhatus of Dharmas

[15b] Furthermore, these three aggregates,

Within the categories of the ayatanas and dhatus, these are the three aggregates of feeling, perception, and formations.

[15b-d] Together with non-informative matter and the unconditioned, they are called the dharma ayatana and the dharma dhatu.

These seven entities are designated as the dharma ayatana and the dharma dhatu.^[110]

v. The Consciousness Aggregate (vijñānaskandha)

a. Definition

[16a] Consciousness is distinct cognition;

Cognition,^[111] the apprehension of each distinct sphere of objects, is called the consciousness aggregate. Furthermore, there are six classes of consciousness:^[112] eye-consciousness, and so forth, through mind-consciousness.

b. The Mind Ayatana (manāyatana)

The consciousness aggregate mentioned here, within the category of the ayatanas,

[16b] Is also the mind ayatana;

c. The Mind Dhatu (manodhātu)

Within the category of the dhatus, it itself

[16c] Is also the seven mind dhatus.

What are the seven?

[16d] Namely, the six consciousnesses together with mind.

These are the eye-consciousness dhatu, and so forth, through the mind-consciousness dhatu, together with the mind dhatu.

It is precisely within these five aggregates that the twelve ayatanas and eighteen dhatus are taught. Apart from non-informative matter, the form aggregate comprises ten ayatanas and ten dhatus.

The three aggregates of feeling, perception, and formations, together with non-informative matter and the unconditioned dharmas, constitute the dharma ayatana and the dharma dhatu.

The consciousness aggregate is the mind ayatana, the six consciousness dhatus, and the mind dhatu.

d. The Essential Nature of the Mind Dhatu

The six classes of consciousness are said to constitute the consciousness aggregate. Then, apart from these dharmas, what is the mind dhatu? There is no other dharma; it is precisely those consciousnesses themselves.

[17a-b] The six consciousnesses of the immediately preceding past^[113] are truly the mind.

Every consciousness that has just ceased without interval is called the mind dhatu. It is like a person who is a son in relation to one person but a father in relation to another. Or like something that is a fruit but, in relation to something else, is a seed. In the same way, that consciousness is given the designation “mind dhatu.”

If so, are there in fact only seventeen dhatus, or merely twelve?^[114] Since the six consciousness dhatus and the mind dhatu include one another, how can eighteen dhatus be established?

That is true; however,

[17c-d] For the purpose of establishing a basis for the sixth consciousness, it should be remembered that there are eighteen dhatus.

The five consciousness dhatus have as their five bases the eye dhatu and the other faculties. The sixth, the mind-consciousness dhatu, has no other basis. Therefore, for the purpose of establishing its basis, the mind dhatu is designated. Thus, through establishing six that depend, six bases upon which they depend, and six objects, there are eighteen dhatus.

If so, the final mind^[115] of an arhat would not be the mind faculty, because there is no mind that can be its immediately preceding past condition? This is not so. That final mind is fixed in nature as the mind faculty; however, because the other causes are lacking, a subsequent consciousness does not arise.

Notes:

^[1] Cđ.: hữu lưu 有流. Sphuṭ., p. 16: sahāsravaiḥ sāsravāḥ, “with outflows,” coexisting with the outflows. Ht.: hữu lậu 有漏; Cđ.: hữu lưu 有流.

^[2] Skt. anuśerate, they lie dormant within, concealed. Ht.: tùy tăng 隨增; Cđ.: tùy tăng miên 隨增眠.

^[3] Skt. pratisaṃkhyānirodha, Ch. trạch diệt 擇滅, cessation or quiescence attained through discerning contemplation.

^[4] Skt. ākāśa, Ch. không, hư không 虛空, space. Sphuṭ., p. 19, gives two definitions: a. avakāśaṃ dadātīty ākāśam iti nirvacanam, “Etymologically, it is called space because it provides room.” b. bhṛśam asyāntaḥ kāśante bhāvā itry ākāśam ity apare, “Others say it is called space because existent things shine intensely within it.”

^[5] Skt. anāvṛti, anāvaraṇa, vô ngại 無礙, unobstructed, not enclosed or covered.

^[6] Skt. visaṁyoga, Ht.: ly hệ 離繋; Cđ.: vĩnh ly 永離, permanent separation.

^[7] Skt. prajñāviśeṣa, the distinctive nature (or aspect) of wisdom. Ht.: huệ sai biệt 慧差别, “the distinction of wisdom”; Cđ.: trí thắng nhân 智勝因, “the distinctive cause of wisdom.” Sphuṭ., p. 20: “Distinctive wisdom refers to the wisdom of the uninterrupted path that eliminates the afflictions.”

^[8] Skt. pratisaṃkhyānaṃ pratisaṃkhyā, reflective reasoning, discerning examination and consideration. Ch.: giản trạch 簡擇.

^[9] Skt. goratha = goyuktaratha: “ox cart” means a cart drawn by oxen (with the middle word yukta omitted, madhyamapada-lopin).

^[10] Ht.: tùy hệ sự các biệt 隨繫事各別, “each disjunction differs according to the particular object of bondage.”

^[11] saṃyogadravya, Ht.: hệ sự 繫事; Cđ.: kết 結 (number).

^[12] Sphuṭ., p. 22: sabhāgahetuḥ sabhāga ity eko’rthaḥ, hetuśabdalopāt, “Homogeneous means homogeneous cause, because the word cause has been omitted.”

^[13] Skt. dugdha was originally a past participle, “that which has been milked” (milk), and came to be used as a general noun for milk. The word saṃskṛta was likewise originally a past participle that came to be used as a noun denoting that which has been produced. Although etymologically referring to the past, it also encompasses what belongs to the present and future. Cđ.: như độc đà 如獨陀; Ht.: như nhũ như tân 如乳如薪, “like milk, like firewood.”

^[14] Skt. adhvan: a path, road; a journey; distance or interval; time. Ht.: thế lộ 世路.

^[15] Skt. kathā: conversation, dialogue, discussion, narration, or exposition. Ht.: ngôn 言.

^[16] Skt. vastu: a thing, matter; material; basis or foundation.

^[17] Cf. Phẩm loại túc luận 9, p. 728a24.

^[18] Ht.: ly tức vĩnh ly 離即永離, “separation is permanent separation.” Cđ.: vĩnh xuất danh ly 永出名離, “permanent escape is called separation.”

^[19] Cđ.: hữu loại 有類. Sphuṭ., p. 17: vasanty asmin prāk kāryāṇi paścat tata utpattỉ iti, “Activities first subsist here and then subsequently arise there.” According to this definition, “thing,” or vastu, is derived from the root VAS, “to exist.” Tì-bà-sa 196, p. 980b29: “Cause is a synonym for thing. Throughout all birth and death, nothing is not due to a cause.”

^[20] Cđ.: thủ ấm 取陰.

^[21] On the difference between skandhas and appropriated skandhas, see Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 387a9.

^[22] Cđ.: hoặc 惑, delusion.

^[23] Sphuṭ., p. 28: “Fire arising from straw is called straw fire.”

^[24] Skt. rājapuruṣa. Ht.: đế vương thần, “a minister of the king.” Cđ.: vương nhân 王人.

^[25] For definitions of the appropriated skandhas, see Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 386c12.

^[26] Ht.: xúc động thiện phẩm, tổn hại tự tha 觸動善品損害自他, “disturbing wholesome qualities and harming oneself and others.” Cđ. has the same meaning.

^[27] Skt. tadanuśayitatvāt. Ht.: tránh tùy tăng cố 諍隨增故, “because contention increases accordingly.” Cđ.: đấu tranh sở tùy miên cố 鬥爭所隨眠故, “because conflict is accompanied by latent tendencies.”

^[28] Cited in Sphuṭ., p. 28, the Sutra says: lụyatelụyate támāl lokaḥ, “It disintegrates. It disintegrates. Therefore, it is called the world.” Accordingly, the Sanskrit loka, “world,” derives from the root LUJ (RUJ). Compare Pāli, S. iv, p. 52: loko loko ti bhante vuccati. kittāvatā nu kho bhante loko ti vuccatīti. lujatīti kho bhikkhu tsamā loko ti vuccati, “The world, venerable sir, is spoken of as ‘the world.’ In what respect, venerable sir, is it called ‘the world’? It disintegrates, bhikkhu; therefore, it is called ‘the world.’”

^[29] Cited in Sphuṭ., ibid.: ye kecid bhikṣava ātmata ātmīyataś ca samanupaśyanti ta imāneva pañcopādānaskandhānātmata ātmīyataś ca samanupaśyanti, “Bhikkhus, whoever perceives a self and what belongs to a self perceives a self and what belongs to a self precisely in these five appropriated skandhas.”

51 Skt. bhavatīti bhavaḥ. Ht.: diệc danh tam hữu. Hữu nhân, hữu y, tam hữu nhiếp cố 亦名三有。有因有依三有攝故, “It is also called the Three Existences, because the conditioned dharmas with outflows are the cause of existence, the basis of existence, and are included within the Three Existences.”

^[31] On the meaning of faculty, or indriya, see Ch. ii.

^[32] Skt. artha: meaning, purpose, benefit; property; thing, event; object of cognition. Ht.: cảnh 境; Cđ.: trần 塵. Sphuṭ., p. 30: arthāḥ viṣayāḥ, arthyante jñāyante ity arthaḥ, “Objects are objective domains. They are rendered meaningful and are cognized; hence they are called objects.”

^[33] Skt. tad, “that.” Ch.: bỉ 彼. Compare Ht.: The verse “bỉ thức y tịnh sắc 彼識依淨色” has two explanations. 1. “Those” refers to the five objects, and “consciousness” refers to the five consciousnesses. The five kinds of lucid matter are the bases of the consciousnesses corresponding to those five objects. 2. “Those” refers to the five faculties mentioned above, and “consciousness” refers to the five consciousnesses. The five faculties are five kinds of lucid matter and are the bases of the consciousnesses that depend upon those five faculties. Chính lý, p. 333b20: “Those” refers to the five faculties as stated; “consciousness” refers to the five consciousnesses; and “basis” refers to their bases, the eye and so forth.

^[34] Skt. rūpaprasāda, the lucid, transparent quality of matter. Ht.: 淨色.

^[35] Phẩm loại túc luận 1, p. 692c13.

^[36] Skt. varṇa. Ht.: hiển sắc 顯色, manifest color.

^[37] Skt. saṃsthāna. Ht.: hình sắc 形色, shape.

^[38] Skt. nabhas, the azure color of the sky. Ht.: không 空. Chính lý, p. 334a11: “This is a particular form belonging to the space element.” It indicates the color of the vault of heaven, namely azure or sky-blue.

^[39] Pháp uẩn 10, p. 500a18. Cf. Tì-bà-sa 13, p. 64a5.

^[40] Skt. sātam samasthāna. Ht.: chánh 正, an even shape.

^[41] Chinese version, Ht.: “Water vapor rising from the earth is called mist 霧.”

^[42] Skt. ātapa, heat; sunlight. Ht.: quang 光, nhật quang 日光.

^[43] Skt. āloka. Ht.: minh 明, quang minh 光明, light or illumination.

^[44] Skt. chāya. ảnh 影, shadow.

^[45] Cf. Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 390b25; 122, p. 635a1.

^[46] That is, bodily manifest karma 身表業. According to the Sarvāstivāda view, shape (saṃsthāna) is cognized according to the direction produced by the force of the body while it is acting.

^[47] Chính lý, p. 334a14: This objection is unrelated to the Sarvāstivāda position. Bảo sớ, p. 478b22: This is an objection raised by the Sautrāntikas.

^[48] The Sanskrit verb vidyate, in the sentence ekaṃ dravyam ubhayathā vidyate, means both “it is present” and “it is cognized.”

^[49] Skt. upātta; Ht.: hữu chấp thọ 有執受. Sphuṭ., p. 34: pratyutpannānīndriyāvinnirbhāgāni bhūtāny upāttāni, “The elements inseparable from the faculties presently existing are appropriated elements.” That is, it refers to sensitive matter.

^[50] Ch.: hữu tình danh 有情名, hữu tình số 有情數. Sphuṭ., p. 34: sattvam ācaṣṭe sattvākhyaḥ, “That which bears the designation ‘sentient being’ is called the designation (or numerical category) of sentient beings.”

^[51] Cf. Tì-bà-sa 13, p. 64b20.

^[52] Chinese: verbal manifestation 語表.

^[53] Phẩm loại 1, p. 692c22.

^[54] Chinese: uniform fragrance 平等香.

^[55] Chinese: contact, distinguishing two meanings: spṛśya, that which makes contact (the contacting agent); and spraṣṭavya, that which is contacted (the object of contact).

^[56] Chinese, Ht.: softness is called smoothness 柔軟名活.

^[57] Skt.: buddhānāṃ sukkha utpādaḥ sukhā dharmasya deśanā/ sukhā saṅghasya sāmagrī samagrāṇāṃ tapaḥ sukham// Dhmmapada, 194 (Pāli): sukho buddhānam uppādo, sukhā saddhammadesanā, sukhā saṅghassa sāmaggī, samaggānaṃ tapo sukho.

^[58] Sphut., p. 36: this is the Vaibhāṣika view. According to the author of the treatise, the benefit derives from concentration, not from cold.

^[59] Cf. Tì-bà-sa 13, p. 64a11. Vasumitra's theory: a single moment of visual consciousness does not apprehend many visible forms. Yet the speed of apprehension is extremely rapid; therefore, although they are not seen simultaneously, they appear to be. According to the Venerable One, when the distinctions among visible forms are apprehended without being clearly differentiated, a single consciousness arises with many visible forms as its objects, just as, when viewing a forest, one apprehends its leaves collectively.

^[60] Tì-bà-sa 13, p. 65a6.

^[61] Skt. sāmānya-lakṣaṇa. Ht.: common characteristic 共相. Quang ký 1B, p. 21c2: According to the Sutra, the five consciousnesses apprehend individual objects. If they took a totality as their object, the object would no longer be individual.

^[62] Skt. svalakṣaṇa. Ht.: intrinsic characteristic 自相. Tì-bà-sa 13, p. 65a13: There are two kinds of intrinsic characteristic: 1. the intrinsic characteristic of a substance (dravya-svalakṣaṇa); 2. the intrinsic characteristic of an ayatana (āyatana-svalakṣaṇa). With reference to the intrinsic characteristic of a substance, all five consciousnesses take common characteristics as their objects. With reference to the intrinsic characteristic of an ayatana, the five consciousnesses take only intrinsic characteristics as their objects.

^[63] Skt. avijñapti. Ht.: non-manifestation 無表; Cđ.: non-information 無教. For details, see Ch. IV, stanza 3d.

^[64] Sphut., p. 38: a wholesome mind appears in wholesome non-manifestation. At that time, the other mind is unwholesome or indeterminate.

^[65] Skt. anubandha, Ht.: accompanying flow 隨流.

^[66] Skt. pravāha: a flowing stream of water. Sphut., p. 38: pravāha denotes a dharma that flows continuously. Ht.: homogeneous continuity 相似相續.

^[67] On the meaning of acquisition (prapti), see Ch. II, stanza 36.

^[68] Cf. Tì-bà-sa 127, p. 663a22: “What does ‘derived’ (upādāya) mean? ... ‘Derived’ means cause (hetu).”

^[69] Chinese text, Ht.: the five causes, generation, etc. Tì-bà-sa 127, ibid., lists five causes: generative cause (janana-hetu), supporting cause (niśraya-hetu), establishing cause (sthāna-hetu), sustaining cause (upastambha-hetu), and nourishing cause (upabṛṃhaṇa-hetu). For their meaning, see Câu-xá 7 and Chính lý 20.

^[70] This refers to the Vaibhāṣika masters.

^[71] The etymology of the word dhātu: (...) dhāraṇād dhātavaḥ, from the verbal root Dhṛ: dhārayati, “it sustains.”

^[72] Skt. upādāya-rūpa. Ht.: derived matter 所造色.

^[73] Chính lý 2, p. 335c13: “For what reason are these great elements called dhatus? Because they are the source from which all material dharmas arise.... In the world, a place of production is called a dhatu.”

^[74] Chính lý 2, p. 335c18: “Why are they called elements? ... When the different classes of matter arise, their differences in category also arise; therefore, they are called elements.... Or, when a dharma appears, it is said to exist. They cause existence to arise and develop; therefore, they are called elements.” According to this definition, the word bhūta (element) derives from the verbal root Bhū: to exist, to become.

^[75] Chính lý 2, pp. 335c–336a: “Because their function is great, they are called great.... Or, because these four elements are the support of all matter, they are called great.”

^[76] Phẩm loại 1, p. 692c12. Cf. Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 388a18.

^[77] Ht.: black wind 黑風.

^[78] Ht.: circular wind 團風.

^[79] Skt. rūpaṇa; Cđ.: alteration and destruction 變壞; Ht.: alteration and obstruction 變礙.

^[80] Cf. Pāli, Samyutta iii, p. 86: kiñca bhikkhave rūpaṃ vadetha. ruppatīti kho bhikkhave tasmā rūpan ti vuccati kena ruppati. sītena… “Bhikkhus, why is it called matter? It is broken down, bhikkhus; therefore, it is called matter. By what is it broken down? By ice, and so forth....” According to this etymology, rūpa derives from the verb rump [lump]: to break, to be shattered.

^[81] Skt. bādhyate. Ht.: afflicted and destroyed 惱壞; Cđ.: mutually obstructed 對礙.

^[82] Cđ.: Nghĩa bộ kinh; Ht.: Nghĩa phẩm. Bảo sớ 1B, p. 23c6: a work compiled by Dharmatrāta. See the passage cited in Tì-bà-sa 34, p. 176b2.

^[83] Ht.: “How is matter afflicted and destroyed by desire?”

^[84] Ht.: “Because it is troubled by desire, alteration and destruction arise.”

^[85] Skt. pratighāto rūpeṇety apare. Sphut., p. 44: pratighāta iti svadeśe parasyotpatti-pratibandhaḥ, “pratighāta means preventing another from arising in the place occupied by itself.” Ht.: “Another theory says that it is called matter because of alteration and obstruction 變礙.” Cđ.: “It is called matter because of mutual obstruction 對礙.” Cf. Tì-bà-sa 97, p. 503a14: “Question: How do alteration and destruction differ? Answer: Alteration indicates subtle impermanence; destruction indicates gross impermanence....”

^[86] Cđ.: matter adjacent to the void 鄰虛色.

^[87] Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 390a1: “Individually, atoms do not possess the nature of alteration and obstruction (resistance). But when many atoms are aggregated, they possess the nature of alteration and obstruction.”

^[88] Cf. Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 389c29.

^[89] Cđ.: without alteration and destruction 無變壞; Ht.: without alteration and obstruction 無變礙.

^[90] Tì-bà-sa 75, p. 390a3: “Because the four great elements that support non-manifestation possess alteration and obstruction, non-manifestation may also be said to possess alteration and obstruction.”

^[91] Cđ.: generative condition 生緣; Ht.: condition assisting generation 助生緣.

^[92] Quang ký 1B, p. 24a15: “The great elements serve as causes—the five causes—of derived matter and are therefore direct. But this is not so when the five consciousnesses depend upon the five faculties. They can only serve as dominant conditions assisting generation.”

^[93] Cđ.: mental consciousness. Ht.: immediately preceding mind 無間意.

^[94] Skt.: iṣṭa; Ht.: asserted 許. This indicates that the author of the treatise holds that the skandhas are not truly existent. Chính lý emends this to ta evoktā, “it is said to be”; Ht.: thus stated 卽説.

^[95] āyatanavyavasthā; Ht.: classification by ayatanas 處門.

^[96] Skt. cakṣurāyatana: eye ayatana.

^[97] Skt. rūpāyatana: visible-form ayatana.

^[98] Skt. kāyāyatana: body ayatana.

^[99] Skt. spraṣṭavyāyatana: tangible-object ayatana.

^[100] Skt. dhātuvyavasthā, Ht.: classification by dhatus 界門.

^[101] Skt. anubhava. Sphut., p. 48: anubhūtir anubhavaḥ upabhogaḥ: perception and apprehension, synonymous with experience. Ht.: apprehending in accordance with contact 領納隨觸; Cđ.: apprehending following contact 領隨觸.

^[102] Skt. vedanākāya. Ht.: body of feeling 受身; Cđ.: aggregate of feeling 受聚. Cf. Tập dị 15, p. 429a26: “The six bodies of feeling.... What is the body of feeling arising from eye-contact? With the eye and visible forms as conditions, visual consciousness arises. The conjunction of these three constitutes contact. With contact as condition, feeling arises....” Compare Pāli, D. 33, Saṅgīti, p. 243: cha vedanā-kāyā cakkhusamphassajā vedanā, sotasamphasajā vedanā ghānasamphassajā vedanā jhivhāsamphassajā vedanā kāya-samphassajā vedanā manosamphassajā vedanā.

^[103] Skt. nimitta: configuration, sign, or indication. Sphut., p. 48: nimittaṃ vastuno’ vasthāviśeṣo, “A characteristic is a distinct state of things.” Cđ.: characteristic 相; Ht.: image 像.

^[104] Skt. ṣaḍ saṃjñākāyā: six bodies of perception 六想身.

^[105] Skt. cetanakāya. Ht.: body of volition 思身. Sphut., p. 48, explains: saṃskāraskandhaḥ katamaḥ? ṣaḍ cetanākāyāḥ, “What is the skandha of formations? The six bodies of volition.” Compare Pāli, S. iii, p. 63: katame ca bhikkhave saṅkhārā? cha yime bhikkhave cetanākāyā... Cf. Tập dị 15, ibid.; Pāli, Saṅgīti, ibid.: cha sañcetanākāyā.

^[106] Cf. Pāli, S. iii, p. 87: saṅkhataṃ abhisaṅkarontīti bhikkhave tasmā saṅkhārā ti vuccati, “They construct the conditioned, O bhikkhus; therefore they are called formations.”

^[107] Sphuṭ., p. 49: If only volition (the mental factor) is held to be formations, other mental factors such as desire, non-associated formations such as acquisition, and even the other skandhas—form, feeling, perception, and consciousness—would not be included among the skandhas of clinging. Thus, they would not belong to the truths of suffering and its origin. Consequently, there would be no complete knowledge of suffering, abandonment of its origin, and so forth.

^[108] One dharma, Skt. ekadharma, refers to the dharma that is the truth of suffering. Cf. Quang ký 1B, p. 25c13.

^[109] This refers only to the truth of origin. That is, the one dharma to be completely known (parijñā) is the truth of suffering, and the one dharma to be abandoned (prahāṇa) is the truth of origin. Cf. Quang ký, ibid.

^[110] Skt. dharmāyatana, the Dharma ayatana; dharmadhātu, the Dharma dhatu.

^[111] Skt. upalabdhi. Sphuṭ., p. 50: upalabdhir vastumātragrahaṇam, cognition is the apprehension of the object in itself. Chính lý 3, p. 342a: Eye-consciousness apprehends only form and does not apprehend sound and the like. Ht.: “the general apprehension of the characteristics of an object” 總取境相. Quang ký 1B, p. 26a10: Each of those six consciousnesses, with respect to its own distinct object, does not apprehend the particular characteristics, but apprehends the general characteristics of the object.

^[112] Sphuṭ., p. 50: ṣaḍ vijñānakāyā iti ṣaḍ vjñānasamūhāḥ. Ht.: “the six bodies of consciousness” 六識身; Cđ.: “the six aggregates of consciousness” 六識聚. Cf. Tập dị 15, p. 429a14. Cf. Pāli, D. xxxiii, Saṅgīti, p. 243: cha viññāṇa-kāyā.

^[113] Skt. anantarātīta, the immediately preceding past. Cđ.: “ceased without interval” 無間謝; Ht.: “extinguished without interval” 無間滅. Sphuṭ., p. 50: The term “immediate” (anantara) indicates that it does not obstruct another consciousness. If it does not intervene—that is, if it does not hinder the arising of another consciousness—then it is the basis of that consciousness.

^[114] Cđ.: “Whichever one of the six consciousnesses has ceased without interval, that consciousness is called the mind dhatu.”

^[115] Sphuṭ., p. 52: caramaṃ cittam iti nirupadhiśeṣanirvāṇakāle, “the final mind” is the mind at the time of entry into nirvana without remainder.