阿毘達磨俱舍論

Part 27

The various kinds of knowledge (jñāna) have been explained above. Next, the qualities (guṇa) constituted by knowledge (jñānamaya) will be discussed. Among these qualities, we shall first explain the qualities exclusive to a Buddha (āvenika), namely, the qualities attained by a bodhisattva at the moment of the Knowledge of Exhaustion, when he becomes an arhat and, at the same time, a Buddha. There are eighteen such qualities in all.

What are these eighteen qualities?

The stanza answers:

[The eighteen exclusive qualities

Are the ten powers and so forth of a Buddha.]

Treatise: The ten powers (bala), four kinds of fearlessness (vaiśāradya), three foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna), and great compassion (mahākaruṇā) together constitute the eighteen exclusive qualities. They are so called because other noble ones do not attain these qualities when they become arhats.

(Question) What is the essential nature of the ten powers?

The stanza answers:

[Knowledge of what is possible and impossible comprises ten knowledges;

Karma comprises eight, excluding cessation and the path;

Meditation, faculties, inclinations, and dhatus comprise nine;

The paths leading everywhere comprise nine or ten;

Former abodes and death and rebirth are conventional knowledge;

Exhaustion comprises six or ten knowledges;

The knowledges of former abodes and death and rebirth

Depend on the dhyanas; the others depend on all grounds;

They depend on a male body, namely, the Buddha’s body in Jambudvipa,

Because they are unobstructed with regard to their objects.]

Treatise: The ten powers are:

1. The power of the knowledge of what is possible and impossible (sthānāsthānajñānabala) is the power inherent in knowing what can and cannot occur; that is, the knowledge of what is possible and impossible is a “power,” meaning that it is absolute. This power consists of all ten knowledges (jñānas).

2. The power of the knowledge of the maturation of karma (karmavipākajñānabala) is the power inherent in knowing the results of karmic actions. This power consists of eight knowledges, excluding knowledge of the path (mārgajñāna) and knowledge of cessation (nirodhajñāna).

3–6. The power of the knowledge of the dhyanas, liberations, samadhis, and meditative attainments (dhyānavimokṣasamādhisamāpattijñānabala) is the power inherent in knowing the various kinds of dhyana, liberation, and concentration.

The power of the knowledge of the higher and lower faculties (indriyaparāparajñānabala) is the power of knowing the degrees of the moral and spiritual faculties of sentient beings.

The power of the knowledge of the various inclinations (nānādhimuktijñānabala) is the power of knowing the different aspirations of sentient beings.

The power of the knowledge of the various dhatus (nānādhātujñānabala) is the power of knowing the different dispositions acquired by sentient beings.

These four powers comprise nine knowledges, excluding knowledge of cessation.

7. The power of the knowledge of the paths leading everywhere (sarvatragāminīpratipajjñānabala) is the power of knowing the paths that lead to various destinations and to nirvana. This power consists of nine or ten knowledges.

If this is understood as the path together with its result (saphalā pratipad), then this power also includes knowledge of cessation, because cessation is the result of the Path (mārga). If it is understood as the path alone, without its result, then this power comprises only nine knowledges.

8–9. The power of the knowledge that recollects former abodes (pūrvanivāsajñānabala) is the power of knowing the abodes in previous lives.

The power of the knowledge of death and rebirth (cyutyupapādajñānabala) is the power of knowing the death and rebirth of sentient beings.

Both of these powers are conventional knowledge.

10. The power of the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows (āsravakṣayajñānabala) is the power of knowing the destruction of the outflows. This power consists of six or ten knowledges. The Knowledge of the Exhaustion of the Outflows itself may be regarded as knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows; in this case, it comprises only six knowledges: Dharma-knowledge, subsequent knowledge, knowledge of cessation, Knowledge of Exhaustion, Knowledge of Non-arising, and conventional knowledge. If the Knowledge of the Exhaustion of the Outflows is regarded as subsequent knowledge arising within a personal continuum whose outflows have been exhausted, then all ten knowledges are present within this continuum.

Regarding the grounds on which these powers depend:

The power of the knowledge that recollects former abodes and the power of the knowledge of death and rebirth have the dhyanas as their supporting grounds. The other powers depend on all grounds: the Desire Realm, the preliminary stage (anāgamya), the four dhyanas, the intermediate dhyana (dhyānāntara), and the four formless attainments (ārūpyas).

Regarding their bodily basis (āśraya): These powers arise in dependence upon a male body in Jambudvipa (jambudvīpapuruṣāśrayāṇi), namely, the body of a Buddha, because Buddhas do not appear outside Jambudvipa.

In other noble ones, these ten knowledges are not called powers (bala). Only in the body of a Buddha are these knowledges called powers, because in other bodies they are obstructed (vyāhatatvāt).

Why is this so? Knowledge is called a power only when it can know all knowable objects without any obstruction whatsoever. Therefore, the ten powers belong only to a Buddha. Having completely eliminated all outflows (āsrava) and all habitual traces (vāsanā) of ignorance, a Buddha can know every object at will. This is not the case with the knowledge of others; hence their knowledges are not called powers.

This is illustrated by the case of Śāriputra, who refused a man’s request for ordination (pravrajyāprekṣapuruṣapratyākhyāna) because he could not know the full extent of the past or future rebirths of a pigeon being pursued by a hawk.

A Buddha’s knowledge functions with complete mastery; the power of his mind is limitless and encompasses all knowable objects.

(Question) If a Buddha possesses such mental power, what is his bodily strength like?

The stanza answers:

[His bodily strength is the strength of Nārāyaṇa;

Or the strength of each joint is likewise;

It equals the tenfold progression through seven kinds of elephants;

Its nature consists of the tactile ayatanas.]

Treatise: Nārāyaṇa is the name of a kind of strength and also the name of a person who possesses such strength, as is the case with the terms cāṇūra and mahānagna.

The bodily strength of a Buddha is equal to the strength of Nārāyaṇa. Other masters hold that each of his joints (saṃdhi) contains this strength (saṃdhiṣvanye).

The Venerable Dārṣṭānika, the great master, says that bodily strength, like mental power (mānasa), is limitless; for if it were otherwise, the Blessed One’s body could not sustain limitless wisdom.

Buddhas have joints of the nāgagrandhi type; pratyekabuddhas have joints of the śaṃkatā type; and wheel-turning kings have joints of the śanku type.

(Question) What is the measure of Nārāyaṇa’s strength?

(Answer) In a series consisting of seven kinds of strength—that of an ordinary elephant (prākṛtahastin), a fragrant elephant (gandhahastin), a mahānagna, a praskandin, a varanga, a cāṇūra, and a Nārāyaṇa—the strength of each is ten times that of the preceding kind: the strength of ten ordinary elephants equals that of one fragrant elephant, and so forth.

Some masters hold that this calculation applies only to the first six kinds. Regarding the seventh, the strength of ten cāṇūras equals only half the strength of a Nārāyaṇa, and only twice “half the strength of a Nārāyaṇa” is called the strength of a Nārāyaṇa.

According to the author of the treatise, among the definitions of a Buddha’s bodily strength, the most accurate is the explanation that assigns it the greatest kind of strength.

The Buddha’s bodily strength takes the tangible object-sphere (praṣṭavyāyatana) as its nature and comprises primary elements whose essential natures differ. Other masters maintain the opposite: the Buddha’s body is derived matter (rūpa) produced from the primary elements, but this derived matter differs from the seven kinds of derived tangible objects, ślakṣṇtva, and so forth.

(Question) What is the essential nature of the four kinds of fearlessness?

The stanza answers:

[The four kinds of fearlessness, in this order, are

The first, tenth, second, and seventh powers.]

Explanation: The Buddha, the Blessed One, possesses four kinds of fearlessness, as explained in the scriptures (Mahāvyuipatti, 28; Daśabhūmi, viii; Madhyamakāvatāra, 320).

1. Fearlessness concerning perfect enlightenment (sarvadharnābhisaṃbodhivaiśāradya) is the first kind, corresponding to the first power (sthānāsthānajñānabala); it comprises the ten knowledges and is based on all stages.

2. Fearlessness concerning the permanent extinction of the outflows (sarvāsravakṣayajñānavaiśāradya) is the second kind, corresponding to the tenth power (āsravakṣayajñānabala); it comprises six or ten knowledges and is based on six stages.

3. Fearlessness in expounding obstructive phenomena (antarāyikadharmvyākaraṇavaiśāradya) is the third kind, corresponding to the second power (karmavipakajñānabala); it comprises eight knowledges and is based on all stages.

4. Fearlessness in expounding the path of deliverance (nairyaikapratipadvyākaraṇavaiśāradya) is the fourth kind, corresponding to the seventh power (sarvatragāminīpratipajñānabala); it comprises ten or nine knowledges and is based on all stages.

(Question) How can the knowledges be called fearlessness?

(Answer) Fearlessness (vaiśāradya) means “absence of fear” (nirbhayatā). By virtue of these knowledges—by knowing that he has fully understood all phenomena, completely extinguished the outflows, and so forth—the Buddha has become free from all fear (nirbhayo bhavati).

According to our view, fearlessness is the result produced by knowledge; therefore, its essential nature is not knowledge.

(Question) What are the Buddha’s three establishments of mindfulness?

The stanza answers:

[The three establishments of mindfulness are mindfulness and wisdom,

Engaging both agreeable and disagreeable objects.]

Explanation: The scriptures explain the Buddha’s three establishments of mindfulness very clearly:

1. When the disciples respectfully and unanimously listen to, retain, and practice the Buddha’s teachings, the Buddha displays neither joy nor satisfaction, but simply maintains equanimity and abides in right mindfulness and clear comprehension.

2. When none of the disciples listens to, retains, or practices the Buddha’s teachings, the Buddha displays neither sorrow nor agitation, but simply maintains equanimity and abides in right mindfulness and clear comprehension.

3. When some disciples listen to, retain, and practice the Buddha’s teachings, while others do not listen to, retain, or practice them, he displays neither joy nor sorrow, but continues to maintain equanimity and abides in right mindfulness and clear comprehension.

These three establishments of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthānas) all take mindfulness and wisdom as their essence (saṃprajanya).

(Question) A śrāvaka who has become free from the outflows likewise displays no joy (nandī = anunaya) when his disciples (śiṣya) are respectful (śuśrūṣamāna), no sorrow (āghāta = dve ṣa = ānandya) when they are disrespectful, and neither joy nor sorrow when some are respectful and others disrespectful. Why, then, are the preceding three establishments of mindfulness regarded as qualities belonging exclusively to the Buddha?

(Answer) Because the Buddha has eliminated the habitual tendencies (savāsanaprahāṇāt) toward joy and sorrow. Alternatively, because these disciples are the Buddha’s own disciples, it is truly admirable that the Buddha displays neither joy nor sorrow in response to their respect or disrespect. By contrast, they are not disciples of the śrāvakas who receive and retain the teachings of those śrāvakas; hence, there is nothing admirable about these śrāvakas displaying neither joy nor sorrow.

(Question) In what respects does the Buddha’s great compassion possess distinctive characteristics?

The stanza answers:

[Great compassion is conventional knowledge,

Because of its provisions, mode of activity, and object;

Its equality and its supremacy;

It differs from compassion for eight reasons.]

Explanation: Great compassion (mahākaruṇā) takes conventional knowledge as its nature. Were this not so, great compassion would have non-hatred (adveṣasvabhāvā) as its nature, like the limited kind of compassion, namely ordinary compassion. If it were ordinary compassion, it could not engage sentient beings in all three realms and could not apprehend the three kinds of suffering.

(Question) Why is the Blessed One’s compassion called “great”?

(Answer) For five reasons:

1. Because of its constituent provisions (saṃbhāreṇa); indeed, this compassion is brought forth (samudāgama, nivṛti) by a vast accumulation (saṃbhāra) of merit (puṇya) and knowledge (jñāna).

2. Because of its modes of activity (ākāreṇa), that is, the manner in which this compassion apprehends things: It sees things as suffering in the three forms of the suffering of suffering (duḥkhaduḥkhatā), the suffering of change (pariṇāduḥkhatā), and the suffering of conditioned formations (saṃskāraduḥkhatā), whereas ordinary compassion apprehends only the suffering of suffering.

3. Because of the object it engages (ālambanena), for great compassion engages all sentient beings in the three realms.

4. Because of its equality (samatvena), for great compassion treats all sentient beings equally with regard to their well-being (sukha) and benefit (hita).

5. Because of its supreme nature, for no compassion surpasses this great compassion (tato ‘dhimātratarābhāvāt).

Great compassion differs from compassion in eight respects:

1. Essential nature: Compassion is non-hatred (adveṣa); great compassion is non-delusion (amoha) (adveṣāmohasvabhāvatvāt).

2. Mode of activity: Compassion has as its mode of activity one kind of suffering; great compassion has as its mode of activity all three kinds of suffering (ekatriduḥkhatākāratvāt).

3. Object: Compassion engages sentient beings in one realm; great compassion engages sentient beings in all three realms.

4. Stage on which it is based: Compassion belongs to all four meditative absorptions; great compassion belongs to the fourth meditative absorption (caturdhyāna-caturdhyānabhūmikatvāt).

5. Body on which it is based: Compassion arises in the bodies of śrāvakas; great compassion arises in the body of a Buddha.

6. Attainment: Compassion is attained through detachment from the Desire Realm; great compassion is attained through detachment from the summit of existence (kāmabhavāgravairāgyalabhyatvāt).

7. Rescue: Compassion lacks the capacity to protect; great compassion has the capacity to protect (aparitrāṇatas).

8. Sympathy: Compassion is not impartial because it sympathizes only with suffering sentient beings; great compassion is impartial because it is directed equally toward all sentient beings (tulyātulyakaruṇāyanāt).

(Question) The qualities belonging exclusively to the Buddhas have been explained above; these qualities distinguish the Buddhas from other sentient beings. Among the Buddhas themselves, however, are all these qualities the same?

The stanza answers:

[In provisions, Dharma body,

And benefiting others, all Buddhas are alike;

In lifespan, lineage, physical form, and so forth,

The Buddhas differ.]

Explanation: All Buddhas are alike because (1) in previous lives they accumulated equal provisions of merit and knowledge (pūrvapuṇyajnānasāṃbhārasamudāgamatas); (2) they all attain the same Dharma body (dhamakāyapariniṣpattitas); and (3) they all alike bring well-being to sentient beings (arthacaryāsaṃpādanatas).

Nevertheless, the Buddhas differ in lifespan, lineage (gotra), stature, and so forth. After appearing, the lifespans of the Buddhas may be long or short; the Buddhas may belong to the kṣatriya or brāhmaṇa caste, to the Gautama lineage (Gautamagotra) or the Kāśyapa lineage (Kāśyapagotra); and their bodies may be large or small.

The words “and so forth” indicate that the teachings of the Buddhas endure for a long or short period depending on whether, at the time the Buddhas appear, the beings to be taught are sincere or deceitful.

All wise persons, when contemplating the three perfections (saṃpad) of the Tathagata, give rise to profound love and reverence. These three perfections are the perfection of cause (hetuṣaṃpad), manifested in merit and wisdom; the perfection of result (phalaṣaṃpad), manifested in the Dharma-body; and the perfection of beneficence (upakāraṣaṃpad), manifested in conduct for the benefit of the world (jagadarthacaryā).

1. The perfection of cause is of four kinds: (a) cultivation aimed at accumulating all qualities and wisdom, with nothing omitted; (b) cultivation over a long period; (c) uninterrupted cultivation; (d) earnest and reverent cultivation.

2. The perfection of result is also of four kinds, because attainment of the Dharma-body comprises the four perfections of knowledge (jñāna), abandonment (prahāṇa), sovereign power (prabhava), and the form-body (rūpakāya).

(a) The perfection of knowledge is of four kinds: knowledge without a teacher, which is wisdom not taught by another; knowledge of all things, which knows all intrinsic characteristics; knowledge of all modes, which knows all states; and effortless knowledge, which knows solely through the wish to know.

(b) The perfection of abandonment is of four kinds: abandonment of all afflictions, which is the eradication of all afflictions (kleśa); ultimate abandonment, which is permanent eradication, with no possibility of regression; abandonment of afflictions together with their latent impressions, which is the eradication of the afflictions together with their habitual tendencies (vāsanās), since no residual bond (anubandha) remains; and abandonment of all obstacles to meditative concentration, which is the eradication of the obstacles to meditative absorption (samādhisamāpatti), whereby the Buddha belongs to the class of those “liberated in both ways.”

(c) The perfection of sovereign power is of four kinds: perfection in freely creating, transforming, and sustaining external objects; perfection in freely relinquishing or prolonging one’s lifespan; perfection in freely and very swiftly passing through solid bodies and empty space to extremely distant places, and in freely contracting an immensely large body into a minute size; and perfection in manifold, spontaneous, extraordinary, and surpassing qualities that operate naturally in the world.

(d) The perfection of the form-body is of four kinds: perfection of the major marks (lakṣaṇa); perfection of the subsidiary marks (anuvyañjana); perfection of strength, namely the Nārāyaṇa strength of the Blessed One; and perfection of the body: internally (adhyātmam), the joints of the bones are as hard as vajra (vajrasārāsthiśarīratāsaṃpad), while externally the body emits rays brighter than one hundred thousand suns.

3. The perfection of beneficence is also of four kinds: (a-b-c) enabling beings to attain permanent (atyanta) liberation from the suffering of the three unfortunate destinies, and (d) enabling them to attain liberation from the suffering of cyclic birth and death; or (a-b-c) establishing the three vehicles, and (d) establishing the fortunate destinies.

The foregoing is a concise (sāmāsika = sāṃkṣepika) presentation of the perfection of the Tathagata. Were it presented in complete detail, it could never be exhausted. Only the Buddhas, the Blessed Ones, if they prolonged their lifespans through many incalculable great kalpas (asaṃkhyeyakalpas), would be capable of knowing and describing (jñātuṃ vaktuṃ ca samathāḥ) the greatness of this perfection. What has been presented above is sufficient to show that the Buddhas, endowed with such boundless and extraordinary merit, wisdom, powers, and beneficence, are truly like mines of precious jewels.

Only foolish persons (bāla = pṛthagjana), who themselves are utterly destitute of merit (svaguṇadāridryeṇa)—and who habitually judge others by themselves—lack every spiritual aspiration; when they hear the Buddha’s merits praised, they feel no emotion whatsoever toward either the Buddha or the Dharma.

By contrast, when discerning persons hear the Buddha’s qualities explained, profound faith and acceptance, or a deep sense of “taking refuge,” arise in them toward the Buddha and his teaching, penetrating even to the marrow of their bones. Through such faith, these persons transcend innumerable indeterminate karmic ripenings and ultimately attain nirvana. For this reason, when the Buddha Tathagatas appear in the world, they become the supreme field of merit (anuttarapuṇyakṣetra), for this field of merit yields results that are certain (abandhya), desirable (iṣṭa = priyaviṣaya), abundant (prakṛṣṭa = prabhūta), swift (āśu), and supremely excellent (svanta = nirvāṇaphalatvāt).

Indeed, the Buddha himself proclaimed this verse: “If one plants even a small root of virtue in the Buddha’s field of merit, one will first obtain a fortunate destiny and afterward attain nirvana.” (Ekottara, 24, 15)

The foregoing concerns the qualities unique to the Buddha; next are the qualities he shares with others.

[There are also other qualities of the Buddha

Shared with noble ones and ordinary beings:

The qualities of freedom from contention, knowledge born of aspiration,

Unobstructed understanding, and so forth.]

Treatise: The Blessed One possesses immeasurable qualities. Some of these qualities may be shared with noble ones, while others may also be shared with ordinary beings. They are the quality of freedom from contention (araṇā), knowledge born of aspiration (praṇidhijñāna), the four unobstructed understandings (pratisaṃvids), supernormal knowledges (abhijñās), meditative absorptions (dhyānas), immaterial attainments (arūpyas), the eight meditative attainments (samāpattis), the three concentrations (samādhis), the four immeasurable states of mind (apramāṇas), the eight liberations (vimokṣas), the eight spheres of mastery (abhibhvāyatanas), the ten totality-spheres (kṛtsnāyatanas), and so forth.

The first three kinds of qualities are shared by the Buddha and the noble ones (āryas); the supernormal knowledges, meditative absorptions, and so forth may also belong to ordinary beings (pṛthagjanas).

Of the first three, freedom from contention will be discussed first:

[Freedom from contention is conventional knowledge,

Belonging to the fourth meditative absorption and to the immovable ones;

In the three continents, it takes as its object

Unarisen, objectively grounded afflictions of the Desire Realm.]

Treatise: Concerning the quality of freedom from contention [that is, the ability to prevent the arising of afflictions in others]: Arhats clearly know that the suffering of sentient beings arises from afflictions (kleśa). They know that they themselves are the most excellent field of merit (puṇyakṣetra); they fear that others may give rise to afflictions toward them [and that these afflictions will harm those very persons].

They therefore attain a kind of knowledge (jñāna) capable of preventing others from giving rise to craving (rāga), hatred (dveṣa), pride (māna), and so forth toward them. This practice of knowledge (jñāna) brings “contention” (raṇa)—the cause of defilement and suffering—to an end, and contention itself is also an affliction; therefore, this quality is called freedom from contention.

(Question) What are the characteristics of this concentration called the concentration of freedom from contention (araṇāsamādhi)?

(Answer) Freedom from contention is mundane knowledge (saṃvṛtijñāna). Its basis is the fourth dhyāna because this is the foremost among the “easy paths” (sukhapratipadām agratvāt; the most excellent among the pleasant modes of practice). It is produced by an arhat of the immovable class (akopyadharman), and not by other noble ones, because these noble ones are not yet capable of completely restraining (parihartum) even their own afflictions—they can still actually regress—much less of bringing the afflictions of others to an end. Freedom from contention is produced only by human beings, because only sentient beings in the human destiny (gati) can attain this quality in the three continents (dvīpas).

Freedom from contention takes as its objects the future afflictions of others in the Desire Realm, namely afflictions whose objects are real entities (savastuka, having an objective basis): “May others not give rise to afflictions because of me!” The afflictions “having an objective basis” are craving (rāga), hatred (dveṣa), and so forth, which are abandoned through the path of cultivation.

The “objectless” (avastuka) afflictions of others that are abandoned through the path of seeing cannot be prevented, because the pervasive afflictions (sarvatraga), which take as their objects all the planes to which they belong, also take the continua of others as their objects.

The foregoing has explained freedom from contention; next is knowledge born of aspiration:

[Knowledge born of aspiration can take all things as its objects;

Its other characteristics are the same as those of freedom from contention.]

Treatise: Like freedom from contention, knowledge born of aspiration [that is, knowledge issuing from a resolute aspiration] also has mundane knowledge as its intrinsic nature. Its basis is likewise the fourth dhyāna; it arises in the continuum of one belonging to the immovable class and is cultivated by a sentient being in the human destiny. The sole difference is that knowledge born of aspiration takes all dharmas as its objects.

The Vaibhāṣika masters say that the dharmas belonging to the Formless Realm are not precisely cognized by knowledge born of aspiration, because, belonging as it does to the fourth dhyāna, this knowledge cannot take a higher plane as its object. These dharmas are cognized only through inference (anumāna). Indeed, one knows (1) an outflow (niṣyanda) of the Formless Realm, namely that the utmost serenity (mandamandatā) of a subsequent life is the continuation of a preceding life in the Formless Realm; and (2) a causal practice (carita) of the Formless Realm, namely the practice (vihāra) of the formless attainments (ārūpyasamāpattis) capable of producing a life in the Formless Realm—and one can infer the effect from the cause and the cause from the effect.

It is like a farmer who knows the kind of seed from the fruit and knows the kind of fruit from the seed; similarly, upon seeing a serene person (sāntamūrti sattva), one may conclude (anuminoti): “This person must have been reborn here after falling from the Formless Realm; this person will be reborn in the Formless Realm.”

Such is the opinion of the Vaibhāṣikas. Other masters believe that knowledge born of aspiration does take the Formless Realm as its object, because nothing lies beyond the capacity of the Buddhas.

One who wishes to produce knowledge born of aspiration must first sincerely form an aspiration (praṇidhipūrvakam = ābhogapūrvakam = praṇidhāya, ābhujya), praying to know a certain object, and then enter the ultimate limit of the fourth dhyāna (dhyāna prāntakoṭika; the culminating dhyāna), which is the stage of preparatory practice (prayoga). Immediately upon emerging from the concentration, precise knowledge (right knowledge) corresponding to one’s aspiration arises; the differences among the objective spheres of this knowledge depend upon the power of the concentration.

The foregoing has explained knowledge born of aspiration; next are the unobstructed knowledges:

[The unobstructed knowledges are of four kinds: Dharma, meaning, expression, and eloquence;

They take names, meanings, speech, and the path as their objects;

Their nature is non-retrogressive knowledge.

Dharma and expression are mundane knowledge alone,

Based respectively upon five and two planes.

Meaning comprises ten or six knowledges, and eloquence nine knowledges;

Both are based upon all planes.

If one is attained, all four are possessed.

Their other characteristics are the same as those of freedom from contention.]

Treatise: The unobstructed knowledges are of four kinds: unobstructed knowledge of Dharma (dharmapratisaṃvid), unobstructed knowledge of meaning (arthapratisaṃvid), unobstructed knowledge of expression (niruktipratisaṃvid), and unobstructed knowledge of eloquence (pratibhānapratisaṃvid). Like freedom from contention, the four unobstructed knowledges belong only to those of the immovable class in the human destiny (akopyadharmamanuṣyāśraya); however, they differ with regard to their objective spheres, foundational planes, and intrinsic nature.

The first three unobstructed knowledges are kinds of knowledge that do not regress (avivartya, asanga; non-retrogressive) and take names (nāman), meanings (artha), and speech (vāc), respectively, as their objects.

Non-retrogressive knowledge concerning the “collections of names, phrases, and syllables” (nāmapadavyañjanakāyas) is called unobstructed knowledge of Dharma.

Non-retrogressive knowledge concerning meaning is called unobstructed knowledge of meaning.

Non-retrogressive knowledge concerning words is called unobstructed knowledge of expression.

The fourth unobstructed knowledge is knowledge concerning precise and readily comprehensible exposition and concerning mastery of the path. Thus, unobstructed knowledge of eloquence is non-retrogressive knowledge related to the ability of one who has mastered concentration to express oneself precisely (yukta = arthasaṃbaddha), fluently (mukta = asakta), and with sustained attentiveness (saṃprakhyāna = asaṃmosa) (samādhivaśisaṃprakhyāna).

Unobstructed knowledge of eloquence takes right speech (samyagvāc) and the path as its objects and comprises nine knowledges, with knowledge of cessation excluded. It arises in practitioners on the basis of all planes, from the Desire Realm up to the Summit of Existence, because its objects are both language and the path.

Unobstructed knowledge of meaning comprises ten or six knowledges. When “meaning” (artha) is understood as “all dharmas,” unobstructed knowledge of meaning comprises ten knowledges; if it is understood as “nirvana,” it comprises six knowledges: knowledge of Dharma, subsequent knowledge, sublime knowledge, knowledge of exhaustion, knowledge of non-arising, and mundane knowledge. It arises everywhere; that is, it may be based upon any plane.

Unobstructed knowledge of Dharma and unobstructed knowledge of expression are mundane knowledge because they take collections of names (nāmakāyas), and so forth, and language as their objects.

Unobstructed knowledge of Dharma arises in the Desire Realm and the dhyānas and therefore has only five planes. The higher planes have no collections of names [and therefore no collections of phrases (padakāya) or collections of syllables (vyañjanakāya)].

Unobstructed knowledge of expression has the Desire Realm and the first dhyāna as its foundational planes because there is no applied thought (vitarka) in the higher planes.

According to the Prajñāptipādaśāstra, the four unobstructed knowledges are: (1) irreversible knowledge concerning names, phrases, and syllables; (2) irreversible knowledge concerning the meanings expressed by names, etc.; (3) irreversible knowledge concerning expressions (adhivacana) that encompass the characteristics of things, number, gender, time, etc.; and (4) irreversible knowledge concerning fluency (asaktatā) of expression, or of “phrases and syllables” (padavyañjana).

Thus, the order of the unobstructed knowledges has been clearly established. Other masters hold that etymological explanation (nirukti) is the explanation of words, such as: “Because it is subject to alteration and obstruction, it is called form” (rūpyate tasmād raypam); “Because it discriminates, it is called consciousness” (vijānātītivijñānam), etc. Eloquence (pratibhāna) is the ability to respond (?).

According to tradition, the preparatory practice (pūrvaprayoga) for the four unobstructed knowledges consists of studying calculation (gaṇiti), the words of the Buddha (buddhavacana), phonetics (śabdavidyā), and reasoning (hetuvidyā); for one who is not proficient in these four fields cannot produce the four unobstructed knowledges.

In fact, the study of the Buddha’s words alone is sufficient to accomplish this preparatory practice.

If one attains one unobstructed knowledge, one also attains all the others; if one does not attain them all, one does not attain any unobstructed knowledge whatsoever.

[The six qualities all depend upon the ultimate limit, etc.

The ultimate limit is the final dhyāna,

Conformed to all and brought to culmination;

Except for the Buddha, all attain them through preparatory practice.]

Treatise: The six qualities (guṇa), beginning with freedom from contention, are called “of the ultimate limit” (prāntakoṭika) because they are all attained through the power of the dhyāna of the ultimate limit (dhyāna prāntakoṭika).

The fourth dhyāna called “the ultimate limit” comprises six dharmas: (1) freedom from contention (kiṃcid araṇātmakam); (2) knowledge resulting from resolve (pranidhijñāna); (3–5) three unobstructed knowledges, that is, excluding the unobstructed knowledge of etymological explanation; and (6) the “brief” ultimate limit.

Although the unobstructed knowledge of etymological explanation is also attained through the power of the dhyāna of the ultimate limit, it does not arise in dependence upon the fourth dhyāna, because the supporting planes on which it arises are only the Desire Realm and the first dhyāna. Therefore, it is not included among the qualities of the ultimate limit.

(Question) What kind of dharma is the dhyāna of the ultimate limit?

(Answer) The ultimate limit belongs to the plane of the fourth dhyāna.

a. The fourth dhyāna is called “conformed to all planes” (sarvabhūmyanulomita) when the practitioner cultivates this dhyāna in the following manner: From a wholesome mind of the Desire Realm, the practitioner enters the first dhyāna; from the first dhyāna, the practitioner enters the second dhyāna, and continues in this manner up to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception (naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñānāyatana); the practitioner then enters the states again in reverse order until reaching a mind of the Desire Realm; and finally, from that mind, again enters the fourth dhyāna.

b. When cultivating the fourth dhyāna, one must complete the lower part before proceeding to cultivate the middle part, and complete the middle part before proceeding to cultivate the upper part. Each such part is further divided into three lesser parts. Thus, the fourth dhyāna has nine parts in all. The fourth dhyāna at the highest part is called “having reached the highest degree” (vṛddhikāṣṭhāgata, brought to culmination).

The dhyāna possessing these two characteristics is called “the ultimate limit” (prāntakoṭika), because its “limiting point” (koṭi) has been brought (pragatā) to the utmost end (antam).

Koṭi means “kind” (prakāra) or “the crest of a crown.” It is just as when one speaks of the “four alternatives” (cātuṣkoṭika praśna), meaning four kinds of questions (= catuḥprakārapraśna); or when one speaks of the “limit of reality” (bhūtakoṭi), meaning the true limit.

Apart from the Buddha, all other noble ones attain these six qualities only through preparatory practice (prayoga), and not through detachment (vairāgya), because they have not all already accomplished these qualities. Only the Buddha attains them through detachment, for at the moment of the Knowledge of Exhaustion, through detachment, the Buddha simultaneously attained these six qualities from the very outset. Thereafter, he could manifest them at will without preparatory practice, because the Buddha, the Blessed One, is master (vaśavartin) of all the dharmas he has accomplished.

The three kinds of qualities common to noble ones—freedom from contention, knowledge resulting from resolve, and the unobstructed knowledges—have been explained above. Among the qualities common to ordinary beings, the kinds of “supernormal knowledge” (abhijñā) must now be further explained.

[The six supernormal knowledges are miraculous power,

The divine eye, divine ear, knowledge of others’ minds,

Recollection of past lives, and the exhaustion of the defilements;

They belong to the path of liberation and are wisdom.

Four are conventional knowledge; knowledge of others’ minds consists of five knowledges;

Knowledge of the exhaustion of the defilements is like the power.

Five depend upon the four dhyānas,

And take their own plane and lower planes as objects.

Śrāvakas, rhinoceros-like pratyekabuddhas, and Buddhas reach

Two thousand, three thousand, and innumerable worlds.

Those never previously attained arise through preparatory practice;

Those previously cultivated arise through detachment.

The first three have mindfulness of the body as their foundation;

Knowledge of others’ minds has three, and the remainder have four;

The divine eye and divine ear are morally indeterminate;

The other four supernormal knowledges are exclusively wholesome.]

Treatise: There are six kinds of supernormal knowledge: (1) the supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization through knowledge of the domain of miraculous power (ṛddhiviṣayajñana-sātkriyābhijñā), which is the supernormal knowledge found in the realization (sākṣātkāra = saṃmukhībhāva) of a kind of knowledge whose object is an exceedingly wondrous dharma (ṛddhi), namely, movement (gamana) and transformation (nirmāṇa); (2) the supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization of knowledge through the divine ear (divyaśrotrajñāna-sākṣātkriyābhijñā); (3) the supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization of knowledge of others’ minds (cetaḥparyāyajñānasākṣātkriyābhijñā);

(4) the supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization of knowledge that recollects past lives (pūrvanivāsānusmṛtijñānasākṣātkriyābhijñā); (5) the supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization of knowledge of death and rebirth through the divine eye (cyutyupapādajñānasākṣātkriyābhijñā); and (6) the supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization of the knowledge of the exhaustion of the defilements (āsravakṣayajñānasākṣātkriyābhijñā).

Although the sixth kind belongs only to noble ones, because the first five can all be attained by ordinary beings, the plural is nevertheless used here to regard these supernormal knowledges as dharmas common to both noble ones and ordinary beings. Their nature is the wisdom of the path of liberation, just like the fruits of śramaṇa practice.

Four kinds—miraculous power, the divine eye, the divine ear, and recollection of past lives—are conventional knowledge.

The supernormal knowledge of others’ minds has five knowledges as its nature: knowledge of dharmas, subsequent knowledge, knowledge of the path, conventional knowledge, and knowledge of others’ minds.

The supernormal knowledge consisting in the realization of the knowledge of the exhaustion of the defilements is entirely the same as the power of knowledge of the exhaustion of the defilements (āsravakṣayajñānabala). It comprises six or ten knowledges. It also belongs to all planes and takes all objects as its objects.

The first five kinds of supernormal knowledge depend upon the four dhyānas, meaning that they are attained by a practitioner abiding in the stages of dhyāna.

(Question) Why do they not depend upon the formless concentrations?

(Answer) a. Because the objects of the first three are material dharmas (rūpa), they cannot arise in dependence upon the formless planes.

b. The supernormal knowledge of others’ minds is attained and prepared (niṣpādya) through the gateway (tīrtha = dvāra) of material dharmas, meaning by a path that takes manifest colors and shapes as its objects (ālambana), as the scripture (Paṭisambhidāmagga, i. 113) says: “With such a material form, there is such a mind”; whereas the formless concentrations do not take material dharmas as their objects.

c. With regard to the superknowledge of recollecting past lives, the practitioner must prepare (abhiniṣpatti) by proceeding backward through a succession of consecutive stages (anupūrvāvasthāntarasmaraṇāt); whereas the formless concentrations do not take as their objects dharmas belonging to the Desire Realm. Moreover, when the superknowledge of recollecting past lives is attained, this superknowledge, as the scripture cited above states, concerns only places, lineages (gotra), and so forth—all of which are material dharmas.

d. When the practitioner wishes to know the mind of another, he must first examine the characteristics (nimitta) of body and mind within his own continuum: “Such is my body; such is my mind.” When conceiving the continuum of another, the practitioner likewise examines the characteristics of that person’s body and mind, just as he previously contemplated his own body and mind. In this way, the practitioner knows the mind of another, and the superknowledge arises. Once this superknowledge has been attained, the practitioner no longer observes the material body but knows only the mind.

e. When the practitioner wishes to recollect previous lives, he must begin by apprehending the characteristics (nimittam udgṛhya = cittaprakāraṃ paricchidya) of the mind that has just ceased. From this mind, the practitioner contemplates backward (manasikurvan) through the successive stages of the present life until reaching the mind of “rebirth” (pratisaṃdhicitta, rebirth-linking consciousness).

When the practitioner recollects a single mind-moment of the intermediate existence (antarābhava), this superknowledge is attained. The preparatory practice for recollecting the previous lives of others is the same. A practitioner who has only begun cultivating this superknowledge knows previous lives only in chronological order (successive knowledge).

Once proficient, he can skip one or two lives (vilanghyāpismaraṇam), that is, he need not recollect them in sequence. One can recollect what was experienced (anubhu, received) in the past.

(Question) If so, how can one recollect the gods of the Pure Abodes (śuddhāvāsas)? The gods of the Pure Abodes do not return to this realm, so the practitioner has had no experience of them here; nor has he experienced them in the heavenly realm, because ordinary beings are not born among the gods of the Pure Abodes.

(Answer) They can still be recollected because one has heard of them. A person capable of recollecting them has previously heard: “Such are the gods in the Pure Abodes.” Indeed, an experience may be received in two ways: through hearing and through seeing.

For beings born in this realm after falling from the Formless Realm, this superknowledge may arise by relying upon the continuum of another (parasaṃtatyadhiṣṭhānena). The direct superknowledge of recollection of past lives belongs to the stages of dhyāna, and one cannot rely upon this knowledge (jñāna) to know a mind belonging to a stage of the Formless Realm.

Other beings may give rise to this superknowledge through their own continuum.

f. The preparatory practices for the three superknowledges of psychic power, the divine ear, and the divine eye consist in contemplating lightness, sound, and light (laghutva, śabda, ālokamanasikaraṇa). When the preparatory practice is accomplished, the practitioner attains mastery (vaśitā) over each of them.

Thus, these five superknowledges do not depend upon the formless concentrations.

With the superknowledge of psychic power belonging to a particular stage—that is, attained in a particular dhyāna—the practitioner accomplishes the abilities of movement (gamana) and transformation (nirmāṇa) with respect to that stage or a lower stage, but not a higher one.

The same applies to the divine ear: the practitioner hears only sounds belonging to the stage in which this superknowledge was attained or to a lower stage, but not to a higher one.

Through the superknowledge of knowing another’s mind, the practitioner cannot know another mind belonging to a stage higher than that of this superknowledge.

Through the superknowledge of recollecting past lives, the practitioner cannot recollect lives belonging to a stage higher than that of this superknowledge.

Thus, a mind belonging to the Formless Realm cannot be reached through the superknowledge of knowing another’s mind or the superknowledge of recollecting past lives, because such a mind belongs to a stage higher than that of these two superknowledges.

(Question) How are the superknowledges attained (labhyante)?

(Answer) If they were not attained in a previous life, they can be attained only through preparatory practice.

When the superknowledges were cultivated in a previous life, they are attained through detachment (vairāgya). [The practitioner attains them (prāpti) merely by becoming “detached” from the Desire Realm and entering dhyāna.] Nevertheless, because the superknowledges are extremely powerful, they are attained only through preparatory practice. The manifestation (saṃmukhīnhāva = utpādana) of superknowledge always depends upon preparatory practice, except in the case of the Buddha: he attained all the superknowledges through detachment and can cause them to manifest at will.

The third superknowledge, the knowledge of another’s mind, comprises three establishments of mindfulness—feelings, mind, and dharmas—because its objects are mind and mental factors.

The superknowledges of psychic power, the divine eye, and the divine ear comprise the first establishment of mindfulness (kāyasmṛtyupasthāna), because their objects are all material dharmas (color and shape). The superknowledge of psychic power takes as its objects four external ayatanas, excluding sound. The divine ear and the divine eye take sound and visible form as their objects.

(Question) If so, how can the divine eye possess the capacity to discern what the sutra (Majjhima, i. 22; Saṃyutta, ii. 214) explains: “Those beings who engage in evil bodily conduct and evil verbal conduct, disparage (apavādaka) the noble ones, give rise to wrong views, and cling to these wrong views and evil deeds will, upon the breakup of the body at death, fall into the evil destinies”?

(Answer) The divine eye does not know a being’s mental karma, nor does it know that being’s attachment to wrong views, and so forth. However, there is another kind of knowledge that accompanies the divine eye, arises in the continuum of a noble one, and is capable of discerning mental karma and so forth. When this knowledge arises through the power of the divine eye, it, together with that superknowledge, is called “knowledge of death and rebirth” (cyutyupapādajñāna).

Because the root text does not clearly state the nature of the superknowledge of recollecting past lives or the superknowledge of the destruction of the outflows, these two naturally comprise all four establishments of mindfulness.

The divine eye and the divine ear belong to the group of karmically indeterminate dharmas, because their nature is held to be wisdom associated with auditory consciousness and visual consciousness (śrotracakṣurvijñāna-saṃprayukta).

(Question) If so, how can it be said that they depend upon all four dhyānas? In the second dhyāna and the higher dhyānas, neither auditory consciousness nor visual consciousness exists.

(Answer) What was stated above is not erroneous, because it is based on the faculties. The auditory and visual faculties that serve as the supports for the supernatural knowledges arise through the power of the four dhyānas and belong to the planes of those dhyānas; therefore, they depend upon four planes. Since the supernatural knowledges rely upon these faculties, it can be said that they depend upon the four dhyānas. Or the reason for the preceding statement is that it considers the uninterrupted paths—or paths of preparation—of the supernatural knowledges. Indeed, the uninterrupted paths of the divine ear and the divine eye both rely upon four planes, namely, the four dhyānas.

The remaining four kinds are all wholesome in nature.

(Question) If so, why does the Prakaraṇapādaśāstra say: “What is supernatural knowledge?—It is wholesome wisdom”?

(Answer) This definition (nirdeśa) is based on the majority of cases (bāhulika) and the principal cases (prādhānika). Most supernatural knowledges are wholesome in nature, and those supernatural knowledges that are wholesome are the most important.

(Question) The Sūtra (Majjhima, i. 22, 246) speaks of “clear knowledges” belonging to one beyond training (aśaśikṣī vidyā, the clear knowledges of one beyond training). To which kinds of supernatural knowledge do these clear knowledges correspond?

The stanza answers:

[The three clear knowledges are the fifth, second, and sixth supernatural knowledges,

Because they counteract delusion concerning the three times.

The last is genuine; the other two are nominal.

Those in training possess only darkness, not clear knowledge.]

Treatise: In the order given in the Sūtra, the three kinds—namely, the realization of the knowledge of former abodes (aśikṣī pūrve nivāsajñāna-sākṣātkriyāvidyā), the realization of the knowledge of death and rebirth (aśikṣī cyutyupādajñānasākṣātkriyāvidya), and the realization of the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows (aśikṣīāsravakṣayajñānasākṣātkriyāvidya)—are the fifth, second, and sixth supernatural knowledges.

(Question) Why are these three kinds of supernatural knowledge called “clear knowledges” (vidya)?

(Answer) Because the knowledge of former abodes, that is, the fifth, puts an end to errors concerning the past (pūrvāntasaṃmoha, delusion regarding the former limit); the knowledge of death and rebirth, that is, the second, puts an end to error concerning the future (aparāntasaṃmoha, delusion regarding the later limit); and the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows puts an end to error concerning the present (madhyasaṃmoha, delusion regarding the intermediate limit).

(Question) Of these three supernatural knowledges, which genuinely belongs to one beyond training ()?

(Answer) Only the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows genuinely belongs to one beyond training (aśaikṣī).

The other two supernatural knowledges are called those of one beyond training only when they arise in the person of one beyond training, because in themselves they are inherently “neither of one in training nor of one beyond training.”

(Question) If so, why is it not admitted that these two supernatural knowledges are “clear knowledges of one in training” (śaikṣī vidyā) when they arise in the person of one in training?

(Answer) Although they arise in the person of one in training, at that time they are not yet called “clear knowledges,” because the continuum of one in training is associated with ignorance.

Indeed, the Buddha did not say that these two clear knowledges are dharmas of one in training. Why is this so?—While the continuum is still associated with ignorance (avidyā), it would be improper to call a supernatural knowledge arising in that continuum a “clear knowledge,” because at that time the supernatural knowledge would be obscured by ignorance.

(Question) The Sūtra speaks of three kinds of “miraculous demonstration” (prātihāryas). To which supernatural knowledges do these miraculous demonstrations correspond?

The stanza answers:

[The first, fourth, and sixth supernatural knowledges are the three miraculous demonstrations.

The miraculous demonstration of instruction is supreme,

Because it is necessarily established through supernatural knowledge

And leads to beneficial results.]

Treatise: The knowledge of miraculous power, the knowledge of others’ minds, and the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows are the three kinds of miraculous demonstration: (1) the miraculous demonstration of supernatural transformation (ṛddhiprātihārya) is “captivating” ()—that is, converting others—through supernatural power; (2) the miraculous demonstration of revealing minds (ādeśanāprātihārya) is converting others by reading their minds; and (3) the miraculous demonstration of instruction (anuśāsanīprātihārya) is converting others through teachings.

The word pra means ādikarman.

The word ati means bhrisam.

The three supernatural knowledges above are called “miraculous demonstrations” because through them the work of conversion (haraṇa) can be initiated (idam anena karma prārabdham) and carried out with great force (prātiśabdayor adikarmabhṛśārthatvāt).

Through them one can “captivate” (haranti) the minds of others from the very beginning (āditas, ādau) and do so effectively (ati bhṛśam), so that they may be transformed (vineyamanas). Or these supernatural knowledges are called “miraculous demonstrations” because through them one can immediately take hold of, and firmly take hold of, those who are averse to wholesome dharmas (pratihata) and those who remain neutral (madhyastha). Through them one can cause those whose minds are hostile, doubtful, or indifferent to give rise to minds of refuge, faithful acceptance, and cultivation.

Among the three miraculous demonstrations, the miraculous demonstration of instruction is supreme, because it cannot exist without supernatural knowledge and because it leads to the fruits of liberation and well-being.

The miraculous demonstration of supernatural transformation and the miraculous demonstration of revealing minds can be produced through vidyās (vidyā; magical formulas). There is a vidyā called Gāndhārī that can enable one who has mastered it to fly through space. There is also a vidyā called Īkṣanikā that can help one read the minds of others. The miraculous demonstration of instruction cannot be attained in such ways; therefore, it is never separated (avyabhicārin) from the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows and is always superior to the other two miraculous demonstrations.

Moreover, the first two can only temporarily captivate the minds of others and do not bring forth excellent fruits. By contrast, the third can cause others to produce wholesome and desirable fruits (hita, sukha), because through this miraculous demonstration the one who converts others can teach, in accordance with reality, the means leading to liberation and well-being.

(Question) What does miraculous power (ṛddhi) mean?

The stanza answers:

[The essence of “miraculous power” is concentration;

Its two spheres are movement and transformation.

Movement is threefold: movement with the speed of mind belongs to the Buddha;

Transporting the body and resolute determination also belong to other noble ones.

Transformation is of two kinds: of the desire realm and the form realm;

Its nature pertains to four and two spheres.

Both are of two kinds:

Like oneself and like another.]

Treatise: According to the Vaibhāṣikas, “miraculous power” refers to concentration (samādhi). Concentration is so called because through miraculous power a deed is accomplished and brought to fruition (ṛdhyati, saṃpadyate). This deed is called the sphere (viṣaya) of miraculous power. The sphere of miraculous power comprises movement (gamana) and transformation (nirmita).

Movement is of three kinds: (1) transporting the body, which is movement by conveyance; (2) resolute determination, which is movement through resolute determination (adhimokṣa); and (3) movement with the speed of mind, which is movement as swift as thought.

The third kind, because it occurs as swiftly as thought, is called “movement with the speed of mind” (manojava). Only the Buddha possesses this kind of miraculous power. As soon as the Buddha forms the thought of going to a certain place, his body has already arrived there. It is for this reason that the Buddha said the sphere of a Buddha is inconceivable. He also possesses the other two kinds of miraculous power.

Other noble ones can all attain the two kinds of transporting the body and resolute determination.

Śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas can raise their bodies aloft and move like birds. As for the mode of resolute determination, through the power of volition (adhimokṣa), one can cause distant objects to become near (dūrasyāsannādhimokṣena); that is, through resolute determination, one can travel swiftly.

Transformation is of two kinds: that pertaining to the Desire Realm and that pertaining to the Form Realm. The first is the transformation of the four external ayatanas (bāhya caturāyatana): form (rūpa), odor (gandha), taste (rasa), and the tangible (spraṣṭavya), thus excluding sound (śabda). The second is the transformation of form and the tangible, because odor and taste do not exist in the Form Realm.

Transformation in the Desire Realm occurs in two cases, according to whether it is connected with the practitioner’s own body or another’s body (svaparaśarīrasaṃbaddha): for example, the practitioner transforms himself into a tiger or produces a tiger by transformation. Transformation in the Form Realm is likewise.

A practitioner in either the Desire Realm or the Form Realm possesses these four kinds of transformation; therefore, there are eight kinds of transformation in all.

(Question) When a practitioner in the Form Realm transforms an object belonging to the Desire Realm, can he not acquire (samanvāgama, prāpti) odor and taste?

(Answer) He cannot. There is no acquisition; still less is there a case in which a person acquires clothing and ornaments, even though these may be connected (saṃbaddha) with the body. Because they are not included among sentient beings (asattvasaṃkhyāta), clothing and ornaments are not connected with the basis of the faculties (indriyādhiṣṭhāna).

Other masters maintain that a person in the Form Realm can transform only the two ayatanas of form and the tangible, because they fear that if such a person could transform odor and the rest, he might thereby acquire odor and the rest.

(Question) Is it by relying directly upon the supernormal knowledge of transformation that the practitioner produces transformed objects?

(Answer) No. It is through the fruition of supernormal knowledge (abhijñāphala).

(Question) What kind of dharma is the fruition of supernormal knowledge?

The stanza answers:

[There are fourteen kinds of transformation-mind,

From two fruits of concentration up to five fruits;

They are acquired like concentration, simultaneously with their basis;

They arise from it, and give rise to pure concentration and minds of the same kind.

A transformed object is produced by a mind of its own plane;

Speech is produced by a mind of its own or a lower plane.

The transformed body and the transformer

All speak together; but with a Buddha it is otherwise.

First, through a vow, the body is caused to remain;

Then another mind is produced to give rise to speech.

At death, a solid body is left behind;

Some say that none is left.

At first, many transformation-minds are needed to effect transformations;

When mastery is attained, the reverse is true.

If acquired through cultivation, it is morally indeterminate;

In other cases, it is of all three moral natures.]

Exposition: The fruition of the supernormal knowledge of miraculous action consists precisely of transformation-minds capable of producing transformed objects. There are altogether fourteen kinds of such transformation-minds.

These minds differ according to the fundamental dhyana (mūladhyāna) that serves as their basis.

Two minds are fruits of the first dhyana: the first belongs to the Desire Realm, and the second to the first dhyana.

Three minds are fruits of the second dhyana: two belong to the two lower planes—the Desire Realm and the first dhyana—and one belongs to the same plane as the dhyana of which it is the fruit, namely, the second dhyana.

In the same way, four and five minds are respectively the fruits of the third and fourth dhyanas.

A transformation-mind that is the fruit of a certain dhyana belongs either to the plane of that dhyana or to a lower plane.

A transformation-mind does not arise from a lower plane.

The dhyana-mind, or concentrated mind, of a lower plane does not arise from a transformation-mind—that is, a fruit of dhyana—of a higher plane, because its power is inherently weak.

A transformation belonging to a lower plane but constituting a fruit of the second dhyana is nevertheless more powerful with respect to going and coming (gamana?) than a transformation belonging to a higher plane but constituting a fruit of the first dhyana.

The same applies to the succeeding dhyanas.

One acquires a transformation-mind—the fruit of a fundamental dhyana—just as one acquires the dhyana itself. That is, it is also acquired through detachment (vairāgya), because the fruit is acquired simultaneously with its basis.

From a dhyana arises its fruit, the transformation-mind. This mind is not attained at the time of emergence from contemplation (vyutthāna).

The first transformation-mind arises from pure dhyana (śuddhaka). Subsequent transformation-minds then arise from a mind of the same kind; that is, the second transformation-mind arises from the first transformation-mind, and so forth. Thus, in this continuum, each preceding transformation-mind gives rise to another transformation-mind. The final transformation-mind is followed by a pure dhyana. Therefore, a transformation-mind arises from two kinds of mind—pure dhyana and a transformation-mind—and also gives rise to these two kinds of mind. If a person is abiding in a transformation-mind, which is a morally indeterminate fruit of dhyana, and does not reenter concentration, he will not emerge from contemplation. Just as one enters through a door, one must also leave through that door.

All transformed objects (nirmita) are produced by a transformation-mind of the same plane, because a transformation-mind belonging to one plane cannot produce a transformed object belonging to another plane.

In certain cases, however, the speech uttered by a transformed person (nirmita, transformed body) also depends upon a mind of a lower plane.

The speech of a transformed body in the Desire Realm or in the first dhyana is produced by a mind belonging to that person’s own plane. But a transformed body on a higher plane, in the second dhyana and above, can also speak by means of a mind belonging to the first dhyana, because on the higher planes there are no minds possessing initial application (vitarka) and sustained application (vicāra) capable of producing manifest action (vijñāpti).

When the transformer (nirmātar) creates many transformed bodies, all those transformed bodies speak whenever the transformer speaks, because they all share the same manifest verbal action (vāgvijñāpti). Therefore, a stanza says: “When the transformer speaks, all the transformed bodies speak; when the transformer is silent, all the transformed bodies are silent.”

This does not apply to a Buddha, because he possesses complete mastery over concentration. According to his will, his transformed bodies may speak in succession; they ask questions and the Buddha answers; the Buddha asks questions and they answer.

(Question) When the mind that produces speech arises, the transformation-mind (nirmāṇacitta) no longer exists, and consequently no transformed body should exist at that time. How, then, can it be said that a transformed body is capable of speaking?

(Answer) Through the power of the mind arising before entering contemplation and before effecting the transformation, the transformer “sustains” (adhitiṣṭhati) the transformed body with the resolve: “May the transformed body remain!” Then, through another mind, the transformer can cause the transformed body to speak. Thus, although the transformed body speaks, the two minds—the transformation-mind and the mind producing speech—do not occur simultaneously, for when the transformed body exists as the basis, manifest verbal action can still arise.

It is not only while alive that the creator is capable of “sustaining” a magical creation so that it remains for a long time; this power can also cause the magical creation to continue existing after the creator has died. It was precisely through this power (adhitiṣṭhati, adhimokṣa) that the Venerable Mahākāśyapa was able to cause his bones to remain until the appearance of the Blessed One Maitreya. Moreover, only magical creations of a solid kind can be preserved for a long time; therefore Mahākāśyapa did not preserve his flesh and skin.

Other masters maintain that a body preserved through the power of resolve (adhimokṣa) cannot continue to exist after death. In the case of the Venerable Kāśyapa, his bones continued to exist because they were sustained (adhitiṣṭhati) by the devas.

Beginners in the practice (ādikārmikas) require many thoughts of magical creation to produce a single magical creation. Later, when their practice (abhyāsa) has been perfected, practitioners need rely on only one thought of magical creation to produce as many or as few magical creations as they wish.

When a thought of magical creation is attained through cultivation (bhāvanā)—that is, when it is the fruit of meditative absorption and supernatural knowledge (abhijñā)—it is morally indeterminate (avyākṛta), because the fruit of supernatural knowledge is one of the indeterminate categories. But if a thought of magical creation is innate (upapattija), it may be wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate, as when devas, nāgas, and others create transformations to help or harm others.

Of the ten material (rūpin) ayatanas, nine ayatanas—that is, all except sound—can be magically created.

However, it may be argued that if all nine ayatanas can be magically created, then faculties (indriya) could also be magically created; and thus a new sentient being (sattva) would appear (prādurbhāva), because the faculties are all material dharmas—shape and color—and material dharmas belong to sentient beings.

In fact, faculties cannot be magically created. Nevertheless, it is stated imprecisely that “magical transformation can occur with respect to nine ayatanas” (navāyatanika), because a magical transformation—whether the magical body of the creator or the magical appearance of some other body—is comprised of four ayatanas: visible form (rūpa), odor (gandha), taste (rasa), and the tangible (spraṣṭavya); and these do not exist independently (avinirbhūta, avinirbhāgena, avasthita) of the five faculties.

As stated above, supernatural power (ṛddhi) is of two kinds: that attained through preparatory practice (or the virtues of meditative absorption) and that attained by birth. It may, however, also be produced by spells, medicinal herbs, and karma. Thus there are five kinds in all: produced through cultivation (bhāvanāja), attained by birth (upapattilābhika), accomplished through spells (vidyākṛta, mantrakṛta), accomplished through medicines (oṣadhikṛta), and born of karma (karmaja). Examples of the fifth kind are the supernatural power of Māndhātar and others, and the supernatural power of beings in the intermediate state.

(Question) Under which category are the divine eye and the divine ear classified?

The stanza answers:

[The divine eye and divine ear are faculties,

Pure matter belonging to the planes of concentration;

Always corresponding, never deficient,

They apprehend objects that are concealed, subtle, distant, and so forth.]

Commentary: Interpreted literally, the divine eye and divine ear are called “divine” because their essential nature is that of the faculties of devas; interpreted figuratively, they are so called because they resemble faculties belonging to the heavenly realm. In the cases of bodhisattvas, wheel-turning kings, and others, “divine” means “resembling those of devas.”

When they are called “divine” in the literal sense, the divine eye and divine ear are pure matter belonging to the planes of meditative absorption.

Through preparatory practice (prayoga)—namely, the cultivation (bhāvanā) of light and sound (āloka, śabda) while practitioners rely upon the meditative absorptions—a kind of pure matter (rūpaprasāda), composed of extremely subtle and wondrous great elements and belonging to the plane of the meditative absorption used as the basis, arises within their eyes and ears, which belong to the Desire Realm. This pure matter constitutes an eye and an ear; it is capable of seeing and hearing and constitutes what are called the divine eye and divine ear. Because these faculties arise in dependence upon matter belonging to the planes of meditative absorption, they are regarded as faculties of the devas.

Because the divine eye and divine ear described above are attained through cultivation, they never belong to the “corresponding class” (tatsabhāga), but are always accompanied by eye-consciousness and ear-consciousness.

They are never deficient (avikala), because they occur in pairs and are always in a perfect condition (kāṇavibhrāntābhāvāt; vibhrānta = kekara). They apprehend objects that are concealed (antarita), extremely distant, subtle, and so forth. A stanza states: “The fleshly eye (māṃsacakṣus) does not see material forms that are distant, concealed, or subtle, nor does it see in every direction (sarvatas ca na paśyati). The divine eye is the opposite.”

(Question) When the divine eye is used to see material forms, are the objects seen near or far away?

(Answer) This depends upon the observer and the kind of eye. When great śrāvakas (Mahāśrāvakas), pratyekabuddhas, and the Blessed Buddhas wish to see without exerting effort, they can respectively see a small thousandfold world-system (sāhasra), a middle thousandfold world-system (dvisāhasra), and a great thousandfold world-system (trisāhasra).

When exerting effort, a great śrāvaka can see a middle thousandfold world-system (dvisāhasra madhyama lokadhātu) with the divine eye. A pratyekabuddha can see a great trichiliocosm (trisāhasra mahāsāhasra lokadhātu). A Blessed Buddha can see innumerable world-systems (aṣaṃkhya lokadhātu), for he sees according to his wish.

(Question) Why is this so?

(Answer) Because his divine eye takes material forms (rūpas) as its objects in the same way that his knowledge (jñāna) can take all dharmas as its objects.

(Question) Is it only supernatural power (ṛddhi) that may be attained by birth, or can the other supernatural faculties also be attained in this way?

The stanza answers:

[Supernatural power is of five kinds: attained through cultivation, attained by birth,

Accomplished through spells, accomplished through medicines, and accomplished through karma.

Knowledge of others’ minds is attained through cultivation, attained by birth, or accomplished through spells,

To which accomplishment through divination is added.

The remaining three are attained through cultivation, attained by birth, or accomplished through karma.

Apart from those attained through cultivation, all are of the three moral natures.

Only human beings lack those attained by birth;

In the hells, beings can cognize from the very beginning.]

Commentary: The four faculties of the divine ear, the divine eye, recollection of past lives, and knowledge of others’ minds may also be attained by birth.

However, faculties attained by birth are not called “supernatural knowledges” (abhijñā).

If the divine eye is attained by birth, it cannot see beings in the intermediate state. Such an eye is incapable of seeing the colors and shapes of beings in the intermediate state, which can be seen only by the supernatural knowledge of the divine eye. With regard to other objects, the divine eye attained by birth resembles the supernatural knowledge of the divine eye.

If knowledge of others’ minds is attained by birth, it is of three kinds: wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate.

If it arises through reasoning (tarka) or through mantras, the knowledge of others’ minds likewise has all three moral natures. A person who has learned the science of divination (īkṣaṇikasāstra) is able to interpret signs; therefore, that person’s knowledge of others’ minds arises through reasoning. One may also know another person’s mind by means of mantras. By contrast, if it is attained through cultivation (bhāvanā) or meditation (dhyāna), this kind of knowledge is wholesome only.

Beings in the hell realms possess only the innately acquired knowledge of others’ minds and the knowledge that recollects former abodes. From the moment they are born in hell and for as long as their suffering has not ceased, these beings can rely only on these two kinds of knowledge to know the minds of others and their own former lives.

Beings in the other destinies, if they possess the innately acquired knowledge of others’ minds and the knowledge that recollects former abodes, can know the minds of others and past lives at any time, because they are not oppressed by suffering.

Among beings in the human realm, none of the five supernormal powers is innately acquired.

(Question) If so, why are certain people—such as bodhisattvas—able naturally to attain the knowledge that recollects former abodes?

(Answer) The natural recollection of former lives (prakṛtijātismaratā; recollection arising from one’s inherent nature) attained by bodhisattvas is not innately acquired; that is, it is not attained merely because they have been born as human beings. Rather, this ability arises from certain particular karmas (karmaviśeṣaja).

(Question) Why is this so?

(Answer) Because the knowledge that recollects former abodes (pūrvanivāsānusmṛtijñāna) is of three kinds: (1) that which is the fruit of cultivation (bhāvanā) [namely, the superknowledge (abhijñā) discussed above], (2) that which is innately acquired [among the devas], and (3) that which is produced by karma [among bodhisattvas].