阿彌陀經通贊疏

Indeed! The principle cuts off the path of language; how could those of the Three Vehicles comprehend it? Its wisdom encompasses the myriad virtues and therefore is not something that those of the Ten Grounds can contemplate and know. It spreads auspicious clouds to shelter all beings of the four modes of birth and showers down the rain of Dharma to moisten the nine realms.

Therefore, the Blessed One descended from the Tuṣita Heaven and was born in the city of Kapilavastu. Weary of the life of sensual pleasure in the royal palace, he realized the path of true permanence beneath the tree. Because of the karmic power of sentient beings and the strength of the hosts of māras, he crossed the sea of suffering to open the three paths and steered the vessel of loving-kindness to carry the myriad virtues.

Thus, he extensively proclaimed the true Dharma and pointed directly to the Western Land. This is the wondrous gateway for entering the ranks of the sages and the subtle method for escaping the state of ordinary beings. The ten levels of pure lands are established according to spiritual positions and therefore have many distinctions; the lotus terraces of the nine grades correspond to degrees of purity and impurity and thus possess an ordered hierarchy.

How magnificent! It transcends both existence and nonexistence and utterly severs the extremes of eternalism and annihilationism.

The Buddha is one who has perfectly accomplished bodhi. “Spoke” means employing loving-kindness to expound the Dharma. Amitābha is translated in China as “Infinite Life.” The word “sūtra” carries the meanings of constancy, law, gathering, and threading. Constancy means that a hundred kings cannot alter it. Law means the common standard for a thousand generations. Gathering means encompassing all written words. Threading means penetrating every profound and wondrous meaning. Therefore, it is called the Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha on Amitābha.

At the beginning of every sūtra, it is commonly stated: “Thus have I heard, and so forth.”

Commentary: Before proceeding to explain the title of the sūtra, six matters will first be presented briefly:

1. A general presentation of the reasons the Buddha spoke the sūtra.

2. A detailed analysis of its central tenet.

3. A presentation of the essence and function of the sūtra.

4. The translator and the time of translation.

5. A discussion of the sudden and gradual teachings.

6. The formal explanation of the sūtra text.

1. A General Presentation of the Causes and Conditions for the Buddha’s Teaching of the Sūtra

While the Buddha was still at the causal stage of cultivation, he made the great vow: “I vow to deliver all sentient beings.” Now, in accordance with that former vow, he taught this sūtra. The Skillful Means chapter of the Lotus Sūtra states: “Śāriputra! You should know that I originally made a vow to enable all sentient beings to realize bodhi just as I have.” The Lifespan chapter states: “I constantly reflect upon how to cause sentient beings to enter the unsurpassed path and swiftly accomplish the body of a Buddha.

Whether during the causal stage of cultivation in the past or now that I have attained the fruit of the path, I have always made this vow: ‘I vow to guide sentient beings into the Buddha-path just as I have entered it.’” Therefore, to fulfill his former vow, he now teaches the sūtras.

As stated in the treatise: “When the bodhisattva was newly born, light radiated from his entire body and illuminated the ten directions. He took seven steps, surveyed the four directions, and, uttering a lion’s roar, spoke this verse:

This is my final birth from a womb;

This is my last body.

I have attained liberation

And shall deliver sentient beings.

To fulfill this vow, he taught the sūtras.

Question: The Blessed One taught the Dharma in many places and at many different assemblies. Why did he choose Jeta Grove to teach the Amitābha Sūtra?

Answer: Each occasion on which the Buddha taught the Dharma had a different purpose. For example, he taught the Vimalakīrti Sūtra to eliminate erroneous attachments. He taught the Lotus Sūtra to guide sentient beings into the One Vehicle. The reason for teaching this sūtra was to break the three wheels. These three wheels are:

First, to break the wheel of impermanence: Sentient and insentient beings alike are impermanent. Impermanence is taught so that beings may awaken and relinquish the impermanent.

Second, to break the wheel of impurity: Sentient and insentient beings alike are impure. Impurity is taught so that beings may arouse the aspiration to seek birth in the Pure Land, be born by transformation within a lotus flower, and relinquish the womb-born body of blood and flesh. This breaks the impurity of sentient beings. Teaching that the Pure Land contains no defiling impurities breaks the impurity of the world. This is the breaking of the wheel of impurity.

Third, to break the wheel of suffering: Sentient beings are constantly oppressed by various sufferings. Therefore, they are guided to return to the Pure Land so that these sufferings and hardships may be eliminated. This sūtra was taught to break the three wheels described above.

Furthermore, this sūtra was taught to guide the following two kinds of sentient beings.

The first are indolent sentient beings who do not know how to strive for advancement and who fear that the cultivation of mindfulness of the Buddha entails many difficulties. In the Dharma gateway of mindfulness of the Buddha, the cause is small, but the fruit is exceedingly great. The sūtra states: “If a person is mindful of the Buddha for one day and up to seven days, that person will immediately attain rebirth there, and so forth.”

The second are sentient beings whose minds are scattered, who pursue sensory objects, and who are submerged in the evil destinies. Therefore, this sūtra was taught, pointing directly to the West so that their minds might become concentrated.

Question: Whenever the Buddha taught the Dharma, it was always to break the three wheels. Why, then, is it said that only this sūtra reveals the Buddha’s loving-kindness?

Answer: Although other sūtras also teach the breaking of the three wheels, the period required to sever and relinquish them is longer. Thus, they are unlike this sūtra, and so it is said that this sūtra was taught to break the three wheels.

2. Presentation of the Central Tenet

The ancient virtuous masters of China classified all sūtras and treatises into four tenets.

2.1. The Tenet Establishing Intrinsic Nature: Works such as the Saṃyukta Abhidharma Heart Treatise^[3], and so forth, establish that all dharmas within the five groups possess intrinsic nature.

2.2. The Tenet Refuting Intrinsic Nature: Works such as the Satyasiddhi Treatise^[4], and so forth, refute the real existence of the substance of dharmas, holding that all dharmas possess phenomenal characteristics.

2.3. The Tenet Refuting Characteristics: Sūtras such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, and so forth, advocate refuting the characteristics of all dharmas so as to return to emptiness.

2.4. The Tenet Revealing Reality: Sūtras such as the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Dharma Noa Sūtra, and so forth, expound the true meaning of the Middle Way. Thus, the sūtra speaks of abandoning the conjured city and returning to the place of treasure, and so forth.

This Amitābha Sūtra belongs to the fourth tenet.

On the basis of the sūtra texts, the entire doctrinal character of Śākyamuni Buddha’s lifetime of teaching is classified. There are only three kinds of teachings,^[5] and then, by establishing tenets according to each type of doctrinal classification, eight tenets are distinguished.^[6] The three teachings are:

– The Tenet That Predominantly Teaches Existence: This refers to sūtras such as the Āgamas, and so forth, which belong to the Śrāvakayāna teaching.

– The Tenet That Predominantly Teaches Emptiness: This refers to works such as the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, the Śataśāstra, the Dvādaśamukhaśāstra, the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, and so forth.

– The Tenet of Neither Existence: This refers to sūtras such as the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, Lotus Sūtra, Amitābha Sūtra, and so forth. Dharmas belonging to the conditioned and unconditioned are called “existence.” Dharmas falling within the sphere of self and what belongs to self are all called “emptiness.” These three teachings are explained in great detail and clarity throughout the sūtras and treatises.

The eight tenets are:

– The Tenet That the Self Is Empty but Dharmas Exist: This is the view of the Vātsīputrīya school and others.

– The Tenet That the Self Exists but Dharmas Are Without Self: This is the view of the Sarvāstivāda school and others.

– The Tenet That Dharmas Neither Come nor Go: This is the view of the Mahāsāṃghika school and others.

– The Tenet Revealing That Conventional Things Are Provisional and Real: This is the view of the Prajñaptivāda school and others.

– The Tenet That the Conventional Is False and the Ultimate Is Real: This is the view of the Lokottaravāda school and others.

– The Tenet That All Dharmas Are Mere Names: This is the view of the Ekavyāvahārika school and others.

– The Tenet That All Is Empty in the Ultimate Sense: This is the view of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras and treatises, and of Nāgārjuna’s teachings in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, the Śataśāstra, and so forth.

– The Tenet of Perfect Reality in Accordance with Principle: This is the view of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, the Lotus Sūtra, and so forth; of the treatises and teachings of Asaṅga and others; and of the teaching of the Middle Way, and so forth. This Amitābha Sūtra belongs to the Tenet of Perfect Reality in Accordance with Principle, taking the Pure Land as its central tenet. In addition, there are two further tenets: the Tenet That the Dharma Is Not Taught and the Tenet That the Dharma Is Taught.

The position that the Buddha did not preach the Dharma: Scholars such as Longjun^[7] and others held that the Buddha possessed only three qualities: great samadhi, great wisdom, and great compassion. He was entirely free from conceptual elaboration and had never preached the Dharma. Yet because of his compassion, his original vows, and the power of conditions, sentient beings conceived in their minds that the Buddha had preached the Dharma.

Although sentient beings formed perceptions and thoughts through their own wholesome roots, they nevertheless attributed the conditions that brought about such understanding to the Buddha’s preaching. The bhiksu Asvabhava said: “Throughout the eight periods^[8], sentient beings continually conceive true and untrue teachings, events, groupings, and manifestations as the substance of the teaching.” Therefore, the sutra states: “From the time he attained enlightenment until he entered nirvana, throughout that interval the Blessed One did not utter a single word.

It is like a mother biting her finger and her child crying out for help.”

Scholars such as Bandhuprabha^[9] and others held that the Buddha’s body also fully possessed the various skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus. Because he was free from discrimination, he was said to be without conceptual elaboration; it was not because he did not preach the Dharma that he was described as being without conceptual elaboration. That is, in response to the wholesome roots of his listeners and through the power of his original vows and conditions, the characteristics of words and meanings arose within the Tathagata’s cognition.

These characteristics of words and meanings appeared because the Buddha wished to benefit sentient beings who possessed wholesome roots; therefore, it is said that the Buddha preached the Dharma. Although the consciousness of sentient beings could not comprehend this, the Buddha’s objective aspect seemed to appear with perfect clarity; hence the expression “Thus have I heard,” and so forth.

Vasubandhu^[10] said: It is because distinct continua of consciousness cause other distinct continua of consciousness to arise. These two mutually assist each other in serving as dominant conditions. Thus, Dharmapala^[11] and others divided the teaching into three vehicles according to beings’ capacities and methods of practice. This sutra belongs to the Mahayana teachings. Among the three pitakas, it belongs to the bodhisattva pitaka; among the twelve divisions of the teachings,^[12] it belongs to the category of “Spontaneous Teaching without a Request.”

Question: The Lotus Sutra had to await someone’s request before the Buddha would preach it. Why, then, did the Buddha preach this Amitabha Sutra of his own accord?

Answer: The Lotus Sutra awaited someone’s request before the Buddha preached it because there was concern that sentient beings might treat it lightly. The Buddha preached the Amitabha Sutra of his own accord in order to exalt the Buddha’s compassion.

Purpose: This means the objective. That is, the intention is to cause sentient beings to abandon the defiled realm and seek rebirth in the Pure Land.

3. Presentation of the substance and function of the sutra

The substance is the substance of the teaching. Ordinarily, when distinguishing the substance of a sutra’s teaching, commentators rely upon five approaches.

– The approach of subsuming characteristics and returning them to nature: This approach holds that all things take suchness as their substance.

– The approach of subsuming objects under mind: This approach holds that all dharmas exist only through consciousness.

– The approach of subsuming the provisional under the real: This approach holds that factors dissociated from mind are included within form, mind, and mental factors.

– The approach of separately discussing substance and function: This approach holds that the apprehending aspect and the four skandhas are all included within the underlying substance and the objective aspect; each dharma pertains separately to self or other, and each has its own distinctions.

– The approach of aggregation and manifestation: For example, upon hearing the four words “all conditioned phenomena are impermanent,” one considers dharmas to be aggregated and manifested and takes this as the substance of the teaching. In reality, however, only the four dharmas belonging to the Buddha’s underlying substance—Sound, Name, Phrase, and Syllable—are taken as its substance. If reflected images are taken as the substance of the teaching, then it is precisely a conditioned dharma subject to outflows. If only conditioned dharmas subject to outflows and reflected images are taken as the substance, this would have to accord with reality. The Three Jewels, then, would correspond only to what is subject to outflows and morally indeterminate. If this is not so, why take reflected images as the substance of the teaching? One should therefore understand that only the undefiled Sound, Name, Phrase, and Syllable are taken as its substance. Sound is real; Name, Phrase, and Syllable are provisional. Other commentators classify the substance of the teaching in different ways, as is also explained in the treatises.

Function means setting forth defilement in order to reveal purity. This is called function. It also has another meaning: setting forth the real in order to realize the true is likewise called function.

4. Date and translators

This Sutra of Immeasurable Life has four translations in total.

The first, entitled the Shorter Sutra of Immeasurable Life, was translated by Kumarajiva on the eighth day of the second month in the fourth year of the Hongshi era of the Qin dynasty.

The second was translated by Gunabhadra during the Yuanjia era of the Song dynasty and consists of four pages.

The third, entitled the Sutra in Praise of the Pure Land and the Buddha’s Protection and Reception, was translated by Tripitaka Master Xuanzang in the sixth year of the Yonghui era of the Tang dynasty and consists of ten pages.

The fourth, entitled the Sutra of Verses Extracted from the Amitabha Sutra, was translated during the Later Qin dynasty and consists of one page. The translator’s name has been lost.

The sutra used as the basis for this commentary is Kumarajiva’s Qin-dynasty translation.

Question: To which of the three periods of teaching does this sutra belong?

Answer: Since someone asked this question, the systems of doctrinal classification^[13] will be presented here in outline. Before presenting the masters of doctrinal classification, however, it should be clarified that there are two principal systems of classification. The first is the doctrinal classification of Chinese commentators. The second is the doctrinal classification of Indian commentators.

– First, doctrinal classification in China: In China, there were five systems of doctrinal classification in total.

4.1. Tripitaka Master Bodhiruci,^[14] whose name was translated into Chinese as Juexian, lived during the Wei dynasty. He grouped all the teachings given throughout the Buddha’s lifetime of instruction into a single period. Within this classification, however, there were two respects in which things did not correspond, thereby causing people to imagine that there seemed to be several periods of teaching.

First: The teaching is the same, but beings’ capacities and dispositions differ. It is like a single rain absorbed differently by three kinds of grasses and two kinds^[15] of trees. The Buddha’s teaching has only one flavor, but sentient beings experience it differently; in reality, the teaching is entirely one and the same. Within that same teaching, sravakas and pratyekabuddhas understand only the Four Noble Truths and the twelve links of dependent origination, whereas bodhisattvas understand the six paramitas. Thus, the Buddha’s teaching appears to differ in accordance with the capacities of each kind of sentient being.

Second: The meaning and principle are the same, but cultivation and realization differ. A typical example is that practitioners of the three vehicles attain different fruits. It is like three animals crossing the same river, each experiencing a different degree of depth or shallowness.

For this reason, Bodhiruci divided all the teachings given throughout the Buddha’s lifetime of instruction into only one period.

4.2. Tripitaka Master Dharmaksema,^[16] who lived during the Song dynasty, divided all the teachings given by the Buddha throughout his lifetime into two periods: the Sudden Teaching and the Gradual Teaching.

Regarding the Sudden Teaching: Dharmaksema classified such teachings of the Buddha as the twofold emptiness, the three natures, the three non-natures, the eight consciousnesses, and the twofold selflessness as belonging to the Sudden Teaching. This is precisely why, during the Avatamsaka assembly, when the Buddha preached the Dharma, the sravakas sat bewildered as though blind and deaf.

Regarding the Gradual Teaching: He classified such teachings of the Buddha as the Four Noble Truths, dependent origination, the five precepts, and the eight precepts as belonging collectively to the Gradual Teaching.

4.3. Tripitaka Master Paramartha,^[17] who lived during the Liang dynasty, divided all the teachings spoken by the Buddha throughout his lifetime into three periods. These three periods of teaching are: the teaching of existence, the teaching of emptiness, and the teaching of neither emptiness nor existence.

– The teaching of existence: He maintained that from the Buddha’s attainment of enlightenment until the seventh year, the Buddha taught only the teaching of existence. In the fifth year, he delivered the five brothers led by Venerable Kaundinya. In the sixth year, he delivered Venerable Shariputra. In the seventh year, he delivered the three Kashyapa brothers.^[18] Everything the Buddha did throughout that period is collectively called the teaching of existence.

– The teaching of emptiness: From the eighth year through the thirty-eighth year, the Buddha taught the eight divisions of the Prajnaparamita teachings,^[19] and so forth.

– The teaching of neither emptiness nor existence: From the thirty-ninth year until he was about to enter nirvana, he taught the teaching of neither emptiness nor existence, as in such sutras as the Lotus Sutra, the Lankavatara Sutra, the Visesacintibrahma-pariprccha Sutra, and so forth.

4.4. Tripitaka Masters Jnanagupta^[20] and Dharmagupta,^[21] who lived during the Sui dynasty, divided the whole of the Buddha’s teachings into four periods. These four periods are: the teaching of the emptiness of beings, the teaching of the emptiness of dharmas, the teaching of the characteristics of dharmas, and the teaching of contemplative practice.

– Regarding the teaching of the emptiness of beings: The two masters maintained that during the first twelve years after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha taught the Agama sutras and so forth.

– The teaching of the emptiness of dharmas: During the following sixteen years, the Buddha taught the eight divisions of the Prajnaparamita teachings.

– The teaching of the characteristics of dharmas: During the period from the thirty-eighth through the forty-ninth year, the Buddha taught such sutras as the Lankavatara Sutra, the Visesacintibrahma-pariprccha Sutra, and the Lotus Sutra, and so forth, explaining in particular and in detail the Hundred Dharmas, the Three Natures, the Three Non-Natures, the Eight Consciousnesses, the Twofold Selflessness, and so forth.

– The teaching of contemplative practice: During this period, the Buddha taught such sutras as the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Sutra on the Nature of the Dharma Realm.

4.5. Layman Liu,^[22] a recluse who lived in the mountains during the Jin dynasty, divided, according to his own understanding, the teachings given throughout the Buddha’s lifetime into five periods. These five periods of teaching are: the teaching for humans and devas, the teaching of the emptiness of beings, the teaching of the emptiness of dharmas, the teaching of the emptiness of both, and the teaching of neither emptiness nor existence.

– The teaching for humans and devas: He maintained that twenty-one days after the Buddha attained enlightenment, the Buddha taught the Three Refuges, the Five Precepts, and the Ten Wholesome Actions to the elder Trapusa,^[23] thereby delivering him. According to Layman Liu, during this period the Buddha had not yet encountered anyone possessing supramundane wholesome roots, and therefore he first delivered lay followers. Master Bodhiruci asked: According to the Trapusa Sutra: “When the five hundred merchants were preparing to receive the Five Precepts, they first repented of the offenses of the five heinous deeds, the ten unwholesome deeds, and slandering the Dharma. The Blessed One said: ‘The four great elements are originally pure; my body is originally pure.’ At that very moment, Trapusa attained ‘acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas’ (also called ‘acceptance of the birthlessness of dharmas’). Likewise, all five hundred merchants attained ‘compliant acceptance,’ meaning that they all realized the noble fruit.” How, then, can that Dharma be called the teaching for humans and devas?

– The teaching of the emptiness of beings: This refers to the first twelve years, during which the Buddha taught only the teachings of the Two Vehicles.

– The teaching of the emptiness of dharmas: During the following eighteen years, the Buddha taught this teaching.

– The teaching of the emptiness of both: During the following eight years, the Buddha taught the eight divisions of the Prajnaparamita teachings.

– The teaching of neither emptiness nor existence: From the fortieth year onward, the Buddha taught the Lotus Sutra, the Lankavatara Sutra, and so forth.

4.6. Classification of the teachings according to the Western Regions (India): There are two systems of classifying the teachings: the classification of the School of Ultimate Meaning and Universal Emptiness, and the classification of the School of Accordance with Principle and Perfect Reality.

– Classification according to the School of Ultimate Meaning and Universal Emptiness: Masters at Nalanda Monastery,^[24] such as Jnanagarbha and Jnanaprabha, followed Manjushri as the patriarch of their school and divided the Buddha’s teachings into three periods. These three periods are: the emptiness of beings, neither emptiness nor existence, and the emptiness of both.

– The emptiness of beings: This means all the teachings of the Two Vehicles and so forth spoken by the Buddha.

– Neither emptiness nor existence: This includes such sutras as the Lotus Sutra and so forth.

– The emptiness of both: This means the eight divisions of the Prajnaparamita teachings.

In the classification according to the School of Accordance with Principle and Perfect Reality, the treatise master Silabhadra^[25] of Nalanda Monastery followed Bodhisattva Maitreya as the patriarch of his school and divided the Blessed One’s teachings into three periods.

– The teaching of existence: Throughout the Buddha’s lifetime of teaching, he taught only existent dharmas.

– The teaching of emptiness: The Buddha taught only the teaching of emptiness.

– The teaching of neither emptiness nor existence: The Buddha taught only the teaching of neither emptiness nor existence. This means that, considered in terms of the perfectly accomplished nature, all dharmas exist; but considered in terms of the imagined nature and so forth, all dharmas are empty. This is Master Paramartha’s view. That is, Master Paramartha correlated dharmas with periods of time and thus held that dharmas are empty. Master Silabhadra principally correlated the teachings with periods of time.

Someone asked Master Paramartha: Fourteen days after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha taught only the Avatamsaka Sutra; was that, then, the first period of teaching? It is also said that after forty years, the Blessed One taught the Dharma of neither emptiness nor existence as the second period of teaching. This would mean that when the Buddha was about to enter nirvana and taught the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching, that was the third period, would it not?

Master Silabhadra correlated periods of time with the teachings and made this the principal classification of the true teaching. This sutra teaches the Pure Land: from the standpoint of wisdom regarding the perfectly accomplished nature, it exists; from the standpoint of the imagined nature and so forth, it is empty. Thus, this sutra belongs precisely to the teaching of neither emptiness nor existence.

5. Discussion of Sudden and Gradual Teaching

Those who have realized the fruits of the Two Vehicles and subsequently arouse the aspiration toward the Mahayana are said to attain gradual awakening. This is because such persons have few rebirths remaining or will undergo no further rebirth. If someone at the level of the two kinds of ordinary beings^[26] arouses the aspiration and turns toward the Mahayana, that person belongs to sudden awakening.

Those who have not realized the principle of the Two Vehicles cannot be called gradually awakened merely because they still undergo many rebirths. The Nirvana Sutra says only: “One who has attained the first fruit and then redirects the mind must pass through eighty thousand kalpas before accomplishing unsurpassed bodhi, while a pratyekabuddha must pass through ten kalpas before attaining perfect and complete enlightenment.” Nowhere does the sutra discuss the greater or lesser number of kalpas undergone by those at the two stages of accumulation and preparatory practice.

Therefore, one should understand that only those who have attained the five fruits and then redirect the mind may be called gradually awakened. Those who have attained the seven expedient stages and then redirect the mind belong to sudden awakening. Those who have previously aroused the aspiration for the Two Vehicles, practiced the disciplines of the Two Vehicles, and then redirected their minds toward the Mahayana are all called gradually awakened.

Because they possess the nature of shravakas and cultivate shravaka practices, understanding attained through hearing the Dharma and reflecting upon it is also called awakening; why, then, must realization be required? Moreover, they still undergo several rebirths. That is to say, all who still undergo rebirth, including the five kinds of persons who have attained fruits mentioned above, as well as all those who remain at the stages of accord, certainty, discernment, and division, are gradually awakened.

The teaching concerning those who have attained the five fruits, redirected the mind, and the number of kalpas they must undergo does not contradict the doctrine that those at the seven expedient stages who redirect the mind are also called gradually awakened. It should be understood that those at the two stages of accumulation and preparatory practice still undergo several rebirths. Therefore, one should know with certainty that all who redirect the mind belong to gradual awakening.

The following are the opinions of two masters: The first maintains that both the teaching and its principle exist. The second maintains that the teaching does not exist, but its principle does. This sutra teaches that whoever, with single-mindedness and without distraction, practices the ten recollections with wholehearted concentration will immediately attain rebirth in the Pure Land and escape the defiled realm; thus, it belongs to the sudden teaching. Therefore, the sutra states: “If, for a period of one day through seven days, one is single-minded and undistracted, and so forth.”

The words of the sutra: “The Buddha Speaks the Amitabha Sutra.”

6. Explanation of the Sutra Text

The commentary states:

What follows is the sixth section. This section formally begins the explanation of the text of the sutra. The explanation of the sutra text is divided into two parts. The first explains the title of the sutra. The second explains the text of the sutra.

6.1. Explanation of the Sutra Title

The two words “Spoken by the Buddha” indicate that the Buddha is the one who taught the Dharma. The four words “Amitabha,” during the Tang dynasty, were translated as “Infinite Life.”

The word “sutra” encompasses all four meanings of “constant, norm, gathering, and thread,” as explained above. Using what is supremely wondrous to indicate what is inferior is an explanation according to the “dependent determinative compound.”^[27] Alternatively, using a particular detail to describe the whole is also an explanation according to the “dependent determinative compound.” Or the sutra may be named after a person.

6.2. Explanation of the Sutra Text

The sutra says: “Thus have I heard.”

The commentary says:

6.2.1. The Introductory Section

This sutra is divided into three sections. The first, from “Thus have I heard” through “together with Shakra, lord of the devas, and innumerable other devas in the great assembly,” is called the introductory section. The second, from “At that time, the Buddha addressed the elder Shariputra: West of here” through “this is exceedingly difficult,” is the principal section. The third, from “After the Buddha had spoken this sutra” through the end, is the transmission section.

The word “introduction” has the same meaning as “cause” and “beginning.” It means clearly setting forth the cause for teaching the Dharma and serving as the opening words of the Dharma teaching; therefore, it is called the “Introductory Section.”

Whenever the Buddha taught the Dharma, He did so with a purpose. Thus, He clearly described the Pure Land to distinguish the differences among realms and encouraged sentient beings to give rise to joyful aspiration; therefore, this is called the principal section.

From the time the Buddha finished teaching the Dharma and forever afterward, sentient beings have continued to receive benefit. Yet, to clearly present the Dharma gate so that it would not be lost and in the hope that it would be transmitted through many generations, it is called the transmission section.

According to the division made by ancient sutra commentators, the introductory section has six parts. Here, following the Treatise on the Buddha Land, the introductory section is divided into five parts.

– To cause sentient beings to give rise to faith, everything that was heard is clearly presented; hence it says, “Thus have I heard.”

– Because the speaker and the listeners were present together, it is called “at one time.”

– A teaching necessarily requires a speaker, and to indicate that the sovereign master who honored the Dharma must be a supreme person, He is designated simply as the “Buddha.”

– The teaching of the Dharma must have a location. This sutra was taught in Anathapindika’s Garden in Prince Jeta’s Grove, in the country of Shravasti. This was a dwelling place of the Buddha’s reward body, not a reward land.

– Those to whom the Dharma was taught and who heard it included the venerable Shariputra and others. The four words “Thus have I heard” constitute the first part. Because they are intended to cause sentient beings to give rise to faith, they are generally described as what “was heard.” Therefore, this is divided into three distinct approaches. The first discusses the cause for teaching the Dharma. The second discusses the purpose of teaching the Dharma. The third formally explains the text of the sutra.

– The cause for teaching the Dharma: Sutras such as the Great Art Sutra and others relate the circumstances in which the Buddha taught this sutra. When the Buddha was about to enter nirvana, He told the bhikshus that if they still had any doubts, they should ask about them at that very time. The venerable Upali and the venerable Anuruddha then asked the venerable Ananda to inquire about four matters.

The venerable Ananda asked:

First, after the Buddha’s passing, whom should the bhikshus choose as their teacher? Second, what should they take as their refuge? Third, if there is an ill-natured bhikshu, how should he be dealt with? Fourth, what words should be placed at the beginning of all the sutras taught by the Buddha?

The Buddha taught:

First, after My parinirvana, the bhikshus should take the Pratimoksha as their great teacher.

Second, the bhikshus should rely upon the four foundations of mindfulness to settle their minds.

Third, if there is an ill-natured bhikshu, he should be dealt with through the brahma-danda. The two words “brahma-danda” are translated in China as “silent,” meaning silence. Thus, he should not be beaten or reviled; one should merely remain silent and pay him no heed.

Fourth, when reciting the sutras, the words “Thus have I heard” should be placed at the beginning of every sutra.

Therefore, later, when the sutras were compiled, the venerable Ananda acted in accordance with the Buddha’s injunction and placed the four words “Thus have I heard” at the beginning of this sutra, and likewise at the beginning of the other sutras.

– The purpose of teaching the Dharma: It is to cause sentient beings to give rise to faith and follow the teaching. Thus, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “The reason every sutra begins by saying, ‘Thus have I heard,’ is to arouse faith. Once one has faith and practices accordingly, wisdom will arise. A person possessing wisdom can enter the Path and is capable of attaining liberation. Faith is the fundamental basis for entering the Dharma. Wisdom is the skillful means for reaching the ultimate. Through faith, the meaning of the sutra text becomes concordant. Through concordance, the words shared between teacher and disciple are established. Because there is faith, one completely trusts the teaching. Because there is accord, speaker and listener, teacher and disciple, are present together.” There are ten explanations of faith.

– Faith is the foremost cause for attaining the ultimate fruition. Practicing according to the Sutra for Humane Kings and other sutras is the fundamental cause for attaining the noble stages and is the sudden and gradual Dharma by which the truth is realized. Therefore, among the forty states of mind, faith comes first. When one first gives rise to the aspiration for bodhi, one must possess the ten virtues and initiate the three wondrous contemplations. The great aspiration for bodhi takes wholesome roots as its essence, good friends as its favorable conditions, and non-retrogression as the impetus for advancement.…

– Gradual cultivation is the fundamental Dharma for entering the truth. The treatise masters all say: “When one is about to enter the noble stage, one must possess the faculty of faith and the power of faith. Because one possesses the faculty of faith, the myriad wholesome qualities arise from it. Because one possesses the power of faith, the four maras cannot cause disruption.” Therefore, at its opening, the Amitabha Sutra exhorts and guides beings to give rise to faith.

– Penetrating the wondrous truth and realizing purity constitute a cause by which one can transcend the evil destinies and escape poverty and lowliness. After entering the noble state, one realizes the four kinds of unshakable faith. Through faith in the Three Jewels, one can escape the evil destinies. Through faith in the precepts, one possesses the cause for escaping poverty and lowliness. Therefore, the treatise speaks of the direct realization of faith.

– Faith is the skillful arm that bears the highest virtues. According to the Vibhasha Treatise: “A person of faith tastes the flavor of the Dharma as though possessing a beautiful hand. A student of the Buddhadharma is like a great dragon-elephant, taking faith as the hand, diligence as the tusks, mindfulness as the neck, wisdom as the head, and bearing and accumulating wholesome Dharmas upon both shoulders. It is like an elephant using its trunk to bring food into its mouth.” Therefore, a student of the Buddhadharma must first and foremost give rise to faith.

– Faith is foremost among the seven noble treasures and is a treasure of Dharma. Although a person may have extensive learning and broad understanding, without principles to guide them, these are insufficient; the Dharma treasure, however, teaches people to obtain the inheritance of the noble ones. Therefore, faith is required first. The Treatise on the Revelation of the Meaning states: “The seven noble treasures are faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, wisdom, moral shame, and moral dread.” Faith is one of these seven.

– Faith stands foremost among the eight causes of goodness. It is the root of wholesome Dharmas. The Yogacara Treatise states: “For the attainment of wholesome Dharmas, aspiration is the root, attention is the source of arising, contact is the point of activation, feeling is that which draws one onward, concentration is the predominating condition, wisdom is supreme, liberation is steadfastness, and complete separation is the ultimate boundary.”

Aspiration is the root, for aspiration is precisely hope. Attention is the place of arising, for it is ever vigilant. Contact is the point of activation, for mind and mental factors unite with the predominant conditions. Feeling is the force that draws one onward, for it receives objects within the mind. Concentration is predominant, for the mind is tranquil. Wisdom is supreme, for it distinguishes wholesome dharmas from unwholesome dharmas. Liberation is steadfast, for it severs all bonds. Transcendent separation is the final limit, for it is complete awakening. Since faith is the basis upon which aspiration relies, faith must first be aroused.

– The wondrous hand opens the principal gate. Here, the hand signifies that which upholds the teachings. The Abhidharmakosha Treatise states: “It draws sentient beings out of the mire of birth and death; exposition of the essential doctrine is the hand of the Buddha-Dharma. Therefore, to arouse faith at the outset is to provide sentient beings with arms; with both arms working together, they swim free of the mire of birth and death.” The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “It is like a person with hands who enters a mountain of jewels and may freely take whatever he wishes; a person without hands can take nothing. Likewise, one who has faith and enters the jeweled mountain of the Buddha-Dharma will certainly attain the Path. Without faith, even though one may understand all the principles, one will attain no realization.” The meanings just cited accord with what this passage intends to convey.

– The pure jewel clarifies the waters of the mind, causing the mind to become pure. The Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only states: “Faith is like a luminous crystal jewel that can clarify turbid water; it can also transform the defiled nature of disbelief.”

– It prepares provisions for the road to achievement. Xuanni said: “Of the army, provisions, and trust, none of these three can be dispensed with. From ancient times until now, death has always existed; but without the people’s trust, a ruler cannot stand.” Just as a large cart without a crossbar or a small cart without an axle—how could it carry anything? Therefore, faith must first be brought forth.

– A solemn banquet manifests sincerity. The Spring and Autumn Annals states: “If a person possesses clear and sincere faith, then even shellfish from ravines, streams, hills, and mounds, together with sprigs of water celery, southernwood, and moss, may be offered to spirits and may also be presented to the ruler. How much more so when noble persons bind two states together through mutual trust.”

Of the ten meanings above, the first eight are explained according to the principles of ultimate truth, while the last two are explained according to conventional truth. Therefore, every sutra begins with the four words, “Thus have I heard.” The meaning of “thus” as used in the sutras indicates that the teaching was personally heard from the Buddha exactly in this way. This is said to avoid the fault of adding to or subtracting from the teaching. It is also intended to inspire sentient beings to develop joyful aspiration and practice accordingly.

The following formally explains the two words “thus.” The Treatise on the Buddha-Bhumi states that “thus” may be explained in four different ways.

– Explanation by way of analogy. Someone might say: “Such wealth and nobility are like those of Vaishravana.” The teachings transmitted and heard in this way are exactly like what the Buddha taught, certainly without any difference, and were assuredly presented in this manner for the sake of benefit and well-being. Alternatively, everything that is about to be spoken—the entire text as it is—is wholly identical to what I once heard in the past.

– Explanation by way of instruction. For example, one teaching might say: “You should read and recite the sutras and treatises thus.” In this case, “thus,” from the more remote standpoint, refers to the Buddha’s teaching, and from the immediate standpoint, refers to the exhortation of the transmitter of the Dharma.

– Establishing “thus” on the basis of an answer. This means that someone asks: “Is what you are about to say truly what you heard in the past?” At that moment, the other person replies: “Yes! Thus have I heard.”

– Establishing “thus” on the basis of a promise. This means that someone says: “I shall think thus for you, act thus, and speak thus.” That is, at the time of the compilation, the bodhisattvas together requested: “Speak exactly as you heard.” The bodhisattva transmitting the Dharma then accepted their request: “Yes! I shall speak exactly thus. I shall speak according to what I have heard.” Alternatively, it is an affirmation: “The matter is thus!” This means: “I once heard the Dharma in this way. The matter is thus, and it shall be spoken here. There is certainly no difference.” Because of the four meanings just stated, every sutra begins with the four words, “Thus have I heard.”

The Tripitaka Master Paramartha cited the following: “The Subtle Vinaya records: When the Venerable Ananda ascended the seat to compile the treasury of the Dharma, his body resembled the Buddha’s true body and was also fully endowed with all the excellent marks. When he descended from the seat, his body returned to its former appearance. This event is also mentioned in the account of the compilation of the Dharma treasury.” It was precisely because of this event that many people formed the following suppositions:

First, they thought that the Buddha, the Great Compassionate One, had arisen again from nirvana and was once more teaching the wondrous Dharma.

Second, they suspected that a Buddha had come from another world to teach the Dharma in this realm.

Third, they suspected that the Venerable Ananda had transformed himself into a Buddha to teach the Dharma to the assembly.

What is now being presented is the teaching spoken by the Buddha exactly in this way, which the Venerable Ananda personally heard while attending upon the Buddha in the past. It was not the Buddha returning from nirvana to teach; it was not a Buddha coming from another world to teach; nor was it the Venerable Ananda transforming himself into a Buddha to teach. In order to dispel such doubts, every sutra begins with the words, “Thus have I heard.” Moreover, the proceedings of the various compilations of the Dharma are all recorded in the canon, as has repeatedly been explained above.

The words “I have heard” are spoken by the bodhisattva transmitting the Dharma in reference to himself. “I personally heard the Dharma thus from the Buddha.” Therefore, it is called “I have heard.” This does not mean that “I” refers to a fixed person. The “I” spoken of here refers precisely to the skandhas.

“I” is a conventional expression used in the world. In addition, there are three different concepts of self.

First, the falsely grasped self: this is the self delusively grasped by various doctrines and so forth.

Second, the provisionally posited self: this is the “self” among the four virtues of “permanence, bliss, self, and purity,” provisionally established in the Nirvana Sutra to dispel the inverted minds of followers of the Two Vehicles.

Third, the self commonly spoken of by worldly people: this is the usage transmitted among people when speaking of Devadatta, Yajnadatta, and so forth.

Here, the transmitter of the Dharma follows worldly convention and refers to himself as “I.”

Question: If that is so, why did he not say his name—“I, Ananda”—but instead say, “I have heard”?

Answer: There are three reasons for this:

– First, it shows that the doctrine does not contradict worldly convention. Although the true teaching is presented, it does not conflict with conventional principles. Although language of wondrous efficacy is presented, it does not conflict with ordinary usage. Although ultimate truth is presented, it does not conflict with conventional truth.

– Second, “I” signifies sovereign mastery and freedom. The account of the compilation of the Dharma treasury relates that there were three persons all named Ananda. The first was Ananda, rendered in Chinese as “Joyous”; he preserved the Shravaka treasury. The second was named Anandabhadra, rendered in Chinese as “Joyous and Worthy”; he preserved the Pratyekabuddha treasury. The third was named Anandasagara, rendered in Chinese as “Ocean of Joy”; he preserved the bodhisattva treasury. Although there are said to have been three persons bearing the same name, Ananda, in reality there was only one person; yet, according to his capacity to preserve each treasury of the Dharma, he was designated by a different name. Thus, the Venerable Ananda is called one of great learning, for he heard and retained what he heard. Everything the Venerable Ananda heard and accumulated was fully endowed with the three kinds of wisdom: wisdom born of hearing, wisdom born of reflection, and wisdom born of cultivation. The Venerable One preserved both the words and their meaning. With regard to the teachings of the Tripitaka, he possessed the sovereign capacity to preserve them. Therefore, although stating his name would accord with correct principle, it would not convey the meaning of sovereign mastery with respect to all dharmas. Hence, the text says “I” rather than “Ananda.”

– Third, the word “I” means “personally.” As people in the world commonly say to one another, “I saw it; I heard it,” this means that they personally witnessed it. Therefore, if the text said that Ananda heard it, a misunderstanding might arise, for some might suppose that Ananda did not hear it personally but received it through another person. The present wording emphasizes that the Venerable Ananda personally heard the World-Honored One teach the Dharma and did not hear it secondhand from someone else. This is intended to dispel everyone’s web of doubt; hence, it does not state his name—that is, it does not say, “Ananda heard”—but says only, “Thus have I heard.”

“Hearing” means that consciousness arises through the faculty of hearing and receives sounds. Here the commentator omits the word “ear” and mentions only “I.” This is a general expression; hence it is called “Thus have I heard.”

Although Mahayana thought holds that hearing occurs only through the conjunction of the faculty, consciousness, mind, and the corresponding object, the faculty possesses five characteristics superior to consciousness and the others; therefore, the faculty itself is called “hearing.” If one merely hears sound, it is certainly heard through the ear. But when one relies upon the words and their meaning, the mind is primary.

Therefore, the Yogacara Treatise states: “Hearing means comparison.” The ear is said to hear because it directly receives sounds and, in conjunction with the mind, serves as a gateway. Through this, the mind is able to hear; therefore, the ear and mind are regarded as hearing. The ear and mind together perfume the self, thereby giving rise to hearing, and so they are collectively termed “hearing.” Because the text does not speak separately of the “ear” or the “mind,” but combines the two into one, it says, “Thus have I heard.”

Question: At that time, the Venerable Ananda not only heard the World-Honored One teach the Dharma, but also personally saw, perceived, and knew that the World-Honored One was teaching the Dharma. Why, then, does the text say only, “Thus have I heard,” rather than, “Thus have I seen, thus have I perceived, and thus have I known”?

Answer: There are three reasons for this. First, to realize the profound principles and meanings, it is essential first to hear the Dharma. Since only names, phrases, and syllables can express the principles and meanings of the teaching, the text says only, “Thus have I heard,” and not, “Thus have I seen, perceived, and known.” If it spoke of seeing, perceiving, and knowing, it would have to address forms, sounds, and fragrances.

Second, in this Saha world, sound is employed to perform the work of the Buddha. Since the teaching is the basis, names, phrases, and syllables are required.

Third, to attain the stages of a bodhisattva, it is essential to hear and be perfumed by the teachings. Through hearing and such perfuming, one accomplishes the supramundane fruition. For these three reasons, the beginnings of all sutras do not record, “Thus have I seen, perceived, and known,” but uniformly state, “Thus have I heard.” In truth, however, the Venerable Ananda did indeed see, perceive, and know that the World-Honored One was teaching the Dharma at that time.

Moreover, the Buddhas in other lands employ light and other means to perform the work of a Buddha. Therefore, according to the skillful means by which each World-Honored One teaches beings in each land, it may also be said, “Thus have I seen, perceived, and known.” Yet when recounting the Dharma teachings delivered by the World-Honored One in this Saha world alone, one says only, “Thus have I heard.”

Sutra passage: “At one time. This means a certain time.”

Commentary:

6.2.1.1. The Time of the Teaching

This section is divided into two explanations of the time of the teaching. First is time according to principle. At such a time, although the speaker and listeners are together at the present moment, in truth the five skandhas and all conditioned formations continually arise and cease in every instant.

The Dharma presently taught is spoken for the purpose of explaining what was stated before and presenting what will be said afterward. That which is responded to is provisionally designated as the past. That which is subsequently introduced is provisionally designated as the future.

What is distinct from these two is called the present. Yet both the past and the future are provisionally established on the basis of present dharmas. That is to say, the five skandhas and conditioned formations of both speaker and listeners arise and cease in every instant.

They continue in succession from earlier to later, and when the event reaches its conclusion, the three periods of time are provisionally established and collectively called “one time.” It does not mean the single instant of one arising and cessation.

Second is time according to consciousness-only. Within the consciousnesses and minds of the speaker and listeners, the three periods of time are transformed and manifested, and thus their appearances arise. In reality, those appearances belong to the present; yet according to the limits imposed by the mind, they are considered to differ in duration, as long or short.

When all events have concluded, they are collectively called “one time.” This resembles the things seen in a dream: although many sensations arise, they are merely transformations manifested by the mind and are by no means real objects. The three periods of time posited within the listeners’ minds are likewise merely objects apprehended by the mind. They belong to the category of formations dissociated from mind, the skandha of formations, the ayatana of dharmas, and the dhatu of dharmas.

Therefore, they cannot be separately divided, nor can they be collectively included within four times or eight times. Yet because the listeners’ faculties had matured and evoked the Buddha’s appearance, the Buddha taught the Dharma for them. The speaker, moved by compassion, taught in accordance with their capacities.

When the speaking and hearing had ended, the entire period was collectively called “one time.”

Sutra passage: “Buddha.”

Commentary:

6.2.1.2. The Teacher

In Sanskrit, he is called Buddha; in China, the name was abbreviated as Fo. He is the teacher endowed with perfect wisdom. In the Tang dynasty, the term was rendered as “Awakened One.” “Awakening” has three meanings. First is self-awakening, which means surpassing ordinary beings, for ordinary beings are unable to awaken by themselves. Second is awakening others, which means surpassing those of the Two Vehicles, for those of the Two Vehicles do not bring others to awakening. Third is the perfection of awakened conduct, which means surpassing the bodhisattvas, for although bodhisattvas also cultivate the two practices of awakening themselves and awakening others, these practices are not yet perfect.

The Treatise on the Buddha Ground states: “One fully endowed with the wisdom that knows all things and the wisdom that knows all modes can not only awaken himself but can also cause all sentient beings to awaken as he has. It is like suddenly awakening from a dream or like a lotus flower opening; therefore, he is called Buddha.”

In Sanskrit sutras, the Fundamental Teacher is most often called Bhagavat. The Buddha instructed that the word “Buddha” be placed at the beginning of every sutra, because this single word “Buddha” in itself already encompasses all virtues. The translators, for their part, intended to preserve concision. Yet, according to the reverence of each region, in some places the Buddha’s complete title is also used.

Question: The Buddha has three bodies.^[28] He is called “Buddha” here. To which body does the Buddha spoken of in this sutra belong?

Answer: First, according to the land and the capacities of beings, for the shravakas, he is regarded as the Buddha’s transformation body. Second, according to the words and principles taught to the bodhisattvas, he is the Buddha’s reward body. Third, in cases where beings’ faculties and dispositions differ, the Buddha accordingly manifests both the reward body and the transformation body.

For example, when the Buddha said, “The city of Rajagriha and the summit of Vulture Peak will all be consumed by fire at the end of the kalpa,” upon hearing these words, the Venerable Shariputra perceived the Buddha’s body as the transformation body. But upon hearing the words, “My land abides peacefully and securely forever,” Bodhisattva Manjushri at that very moment perceived the Buddha’s body as the reward body. Furthermore, the elder Ghoshila saw the Buddha’s body as three feet tall and brought forth faith in the Buddha.

Five hundred brahmins saw only the ashes of the Buddha’s body and brought forth faith. Immeasurable bodhisattvas throughout the worlds still perceived the Buddha as possessing a body. Those of the Two Vehicles saw the Buddha’s body as sixteen feet tall, yet it still had a finite measure.

Since the exalted dignity of the Teacher has now been described in this way, his teaching must certainly also be exceedingly sublime. The Teacher is described first because this is intended to inspire faith in sentient beings.

The words of the sutra: “In Anathapindika’s Garden, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, in the land of Shravasti.”

Commentary:

6.2.1.3. The Place of the Teaching

In Sanskrit, it is pronounced “Shravasti.” To say “Xa-ve” is either an incorrect Chinese transcription or an abbreviated form. This was the name of a capital city in the Indian kingdom of Kosala. To distinguish it from “Pu-Kosala,” the name of the capital was used as the name of the kingdom.

The Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra records: “There were two brothers in the city of Shravasti. They practiced the way of the immortals there and later attained fruition; because of this, the city was named Shravasti.” According to the newer commentary, it should be called the City of Abundant Virtue. There are four reasons it is called the City of Abundant Virtue.

First, the city abounded in material wealth. Second, it was a place of beautiful scenery. Third, it had many learned and talented people. Fourth, it was home to many practitioners who had attained liberation. Because the kingdom possessed all four of these qualities, these characteristics were taken as the name of the kingdom.

The two characters “Jeta’s trees” should be rendered “Jeta Grove.” To say “Jeta’s trees” is incorrect. The original expression “Jeta Grove” means “Victory.” This was the prince’s name. When the prince was born, a hostile neighboring kingdom happened to invade; because his own kingdom defeated the invaders, that event was used to name the prince “Victory.”

Anathapindika was the elder Sudatta, whose name was translated into Chinese as “Good Giver.” Good Giver was benevolent and intelligent. He was skilled at accumulating wealth but also regularly practiced generosity. He assisted the poor and needy and cared for those who were alone and without support. The people of that time all praised his virtue and called him Anathapindika, “Provider for the Orphaned and Destitute.”

King Prasenajit, whose name in the old translation was rendered King Pasenadi, was translated into Chinese as “Victorious Army.” Sudatta was a chief minister of King Victorious Army.

When the Buddha was still in Magadha and had not yet gone to Shravasti, the elder Anathapindika once traveled to the city of Rajagriha to arrange a marriage for his son. At that time, another elder was preparing a vegetarian feast and inviting the Buddha to his home to receive offerings. The elder Good Giver asked why he was inviting the Buddha.

The other elder explained the invitation to the Buddha in full detail. When the elder Good Giver heard that the Buddha possessed profound virtue, joy arose in his heart. At that time, the Buddha was dwelling on Vulture Peak, more than fifty miles from the elder Good Giver’s location.

From afar, the Buddha emitted a radiant light that shone upon Good Giver. Following that light, Good Giver went in search of the Buddha. From a distance, he saw the Blessed One.

When he beheld the Blessed One, his heart was filled with both joy and sorrow, like a child meeting his father. The elder Good Giver then followed the light and drew nearer to the Buddha. Along the way, however, he came upon a shrine dedicated to a deity^[29].

When he entered the shrine and bowed in worship, the Buddha’s radiant light immediately disappeared. Good Giver regretted what he had done, and at once the radiant light shone forth again. He continued to follow the light until he reached the Buddha and extended an invitation to him.

He said, “I beseech the Buddha to come to my country and teach those who have affinities with him. Why does he teach only in this country?” Hearing this, the Buddha agreed to go to the kingdom of Magadha to teach. He immediately sent the Venerable Shariputra ahead to select a site.

The Buddha said that monastics should dwell in a secluded place. In the City of Abundant Virtue, the population was dense and the surroundings noisy, while the city itself was cramped. Only Prince Jeta’s garden, located more than five or six miles south of the city and measuring ten miles square, was most suitable.

It was secluded, the scenery was open and spacious, and the trees, flowers, and grasses flourished luxuriantly; a monastery could be built there. When Good Giver heard the Buddha’s words, he immediately asked to purchase the garden. The prince refused to sell it, but jokingly said, “If you can cover the entire ground with gold five inches thick, I will sell the garden to you.” The elder Good Giver immediately accepted the prince’s condition.

The prince, however, had spoken in jest and steadfastly refused to sell. Good Giver therefore had to seek arbitration. At that time, a deity of the Pure Abodes, fearing that someone might obstruct the elder Good Giver, transformed himself into an adjudicator and ruled in Good Giver’s favor.

Having won the case, Good Giver immediately ordered his servants to cover the ground with gold in exchange for the land. When his men were still five hundred paces short of covering the full ten miles, an entire treasury of gold had been exhausted, and a messenger came to inform him. The elder Good Giver began considering from which treasury he should obtain more gold to continue covering the ground.

Seeing this, the prince thought that the elder regretted his decision. The prince advised the elder Good Giver that he could take back his gold and return the land to the prince. But the elder Good Giver said, “My heart has never harbored regret.” The prince recognized the elder’s sincerity and therefore also brought forth a supreme aspiration.

The prince thought, “What people value most is gold, silver, and precious jewels, yet this elder has emptied an entire treasury of gold to purchase land on which to establish dwellings for the Sangha. Since I lack nothing, why should I not also establish a monastery?” Having thought this, he asked for the return of the portion of land that the elder had already covered with gold so that he himself might establish the monastery, but Good Giver still did not consent.

The prince said to the elder, “Previously, I promised only to exchange the land for gold; I said nothing about the trees in the garden. Therefore, the land belongs to you, while the trees belong to me.” From that time onward, the two worked together to complete the Jeta Grove Monastery and jointly offered it to the Buddha and the Sangha as a place of residence and practice. Jealous non-Buddhist practitioners reported the prince’s actions to the king.

Because the Buddha’s renown resounded everywhere, the material support received by the six philosophical schools^[30] diminished. From then onward, the entire kingdom revered Buddhism.

Later, when the Buddha came to the Jeta Grove Monastery, he instructed the Venerable Ananda: “The land of this Jeta Grove Monastery was purchased by the elder Good Giver, while the trees in this garden were offered by Prince Jeta; the two acted with one heart in performing this meritorious deed.” From that time onward, the place was to be called “Anathapindika’s Garden and Prince Jeta’s Grove.” Thus did the practice of covering the ground with gold to purchase land originate.

Scripture: “Together with the great assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty bhiksus, all present together.”

Commentary:

6.2.1.4. Those Who Constitute the Intended Audience

This discussion of the intended audience is divided into four distinct parts.

First, revealing the Tathagata’s intention. (Presenting the reason.)

Second, explaining the provisional and the real. (Distinguishing the Provisional from the Real.)

Third, determining the greater and lesser numbers. (Determining whether the assembly was large or small.)

Fourth, clarifying the sequence. (Distinguishing the ranks.)

– First, the reasons for teaching the Dharma have two further aspects. First, to strengthen faith, those who heard the Dharma are mentioned at the outset. This helps establish as credible the fact that the Venerable Ananda heard the Dharma spoken by the Buddha himself. As stated above, when it was said that the Venerable Ananda personally heard the Buddha teach the Dharma, three doubts arose within the assembly. Now, by establishing that many people heard it together, the trustworthiness of the Venerable Ananda’s account is demonstrated.

Second, to demonstrate the defining character of the sutra. Just as the god Sakra is surrounded by the gods, and Great Brahma, the heavenly king, is surrounded by the Brahma host, and so forth, it is now said that the Dharma King is surrounded by the holy assembly.

– Second, distinguishing the provisional and the real. As recorded in the Treatise on the Buddha-bhumi: “When the Buddha manifests a transformation body and teaches the Dharma in a defiled land, the sravakas and others are Real, while the bodhisattvas are Provisional. But when the Buddha manifests the Reward Body and teaches the Dharma in a pure land, the bodhisattvas are Real, while the sravakas and others are Provisional.” Since this sutra was taught in a defiled land, the bodhisattvas are certainly Provisional, while the sravakas are Real.

– Third, determining whether the assembly was large or small. At the outset, five assemblies are mentioned. The first is the assembly of those whose spiritual practice is supremely noble. The second is the assembly of those possessing vast compassion. The third is the assembly of heavenly beings who delight in the Dharma. The fourth consists of human beings in the Desire Realm. The fifth is the assembly of asuras. Of these, the first three assemblies will be presented here, while the latter two will be explained later.

Question: Why do other sutras fully enumerate the eight classes of beings^[31], whereas this sutra mentions only five assemblies?

Answer: Because this sutra exhorts people to seek birth in the Pure Land. There, the objects of cognition and wisdom are extraordinary and the land is wondrous. Apart from those of supreme virtue and supreme worthiness, the other assemblies could neither believe in, understand, nor retain this teaching. Therefore, only five assemblies are enumerated, while the others are not mentioned.

– Fourth, discussing the ranks. First, the two assemblies of sravakas and bodhisattvas are presented. These are the two assemblies that protect the Dharma from within. Next, the assembly of Sakra is mentioned. This is the assembly that protects the Dharma from without. Furthermore, among the assemblies that protect the Dharma from within, the assembly of sravakas is mentioned first and the assembly of bodhisattvas afterward.

The Treatise on the Buddha-bhumi gives four explanations:

First, their outward forms are not the same. The appearance of ordained sravakas resembles that of the Buddhas, whereas that of bodhisattvas does not.

Second, their dwelling places differ in proximity and distance. The sravakas dwell near the Buddha, while the bodhisattvas dwell far from the Buddha.

Third, their virtue in observing the precepts differs. The sravakas observe the precepts of the ordained, while bodhisattvas observe different precepts, because bodhisattvas take birth together with beings of every kind in order to teach and transform them.

Fourth, it is intended to prevent the bodhisattvas from continuing to look down upon the sravakas.

Furthermore, the passage concerning those whose spiritual practice is noble and profound is divided into three parts. First, their category and number are presented; next, their virtues are praised; and finally, their names are given. This is the opening passage of the sutra, namely: “Yu da biqiu zhong qian er bai wu shi ren ju” (“Together with the great assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty bhiksus”).

The word “yu” is synonymous with the words “jian,” “gong,” “bing,” and “ji,” all meaning “together with.”

Nagarjuna explains that the word “great” has five meanings:

First, greatness of number: because there were as many as one thousand two hundred and fifty, they are called great.

Second, greatness of separation: this means that the great obstructions had been eliminated.

Third, greatness of attainment: because the fruit of arhatship is the highest attainment of the sravakas.

Fourth, greatness of renown: the reputation of these venerable ones spread far and wide.

Fifth, greatness of recognition: these great persons were known by many people.

The two syllables “bhiksu” are a phonetic transcription from Sanskrit. The Chinese rendering “biqiu” is erroneous. This is because the original term “bhiksu” has as many as five meanings. Thus, if it is rendered merely as “biqiu,” the full meaning of “bhiksu” is not conveyed; therefore, it should not be translated.

Those five meanings are:

First, one who frightens Mara: because when one first leaves the household life, Mara’s palace trembles.

Second, a mendicant: because after leaving the household life, one sustains oneself solely by begging for food.

Third, one who observes the pure precepts: because upon joining the Sangha, one must observe the precepts.

Fourth, one of pure livelihood: this means that after receiving the precepts, one must base the activities of the three kinds of karma upon non-greed and must not sustain one’s life through deviant greed.

Fifth, one who destroys evil: gradually relying upon the noble path, one eliminates evil afflictions.

Alternatively, the name is identical to that of a kind of grass, because the virtues of a bhiksu are compared to the five virtues of that grass; therefore, one is called a “bhiksu.”

The word “assembly” refers to the Sangha. Harmony in principle and in practice is called an assembly. However, only a group of three or more persons may be called a Sangha. At that time, all one thousand two hundred and fifty venerable ones were present and had come together at Jetavana; therefore, they are called an Assembly.

Scripture: “All were great arhats, known and recognized by everyone.”

Commentary:

6.2.1.5. Praising Their Abilities and Virtues

According to the new translation of the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra and the old translation of the treatise, this section praising their abilities and virtues contains sixteen statements in all. Here, however, only four statements are presented: “All were arhats who had completely eliminated all outflows. They were free from afflictions. They had attained true mastery, and so forth.” In this sutra, this is the first statement.

“Arhat” is the expression used in the treatises of the Consciousness-Only school; in Chinese it is translated as “worthy.” This word “worthy” has three meanings in all. First, one is worthy because one has forever eliminated the enemies of affliction. Second, one is worthy to receive offerings from all gods and humans. Third, one is worthy because one is no longer subject to the limited cycle of birth and death.

“Known and recognized by the assembly” means that they were known by many people. Because their renown was illustrious and their abilities and virtues surpassed those of their peers, everyone knew them.

Scripture: “The Elder Sariputra and Mahamaudgalyayana.”

Commentary:

6.2.1.6. Enumerating the Names

This section is further divided into two parts. The first enumerates the names; the second gives the general conclusion. The phrase “such great disciples, and so forth” is the concluding statement.

The enumeration of names is divided into eight pairs. Each pair consists of two venerable ones who exemplify two qualities that sometimes appear nearly contrary to one another.

– First, the two venerable ones representing inward wisdom and outward superknowledges

Any disciple of the Buddha who fulfills the following two conditions is called an elder. First, one is advanced in years and has many rains-retreats of seniority. Second, one is widely learned and possesses profound understanding.

In Sanskrit the name is “Sariputra”; in Chinese it is translated as “Spring Oriole,” and it is also called “Autumn Bird.” The original word “putra” is translated into Chinese as “son.” But perhaps because of an erroneous translation, or because the name was abbreviated, he is called simply “Sariputra”

Tradition has it that before the venerable one's mother conceived him, her speech was clumsy and her arguments superficial; whenever she debated with her elder brother, Kauṣṭhila, she was always defeated. But from the time she conceived the venerable one, her speech naturally became fluent and her arguments incisive, and she always prevailed over her elder brother. Because she possessed such outstanding powers of discernment, she was called “Śāri.” Śāri is the name now given to a bird with a hundred tongues.

Because the venerable one was born of this mother, he was called her son. Therefore, the venerable one also had the name “Son of Śāri,” meaning the son of Lady Śāri.

The venerable one came from a lineage of great brahmins. His father was accomplished and seasoned, widely learned and deeply knowledgeable, and meticulous in his studies. He had studied all the scriptures and writings of that time.

Tradition has it that one day the venerable one's mother had a dream and related it to his father, saying: “Last night I had a dream. I dreamed that I encountered an extraordinary man whose body was clad in armor, whose head bore an iron helmet, and whose hand held a vajra club. He smashed all the mountains to pieces, then ran over and stood beneath one mountain.”

After hearing this, the venerable one's father said to his wife: “This is an auspicious dream! In the future you will certainly give birth to a son of surpassing wisdom who will defeat all the masters of treatises and demolish their doctrines. His wisdom will be inferior to that of only one person, and he will become a disciple of the Buddha.”

Sure enough, before long she conceived. From that time onward, she suddenly became extraordinarily intelligent. Her responses were quick and incisive, without the slightest hesitation.

When the venerable one was only eight years old, his fame had already spread throughout the four quarters. He was honest by nature, broad-minded, and magnanimous. He was one who brought afflictions to an early end and perfected wisdom. Therefore, the venerable Śāriputra is called foremost in “inner wisdom.”

Question: More than one thousand arhats were present together at Jetavana at that time. All had attained the three knowledges and the fruit of arhatship, so why was the name of the venerable Son of Śāri placed first?

Answer: It was because the venerable Son of Śāri was foremost in eloquence among the lesser sages and surpassed ordinary people in wisdom. In the assembly on Vulture Peak, he was the first to request the Buddha to teach the Dharma; in the city of Śrāvastī, he was the first to comprehend the teaching. For these reasons, what could be improper about placing the venerable one's name first?

In Sanskrit, the name is “Mahāmaudgalyāyana”; rendering it as “Đại-mục-kiền-liên” is incorrect. The original term “Mahāmaudgalyāyana” is translated in China as “Great One of the Bean-Gathering Clan.”

Tradition recounts that in remote antiquity an immortal lived upon a mountain and regularly gathered various kinds of beans for food. Because of this, people gave the immortal the clan name “Bean-Gatherer.” Moreover, because the venerable one's mother also belonged to the Bean-Gathering clan, her clan name was used to name him. The venerable one attained great supernormal powers. To distinguish him from lesser persons of the same clan, the word “Great” was added to his clan name; hence he was called “Great Bean-Gatherer.”

The venerable Bean-Gatherer and the venerable Son of Śāri had been friends since childhood. Both were deeply weary of worldly life, but they had not yet found anyone upon whom they could rely for cultivation. Therefore, the two venerable ones temporarily followed the non-Buddhist teacher Sañjaya to study his doctrine. The two venerable ones concluded that this was not the ultimate teaching and said: “Each of us must travel everywhere in search of a more excellent Dharma.” Later, Son of Śāri encountered the venerable Matanga as he entered the city to teach and transform beings. Seeing the venerable Matanga's serene and unrestrained bearing, Son of Śāri approached and asked how such a state could be attained.

Son of Śāri asked:

– Who is the venerable one's teacher?

Matanga replied:

– Śākyamuni, the Blessed One, is my teacher.

Son of Śāri asked again:

– What Dharma does the venerable one's teacher expound? Could you tell it to me?

The venerable Matanga then recited this verse:

All dharmas arise from conditions;

All dharmas cease through conditions.

The Buddha Śākyamuni, my teacher,

Has always taught me thus.

Upon hearing this, Son of Śāri immediately attained the first fruit. He swiftly went to find the venerable Maudgalyāyana and repeated the teaching he had just heard. After hearing it, the venerable Maudgalyāyana also attained the first fruit. Together with two hundred and fifty fellow practitioners, the two venerable ones went to the Buddha. Upon arriving, they all asked to follow the Buddha and hear the Dharma.

The Blessed One said: “Come well, bhikṣus!” When the two hundred and fifty men heard these words spoken by the Blessed One, their precepts were naturally complete; through gradual cultivation, they attained the fruit of arhatship.

This venerable one was foremost in supernormal powers and unequaled in filial devotion. He rescued his mother from suffering in hell and helped her to be reborn in the heavens. Therefore, the venerable Maudgalyāyana is called foremost in “external supernormal powers.”

The words of the sutra: “Mahākāśyapa and Mahākātyāyana.”

Commentary:

– Second, the two venerable ones foremost in ascetic practices and eloquence

The word “Mahā” has been explained above. “Kāśyapa” is the venerable one's clan name. In full Sanskrit it is pronounced “Kāśyapa,” while in China it is abbreviated as “Kāśyapa.” The venerable one descended from an immortal of the Light-Drinker lineage and belonged to a brahmin family.

Tradition recounts that in ancient times there was a brahmin who cultivated and attained the fruit of immortality. His body emitted a pure golden radiance that outshone even the light of the sun and moon. Because the venerable one belonged to that lineage, he took its clan name as his own name. Moreover, because the pure golden radiance from Kāśyapa's body outshone even the light of the sun and moon, this was adopted as his epithet.

The Account of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasury records: In the past, more than ninety-one kalpas after the Buddha Vipasyin entered nirvana, the four assemblies of disciples constructed a stupa from the seven precious substances. Within that stupa, they enshrined a golden image of the Buddha, upon whose face there was a small scratch. At that time, there was a poor woman who lived by begging.

Having begged a few fractions of gold, she saw the scratch upon the image’s face and wished to repair it. At that time, the Venerable Kasyapa was a silversmith. The woman brought those few fractions of gold to the image-maker and asked him to repair the scratch upon the image’s face.

Hearing of this meritorious deed, the image-maker rejoiced and told the woman to make a vow. The woman vowed: “May we, life after life and kalpa after kalpa, always become husband and wife; may our bodies be golden in hue; may we always dwell in peace and happiness; and may we constantly practice the pure conduct.” From then onward, throughout ninety-one kalpas, whether born in the human realm or a heavenly realm, she always possessed a golden-hued body and enjoyed immeasurable happiness.

In her final existence before being born into the human world, she was a Brahma deity in the seventh heaven. At that time, in the kingdom of Magadha, there was a brahmin named Nyagrodha. Because he had cultivated merits in the past, in that life he was reborn as an intelligent man of the brahmin caste, endowed with immeasurable blessings.

His gold, silver, seven precious substances, cattle, sheep, fields, gardens, servants, and vehicles exceeded those of King Bimbisara a hundred thousandfold. The king possessed one thousand golden plows. The brahmin thought to himself that if he possessed as many golden plows as the king, he might incur punishment; therefore, his household had only nine hundred and ninety-nine golden plows made.

The brahmin’s household possessed one thousand bolts of golden silk, the poorest of which was worth a hundred thousand taels of gold. He also possessed sixty bins of golden grain, each containing three hundred and forty dou. Although that brahmin family was wealthy, they had no children.

Beside their house stood a sacred tree of great spiritual efficacy. The brahmin and his wife earnestly prayed for a child, but although they prayed for a long time, there was no response. In anger, they vowed: “For the next seven days, we shall make offerings and pray with all our hearts.

If there is still no response, we shall certainly burn this tree!” Hearing this, the tree spirit became distressed and reported the matter to the Four Heavenly Kings. The Four Heavenly Kings informed Sakra. Sakra surveyed all Jambudvipa but could find no one capable of becoming their child.

Unable to resolve the matter, Sakra went to Brahma King and related the entire affair. Brahma King surveyed all places with his divine eye and saw a Brahma deity who was about to die. Brahma King went and advised that Brahma deity to be reborn as the child of that brahmin family.

The Brahma deity consented and entered the womb of the brahmin’s wife. After ten full months, she gave birth to a boy whose face was radiant, whose body was the color of pure gold, and whose blazing light shone for forty miles. At that time, a physiognomist predicted: “This child possesses merit accumulated through many previous lives.

In this life, he will certainly renounce the household life!” When the brahmin and his wife heard the physiognomist’s words, they became deeply worried and sorrowful. They said: “We prayed for a child so that someone might continue our lineage. If he renounces the household life, our family line will surely be extinguished.” The husband and wife then discussed how they might prevent him from intending to renounce the household life.

They thought to themselves: “What worldly people are most infatuated with is beauty; therefore, let us arrange a wife for him.” When Kasyapa reached the age of fifteen, his parents intended to arrange his marriage, but the Venerable One said to them: “My aspiration is pure, and I do not wish to marry.” Yet his parents would not consent. Knowing that marriage would be difficult to avoid, the Venerable One devised a plan.

He said to his parents: “If you can find for me a woman of upright and beautiful form, whose radiant golden complexion surpasses that of ordinary people, then I shall marry her.” Hearing their son’s words, the brahmin and his wife were overjoyed. They invited brahmin ascetics to travel everywhere in search of such a maiden. The brahmin ascetics cast an exquisitely fashioned golden image of a deity and carried it throughout the villages, proclaiming loudly: “If any maiden in a household sees this golden image and bows in worship before it, then after she marries, she will certainly obtain a good husband.” At that time, there was a maiden whose entire body was golden in hue and whose virtuous conduct was unsurpassed.

Hearing the brahmin ascetics make this proclamation, she came and bowed before the image of the deity. When the elder saw that maiden, his joy was beyond measure. He immediately presented the betrothal gifts and asked that she marry his son, in accordance with the promise.

Yet when the bridegroom and bride met, neither gave rise to lustful desire. They agreed that each would remain in a separate room. When the young man’s parents learned of this, they had one room demolished and compelled the two to share a single room.

Kasyapa said to his wife: “When I sleep, you shall practice walking meditation, and when you sleep, I shall do the same.” One day, when it was the wife’s turn to sleep, she lay with her arm extended beyond the bed. At that moment, a venomous snake entered the room and was about to bite her arm. Seeing this, Kasyapa wrapped his hand in cloth and drew his wife’s arm back to its former place.

The wife immediately awoke and reproached her husband: “We vowed to practice the pure conduct together. Why have you now touched my hand?” Kasyapa explained himself at length, but his wife would not listen. She said: “Even if a venomous snake bit my body, it would only cause half my body to wither; but now that you have touched my hand, it will cause us to fall into the three paths.

The husband and wife were deeply weary of worldly life. One day, they approached their parents and asked permission to renounce the household life. Knowing that they could not change their children’s resolve, the parents consented to let them both go forth.

The husband and wife went together to the Buddha and requested ordination. The Buddha immediately accepted them both into the monastic order, and gradually they both cultivated the path and attained fruition. This Venerable One possessed a steadfast heart, pure as jade, and a body gleaming with a golden hue.

None equaled him in the practice of dhutanga austerities, in having few desires, and in knowing contentment. The Venerable One has not yet entered final nirvana. Accepting the Buddha’s charge, he preserved his body and remains absorbed in samadhi on Mount Kukkutapada, awaiting the opening of the Dragon Flower Assembly, when he will present the kasaya robe to Maitreya Buddha.

Therefore, the Venerable One is called foremost in ascetic practice.

Katyayana is called “Mahakatyayana” in Sanskrit; to say only “Katyayana” is incorrect. In the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra, he is called “Mahakatyayana.” In China, this is translated as “Male Descendant of the Clipper of the World.” “Male Descendant of the Clipper of the World” is the name of a brahmin clan.

The tradition relates: “In ancient times, there were seers who had cultivated purity in the mountains for many years. Their hair and beards had grown exceedingly long, but there was no one to cut them. According to the Brahmanical discipline, practitioners were not permitted to cut their own hair and beards.

Among those seers who practiced together was one who had children. One day, the two children of that seer came to visit their father; the younger child cut the seers’ hair, and therefore all those seers promised to protect the younger child. Later, those seers attained the path of the immortals, and when the seer’s child came again, the seers accordingly all called him ‘Descendant of the Hair-Cutting Clan.’ The Venerable One was a man of majestic virtue and noble station.

To distinguish him from other, lowly clans, the word ‘Great’ was placed before his clan name, forming ‘Great Male of the Hair-Cutting Clan.’ Moreover, Indians customarily took their mother’s clan name. Because the Venerable One followed his father’s clan name, the word ‘Male’ was added to his appellation. The ancients called him ‘Fan-Cord,’ meaning that his mother cherished this child as though he were the cord binding a fan.”

Another account relates: “In a former life, the Venerable One once undertook the precept of sweeping and cleaning the monastery for those who observed the five precepts; therefore, he now received the karmic fruit of such a handsome and well-formed body.”

One day, while the Venerable One was traveling to teach and transform others, he encountered King Pasenadi. Astonished by the Venerable One’s handsome appearance, the king asked the Blessed One why the Venerable One possessed such an extraordinarily beautiful physique.

The Blessed One replied: “The Venerable One once helped those who observed the five precepts sweep away filth, and therefore he now possesses such a handsome and well-formed body.” When the king heard the Blessed One’s words, he immediately aroused a supreme aspiration. The Venerable One was unequaled in debate. Therefore, he was called foremost among those who engage in doctrinal discussion. His arguments scattered opponents like waves breaking upon the shore, while his bearing shone brilliantly like ice and jade. He could raise the torch of wisdom to dispel the long, dark night; his keen reasoning and eloquence demolished the doctrines of the teachers of all six schools. Therefore, the Venerable One was called gifted in debate.

The scripture says: “Mahakausthila and Revata.”

The commentary says:

– Third, the two who awakened to emptiness and understood illusion

Mahakausthila is translated in China as “Great Knees,” meaning one with large knees. To render “Kausthila” otherwise is incorrect. This man was the maternal uncle of the Venerable Sariputra.

He repeatedly debated with the Venerable One’s mother and was defeated every time. Angered, he traveled everywhere to study doctrines and methods of debate. When he had completed his studies, he returned to his homeland, where his younger sister had grown old and his nephew had followed the Buddha and entered monastic life.

He bade farewell to his sister and went to the monastery to seek out the Buddha for debate. On his head he bore a basin of fire, upon his body he wore iron plates, his hair reached the ground, and his fingernails were more than a foot long. Summoning the moon and calling up the wind, he abruptly entered the Buddha’s Dharma assembly, his heart filled with arrogance, behaving as though no one else were present.

As soon as he saw the Blessed One, he asked:

– By what Dharma have you accepted and instructed my nephew?

He then challenged the Blessed One to debate with him.

The Blessed One asked:

– What doctrine do you take as your fundamental tenet?

He replied:

– I take “accepting no dharma whatsoever” as my fundamental tenet.

The Blessed One said:

– When you say, “accepting no dharma whatsoever,” at that very moment you have already accepted something.

Although he had been defeated, his arrogance remained. Knowing this, the Blessed One manifested his spiritual power, causing the iron plates he wore to constrict tightly around his body and the basin of fire to scorch his head. In despair, he bowed his head and conceded defeat, wholeheartedly repented, and asked to follow the Buddha into monastic life. The Blessed One said: “Great Knees, come well!”

After his hair and beard were shaved and his fingernails cut, he became a dignified and composed monk and attained the fruit of arhatship. Because the Venerable One attained the fruit through awakening to the principle of emptiness, he was called “Awakened to Emptiness.” He had mastered all doctrines and arts and had studied all the scriptures. His arguments poured forth as though emptying the sky, and his words were like strings of jade. Upon hearing a single statement, he awakened to the path; by contemplating the five skandhas, he penetrated the emptiness of dharmas. Yet because he delighted in the Pure Land, he was reborn and came to Jeta Grove to hear the Dharma. Therefore, he was called “Awakened to Emptiness.”

The Sanskrit “Revata” was transcribed in China as “Hsieh-li-tai-to.” It is translated as “Constellation,” meaning “the star in the north.” Because prayers and offerings were made to this star in order to obtain a child, the child was named after it. Alternatively, it is called the Comet. A comet is an inauspicious star. Because the Venerable One was born when this star appeared, he was named after it. Therefore, the transcription “Li-p’o-to” is erroneous. He was also called “Provisional Combination.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “A traveler encountered rain and therefore stayed overnight in a shrine. Late at night, he saw a demon carry in a corpse, intending to eat it. Just then, a larger demon arrived and fought with the first demon over the corpse.

Each claimed to have brought it. But the larger demon was stronger; it seized the corpse and ate it. The smaller demon then said that a man on the rafters had witnessed everything and could testify.

Having witnessed this extraordinary scene and being afraid, the man did not dare speak falsely. He confirmed, ‘This corpse was brought here by the smaller demon.’ Hearing these words, the larger demon flew into a rage, seized the man, tore off one of his legs, ate the entire leg, and departed. Moved by the man’s truthful testimony, the smaller demon took one leg from the corpse and attached it where the man’s leg had been lost.

At once, the man’s body was restored to its former state.”

Having witnessed this, the traveler who had taken shelter from the rain thought to himself: “This body is truly provisional and temporary.” For that reason, he immediately went to see the Buddha and asked:

– Birth and death are two different paths, and this body and that body are also different. How can parts from two bodies be joined to form one?

The Blessed One replied:

– Through the provisional combination of the four great elements, this complete body of the five skandhas comes into being. What, then, is there to awaken to and understand?

The man thereby awakened, asked to follow the Buddha into monastic life, and, through gradual cultivation, attained the noble fruit. The Venerable One was upright in mind and truthful in speech. While in the shrine, he witnessed the attachment of the leg; then, upon entering the Buddha’s Dharma assembly, he awakened to the Dharma of impermanence. Therefore, he was called “One Who Understands Illusion.”

The scripture says: “Cudapanthaka and Nanda.”

The commentary says:

– Fourth, the two who cast off ignorance and departed from worldly life

Cudapanthaka is translated in China as “Born by the Roadside.”

The tradition relates: “Long ago, the daughter of an elder married a man in a distant region. When she became pregnant, custom required her to return to her native home to give birth. However, she delivered her child on the road while returning to her mother’s home. She therefore named her child ‘Born by the Roadside.’ She had two children: the elder was named Panthaka, and the younger was named Cudapanthaka.”

The Ekottarika Agama records: “The parents of these two Venerable Ones both died young. The elder brother followed the Buddha into monastic life and attained the noble fruit first; only afterward did the younger brother enter monastic life. Because he was dull by nature, even though he had long been on the path, the younger brother understood absolutely nothing.”

Therefore, the elder brother rebuked the younger: “You are a foolish old student!” After scolding him, the venerable one expelled his younger brother and sent him home, no longer permitting him to continue the monastic life. Saddened and humiliated by his brother’s rebuke and expulsion, the younger brother stood before the monastery gate and wept bitterly. Seeing this, the Buddha allowed him to remain in the monastery and instructed him to memorize the two words “Trửu Tảo.” Yet whenever the venerable one remembered the word “Trửu,” he forgot the word “Tảo.” Then, suddenly awakening to their meaning, he said: “Trửu Tảo means to remove defilement and make things clean.” Thus, the Blessed One taught me to sweep away the defilements and afflictions within my own body.

By continually contemplating those two words, the venerable one attained the noble fruit.”

The Sutra of the Original Lives of the Hundred Disciples records: “Long ago, this venerable one rode upon a pig while crossing a river. He bound the pig’s mouth with a cord, causing it to suffocate, and it died when they had reached only the middle of the current. Because of that cause, he now received the karmic retribution of dullness. Yet through the Blessed One’s instruction, he was able to cast off his ignorance and attain wisdom. This venerable one created evil karma in a previous life and was able to eradicate it only in this life. Because he understood that sweeping makes rooms clean, and because, by comprehending the cause for the arising of the body, he developed wisdom and eliminated ignorance, he was called ‘One Who Casts Off Evil.’”

In Sanskrit, his name is “Tôn-đạt-la-nan-đà,” translated in China as “Lovely Joy.” Therefore, to call him merely “Tôn-nan-đà” is incorrect.

The word “Lovely” was originally his wife’s name. It referred to a woman whose beauty and graceful figure were unsurpassed, and hence she was called “Lovely.” “Joy” was the venerable one’s own name, translated from “Trạch-mục-ngư-nan-đa.” He was called “Lovely Joy” because the names of wife and husband were joined together.

The venerable one was a close disciple of the Buddha and stood one zhang, five chi, and two cun tall. The Buddha taught Nan-đà and caused him to relinquish his attachment to his wife’s beauty. The Buddha employed every means to show him how to distinguish suffering from happiness. Thus, he finally consented to leave his wife, enter the monastic life, and attain the noble fruit.

When this venerable one saw the Blessed One seated upon a lotus throne, with the venerable A-nan standing upright in attendance, he became nostalgic for the life of beauty and pleasure in the royal palace. But when the Buddha revealed to him the evil causes leading to hell, he became terrified and finally turned his mind back. He clearly understood that sensual desire is a cause of suffering and that lust for beauty is the source from which calamity is incurred. He abandoned glory and splendor, cast off all worldly dust, shaved his head, and donned the kasaya robe. Therefore, he was called “Free from Desire.”

The words of the Sutra: “A-nan-đà and La-hầu-la.”

Commentary:

– Fifth, the two foremost in great learning and hidden practice

In Sanskrit, his name is “A-nan-đà,” translated in China as “Joyous Felicity.” To call him merely “A-nan” and translate it as “Joy” is erroneous. When the Blessed One attained enlightenment, everyone within and beyond the city rejoiced. While all were thus filled with joy, the venerable one was born; therefore, he was called “Joy.” Later, he entered the monastic life, cultivated the path, and attained the noble fruit.

The treatise states: “Long ago, the venerable one was a very wealthy elder. On one occasion, he offered drinking water to a novice monk who was reciting sutras and made this vow: ‘May this novice monk attain Buddhahood, and may I become that Buddha’s disciple foremost in great learning, capable of remembering and retaining every Dharma taught by that Buddha.’ Therefore, the venerable one’s present eminence in broad learning and extensive hearing accords with his former vow.

The venerable one’s body radiated brilliant light like the autumn moon, and the essence of his mind was luminous like sunlight. He recited the entire Tripitaka at the council held in the mountain cave. He manifested emanation bodies upon the water in response to the invitation of the Four Kings. Therefore, the venerable one was called foremost in great learning.”

The Sanskrit “La-hỗ-la” is translated in China as “Seizing the Sun.” To call him “La-hầu-la” is incorrect.

“Seizing the Sun” means “Obscuration.”

The account relates: “Long ago, the venerable one was once the crown prince of a certain king. The king had two sons: the elder was named Sun, and the younger was named Moon.

After their royal father died, the elder brother inherited the throne. Before long, however, he grew weary of a life of glory and riches and relinquished the throne to his younger brother, Crown Prince Moon. He then followed the Buddha into the monastic life to study and practice, observing the precepts so carefully that he did not violate even the slightest one.

One night, in the darkness, he mistakenly used another bhiksu’s water vessel. He immediately sounded the bell to assemble the Sangha and seek repentance for the offense. The Sangha knew that it was only a minor fault and therefore did not perform the rite of repentance for him.

This made him even more distressed. Having no other recourse, he returned to the royal palace, related the entire matter to King Moon, and sought repentance for the offense of stealing. King Moon did not dare disobey his elder brother, so he ordered his attendants to confine him in a separate room.

But because the king was engrossed in the pleasures of the five desires, he forgot his brother and left him imprisoned for six full days. Therefore, he now incurred the adverse karmic retribution of remaining in the womb for six years.”

Elsewhere it is related: “Because the venerable one once blocked a mouse hole for six days, he now received the karmic retribution of remaining in his mother’s womb for six years.”

Accounts such as those given above are entirely without foundation. Another tradition says that on the day the prince departed the city to enter the monastic life, he pointed his horsewhip at the belly of Princess Da-luân (Gia-du-đà-la). Gia-du’s present pregnancy signified that the child differed from ordinary people and, in particular, manifested a numinous marvel.

The child remained in his mother’s womb for six years before being born. This was an unprecedented wonder. Seeing it, the king and his ministers became suspicious and regarded the matter as strange and deceptive, so they sought to burn mother and child alive.

Yet when they were placed upon the pyre, the raging flames transformed into lotus flowers, and both mother and child remained safe and unharmed. Thereafter, the ministers and the royal father harbored no further doubts. The king also knew that Śākya had long since renounced sensual love.

The foregoing not only demonstrates how La-hầu differed from ordinary people; La-hầu’s offering of a precious jewel to the Buddha, together with Princess Da-luân’s chastity and purity, was also intended to reveal the mysterious nature of this venerable one.

Later, La-hầu was brought back to the monastery by the venerable Thu-tử. Following the Buddha’s instruction, the venerable Thu-tử accepted him as a disciple and ordained him as a novice monk. La-hầu had few desires, knew contentment, and secretly cultivated the great practice. He later attained the fruit of arhatship.

No one could discern whether this venerable one was a sage or an ordinary being, and the workings of cause and effect concerning him were also difficult to know. Inwardly, his mind cultivated the bodhisattva practice; outwardly, he manifested the appearance of a śrāvaka. Therefore, the venerable one was called foremost in hidden practice.

The words of the Sutra: “Kiều-phạm-ba-đề and Tân-đầu-lô-ba-la-đoạ.”

Commentary:

– Sixth, the two who retained bodily fluids and were worthy of offerings

In Sanskrit, his name is Cấp-phòng-bát-để, translated in China as Ox-Like Appearance. Therefore, the transcription Kiều-phạm-ba-đề is incorrect.

Tradition relates that in a past life, the Venerable One plucked an ear of rice and caused several grains to fall to the ground. For this, he incurred the karmic retribution of being born as an ox for five hundred lifetimes in repayment of that former debt. Although he had now obtained a human body, he still retained the appearance of an ox chewing the cud. He was therefore called Bhikshu Ox-Countenance. The Buddha feared that people, seeing him thus, would disparage and scorn him, thereby committing offenses that would cause them to fall into the realms of suffering. He therefore instructed the Venerable One to dwell in the Sirisa Garden in the Trayastrimsa Heaven and cultivate meditative concentration.

After the Buddha entered nirvana, during the first compilation of the Dharma treasury, the Venerable Mahakasyapa sent someone to invite the Venerable One to descend to the human realm and participate in the council.

When the envoy arrived to invite him, the Venerable One asked:

– Is the Blessed One well and at ease?

The man replied:

– The Blessed One has already entered nirvana.

The Venerable One then asked:

– Is my teacher still alive?

The man answered:

– Sariputra could not bear to witness the Blessed One entering nirvana, and, seeing that no one remained in the three realms upon whom he could rely, he entered nirvana before the Blessed One.

After hearing the man’s words, the Venerable One sighed several times and then transformed himself into water that flowed directly down to the human realm. From within the stream, he spoke this verse:

Gavampati bows with head and face,

Before the wondrous, majestic form, foremost of all.

When the king of elephants departs, the young elephant follows;

My teacher has entered nirvana, and I too shall pass away.

After speaking this verse, the Venerable One transformed into fire, burned his body, and entered quiescence.

To avoid the disparagement and suspicion of worldly people, this Venerable One had dwelt atop Mount Sumeru cultivating meditative concentration. While in the Garden of Wondrous Benefit, he heard that the Blessed One had entered nirvana; he then heard that his original teacher, the Son of Autumn, was no more. In a mountain cave he transformed into a stream of water and spoke a verse; in midair he transformed into fire and burned his body. He was therefore called the Venerable Flowing Water.

Pindola Bharadvaja: According to the Sutra on Inviting Pindola, “Pindola is the Venerable One’s personal name, but this sutra does not explain its meaning. Bharadvaja is his clan name, translated in China as Keen Faculties.”

The Vinaya relates: “At that time, the elder Jyotiska placed a sandalwood bowl atop a tall pole and announced to everyone that he would give it to anyone possessing supernormal powers who could retrieve it. At that time, the Venerable One was mending his robe in the mountains. Seeing this from afar with his divine eye, he hastily stuck his needle into the mountainside and flew swiftly to that place.

The thread was still attached to his robe, and so, when he flew away, he inadvertently dragged the entire mountain peak into the city. It obscured the sun and covered the sky, causing the officials and people of the city to become utterly terrified. Pregnant women suffered miscarriages, and they went to the monastery and reported the matter to the Buddha.

Thereupon, the Buddha reproached him and instructed: ‘From this time onward, you may not follow Me, nor may you enter nirvana. You must preserve your body and remain in the world, accepting the invitations and offerings of worldly people, thereby serving as a field in which they may plant merit.’ At present, the Venerable One still dwells on Mount Marici in southern India. Whenever anyone invites him, he comes and frequently manifests in Dharma assemblies where offerings are made.” The full ritual for inviting him is explained in the Sutra on Inviting Pindola and is not extensively recorded in this commentary.

Following the Buddha’s final instruction, this Venerable One did not enter nirvana. He perpetually dwells on Mount Marici and, in response to invitations, frequently manifests in assemblies of offerings throughout Jambudvipa. He is therefore called foremost among those worthy of offerings.

The words of the sutra: “Kaludayin and Mahakapphina.”

The commentary says:

– Seventh, the two who transformed greed and eliminated pride

In the Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, the name Kaludayin is translated as “Black Radiance.” This means that the Venerable One’s entire body was black yet could emit light.

The Ekottarika Agama relates that Kaludayin went out begging for alms at night when the sky was dim and dark, and thunder and lightning flashed. In a flash of lightning, pregnant women saw Kaludayin’s figure and became utterly terrified, believing him to be a ghost or spirit. Their fright was so severe that they miscarried, and so they went to the Buddha and related the entire incident. Thereupon, the Buddha reproached Kaludayin and established the precept that one must not go begging for alms at night.

Furthermore, the Venerable One once taught a miserly woman and caused her to relinquish her greed and stinginess. This matter is fully presented in other sutras and treatises.

This Venerable One frightened pregnant women and caused them to miscarry; he was also the bhikshu who taught a miserly and stingy woman, and at one time he harmed the true Dharma. In particular, he was a figure whose actions gave rise to circumstances that caused the Buddha to establish precepts in ancient times. Therefore, the Venerable One was also known as the Transformer of Greed.

Mahakapphina is translated in China as “Lodging Under the Same Roof.” This is because, on one occasion during a journey to teach and transform beings, the Buddha slept in the same room as this man and manifested as an elderly bhikshu to teach him the Dharma. Upon hearing the teaching, the man immediately attained the Way; hence he was called Lodging Under the Same Roof. Through the Buddha’s exposition of the Way, his arrogant mind was extinguished.

For this Venerable One, the Buddha concealed the marks of a sage and appeared in the form of a monk, carrying a monk’s staff and accompanying him as a fellow traveler. The Buddha even slept together with him in a thatched hut. When the Buddha knew that the man’s faculties had matured, He manifested once more in His original form as the Buddha. Seeing the Buddha’s heroic, wondrous, and majestic bearing, the man immediately resolved to follow Him. He listened to the Buddha teach the Dharma and extinguished his pride. Therefore, this Venerable One was also called the Eliminator of Pride.

The words of the sutra: “Bakkula and Anuruddha.”

The commentary says:

– Eighth, the two who provided medicine and invited the Sangha

Bakkula is a Sanskrit name translated in China as “Excellent Countenance.” Therefore, the transliteration Bạc-câu-la is erroneous.

Tradition relates: “After Vipasyin Buddha entered nirvana, there was a bhikshu who suffered from a severe headache. At that time, Excellent Countenance was a poor man who used the haritaki plant^[32] as medicine to treat the bhikshu. As soon as the bhikshu took the medicine, his illness subsided. Through the merit of giving medicine, throughout ninety-one kalpas, whether born in heaven or in the human realm, Excellent Countenance always enjoyed the bliss of meritorious rewards.”

Furthermore, in a past age, Excellent Countenance had once been a bhikshu and vowed never to look upon a woman’s face, never to accept robes offered by women, and never to receive food from a woman’s hand. While he was residing in a monastery, his mother missed her son deeply and entered the monastery to visit him. Excellent Countenance, however, was displeased and seized an opportunity to drive his mother from the room.

Consequently, a measure of resentment arose in his mother’s heart. She accused this son of committing one of the five rebellious offenses and made an evil vow. She swore that in a future life she would again become his mother in order to punish him.

Indeed, in accordance with her former oath, in another lifetime she again became the Venerable One’s mother and tried five times to kill her son, but did not succeed. Later, the Venerable One followed the Buddha, renounced the household life, and attained the fruit of sagehood.

The Venerable One cultivated the practice of having few desires and knowing contentment, and therefore a single coin appeared at his stupa. Inwardly, this Venerable One cultivated few desires; outwardly, he wore only a single-layered robe. Because he had created the cause of providing medicine and giving it to the sick, he received the karmic reward of being free from illness. Therefore, the Venerable One was also known as the Giver of Medicine.

Anuruddha, in full Sanskrit, is Aniruddha, translated in China as “Unceasing.” The Venerable One was a cousin of the Buddha. Therefore, to call him Anuddha is incorrect.

In a past age, the Venerable One once offered a meal to a pratyekabuddha. As a result, throughout fifty kalpas he continually enjoyed blessings without end. Furthermore, also in a past age, the Venerable One was once a hunter.

Wishing to steal a precious pearl^[33], he used the tip of an arrow to stir the lampwick. When the lamp grew bright, he saw the excellent marks of the Buddha; his intention to steal vanished, and he turned his mind around, cast aside his bow and arrows, and vowed never again to take life. By virtue of that small wholesome cause, he was now able to leave the household life.

After going forth, however, the Venerable One was always sleeping, which hindered his cultivation of meditative concentration. For this reason, the Buddha rebuked him. Ashamed and not daring to face others, the Venerable One thereafter remained constantly awake.

Yet precisely because of this, before long he attained the divine eye. Because he had used the tip of an arrow to brighten a lamp and had planted a small wholesome root, he later attained the divine eye. Moreover, through the cause and condition of offering a single meal, he obtained the fruit of enjoying blessings without end.

Therefore, the Venerable One was also named Yanzeng.

The scripture says: “Such were the great disciples, and so forth.”

Commentary:

Second is the general conclusion. This is a minor point within the third section, the enumeration of names, as stated above.

Above, it was said that there were one thousand two hundred and fifty bhiksus, but here only sixteen are named. Since it was impossible to enumerate all their names, the word “and so forth” is used, meaning that there were many others as well.

“Great disciples”: those who study after Me, the Buddha, are called “disciples”; because they gain understanding through Me, they are called “sons.” This concludes the section concerning “the assembly of exalted practitioners of the Way.”

The scripture says: “And the great bodhisattvas.”

Commentary:

The second section concerns the assembly whose minds of compassion were vast. This is the second of the five assemblies. The first, concerning the assembly of exalted practitioners of the Way, has just concluded. This section is further divided into three minor points. First, the class to which they belonged; second, their names; and third, the general conclusion.

– The first point

The Sanskrit is transliterated as Bodhisattva-mahasattva, abbreviated as bodhisattva-mahasattva. The bodhisattva’s cultivation, practices, and vows generally comprise two approaches. First, regarding benefit for oneself, great wisdom is foremost. Second, regarding benefit for others, great compassion is supreme.

Bodhi means awakening. It is the wisdom that aspires to attain the fruit. Sattva means sentient being. It is the compassionate resolve to liberate beings. Because the designation is based upon this vast vow, one is called a bodhisattva. The two cases above are taken together under the name “bodhisattva.” This is an explanation according to the method of interpreting a compound as “possessing that quality.”

Stated another way, “awakening” indicates the fruit being sought, while “sentient being” indicates oneself. A sentient being who seeks samyak-sambodhi is called a bodhisattva. This is an explanation according to the method of interpreting a compound as “dependent upon its principal.”

As for mahasattva: these bodhisattvas were renowned throughout the ten directions and had reached the eighth of the ten stages. Moreover, to distinguish them from lesser bodhisattvas, and still more from those of the Two Vehicles, they are called mahasattvas.

The scripture says: “Manjusri, Prince of the Dharma King, and Bodhisattva Ajita.”

Commentary:

– The second point: Enumerating their names

This point is further divided into two minor points. First, two figures associated with the manifestation of ten auspicious signs and presence at the three assemblies. Second, two figures who cherish sentient beings and encourage cultivation.

First is the one at whose birth ten auspicious signs appeared. The Sanskrit is transliterated as Manjusri, translated in China as “Wondrous Auspiciousness.” Tradition holds that when he was born, ten auspicious signs appeared:

1. Light filled the chamber.

2. Sweet dew fell throughout the courtyard.

3. The seven treasures emerged from the earth.

4. Spirits opened hidden treasuries.

5. Hens gave birth to phoenixes.

6. Piglets grew dragon scales.

7. Mares gave birth to qilins.

8. Cows gave birth to white Yi.

9. The grain in the storehouses turned into golden grain.

10. Elephants grew all six tusks.

Therefore, he was called Wondrous Auspiciousness.

In a past age, in the north, there was a world named Ever-Joyful, presided over by the Buddha Joyful Treasury Mani Jewel Accumulation. Sentient beings who heard that Buddha’s name could extinguish the four grave offenses. That Buddha was none other than Bodhisattva Manjusri himself.

Another account states that, in a past age, the bodhisattva was the Buddha named Supreme Honored King of the Dragon Lineage.

The Avatamsaka Sutra records: “In China, on Mount Qingliang of the Five Terraces, this bodhisattva dwells together with ten thousand other bodhisattvas.”

“Prince of the Dharma King” means, as the Treatise on the Buddha-bhumi states: “The true Dharma issues from the Buddha’s golden mouth; one perpetuates the Buddha’s body without allowing it to be interrupted, and therefore is called a Prince of the Dharma King, a son of the King of Dharma.”

Question: Three asamkhya kalpas ago, Manjusri already perfected the body of a Buddha, brought all practices to fulfillment, and fully possessed the ten epithets. How, then, could he be present in this realm to teach sentient beings and manifest bodies in other realms to propagate the true Dharma?

Answer: This Venerable One possesses vast compassion, and his aspiration to benefit sentient beings is exceedingly profound and extensive. This illustrates his realization of the principle taught by Vimalakirti. (This refers to the Venerable One’s pure conduct and realization.) Moreover, this bodhisattva manifested a body and taught the Dharma in order to assist Buddha Sakyamuni in his work of teaching and transformation. Thus, whether regarded as a cause in the present or a fruit in the future, what difference is there to warrant doubt?

The three characters A-yi-duo are translated in China as “Maitreya,” the Compassionate One. According to the original Sanskrit, however, it should correctly be pronounced Maitreyana. These five characters, “Maitreyana,” are rendered in Chinese as “compassionate.” In older translations, it was sometimes rendered as Mi-di-li or Mile; both renderings are incorrect. This Venerable One will descend and be born in the future age. At birth, he will innately possess all thirty-two excellent marks, and his entire body will be purplish gold in color and firm in constitution.

Before she conceived him, his mother had a very stern disposition. From the time she became pregnant with him, however, she became gentle and compassionate, helping those who suffered hardship, difficulty, and destitution.

The physiognomist predicted: “This is the disposition of the young master.” His parents named him according to the physiognomist’s prediction, and therefore he was called Maitreyana. If this name were translated, it should be rendered Maitreyani.

The syllable “ni” denotes the feminine gender. Because his mother’s disposition naturally became gentle and compassionate while she was pregnant with him, he was called Maitreya, the Compassionate One.

As to his cause, this Venerable One has already brought it to fulfillment in the present age, but its fruit will ripen only in the next age. He delights in dwelling in a pure land, yet he is also often present in the Dharma assemblies of Buddha Sakyamuni in this Saha world.

The scripture says: “Bodhisattva Gandhahastin and Bodhisattva Ever-Diligent.”

Commentary:

Second are the two figures who cherish sentient beings and encourage cultivation.

The four characters “Gandhahastin” have not been found translated anywhere. In the Sutra in Praise of the Pure Land, the third bodhisattva named is Bodhisattva Never-Resting. This means that this bodhisattva teaches, transforms, and benefits sentient beings without pause, never knowing weariness.

Ever-Diligent: this bodhisattva always seeks to surpass what has previously been attained, constantly striving to attain what has not yet been attained, and this exertion never becomes indolent or withdrawn. (Thought after thought urges him onward.)

The scripture says: “And other such great bodhisattvas, and so forth.”

Commentary:

– The third point

This concludes the section concerning the assembly of those possessed of vast loving-kindness and compassion. The preceding passage discussed the assembly of bodhisattvas. That section now comes to an end.

The sutra says: “Countless devas, the great assembly, Shakra Devendra, and so forth were all present.”

The commentary says:

The third division is one of the five divisions concerning the five assemblies. This section discusses “the assembly of devas who delight in hearing the Dharma.”

In Sanskrit, the name is “Shakra-deva-indra.” Shakra is the clan name. The word “Shak” is translated into Chinese as “Able.” Deva means “Deva,” and Indra means “Sovereign.” Therefore, the expressions Shakra Devendra or the deva sovereign Shakra are not only incorrect but also reverse the proper order.

This being is the king of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and dwells upon the summit of Mount Sumeru. According to tradition, in a past age this deva was named Kaushika, translated into Chinese as “Silkworm”; it means “Cocoon Maker.” He was also called Amagirdha, translated into Chinese as “Free from Poisonous Harm.” In the past, it was in the kingdom of Magadha that Shakra cultivated the path. Therefore, the name of the country was adopted as his personal name. The causes and conditions of his cultivation are explained in the Commentary on the Venerable Treatise.

The phrase “Shakra and so forth” means that the other devas and the great assembly all came to Jetavana.

The distinctions among the three assemblies have just been briefly explained. This summary constitutes the fifth section, concerning those to whom the Buddha taught the Dharma, and it now comes to an end. Although the five passages presented above differ from one another, they all belong to the introductory section. The introductory section of the sutra now concludes. What follows is the principal teaching section.

Notes:

^[1] Master Kuiji (632–682): also known as Lingji, Dasheng Ji, Dharma Master Ji, Great Master Ji of Ci’en, and so forth. He was the first patriarch of the Faxiang School in China. He lived during the Tang dynasty, bore the surname Yuchi and the courtesy name Hongdao, and was a native of Chang’an.

^[2] Ci’en Monastery: also known as Great Ci’en Monastery. Located south of the city of Xi’an in Shaanxi Province, it was founded during China’s Sui dynasty under the name Wulou Monastery. In 648, during the Tang dynasty, Emperor Gaozong—when he had only recently become Crown Prince—had it repaired and enlarged to invoke blessings for his mother, Empress Wende, and therefore named it Ci’en Monastery.

^[3] Saṃyuktābhidharmahṛdaya Śāstra 雜阿毗談心論: also known in abbreviated form as the Saṃyuktahṛdaya Śāstra. This is an exegetical treatise in eleven fascicles, composed by Dharmatrāta and translated by Saṅghavarman. Its contents form a commentary on Dharmaśreṣṭhin’s Abhidharmahṛdaya Śāstra.

^[4] Satyasiddhi Śāstra 成實論: this treatise was composed by Harivarman and translated by Kumārajīva around 411–412 during the Later Qin dynasty. It is included in volume 32 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. The treatise exists in versions of sixteen or twenty fascicles.

^[5] Three Teachings 三教: that is, three systems of teaching. From the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–588) onward, Chinese Buddhist scholars divided the sacred teachings delivered by the Buddha during his lifetime into differing systems of Three Teachings.

^[6] Eight Schools 八宗: there are two accounts of these eight schools: 1. The eight schools transmitted in China are the Vinaya School, Three Treatises School, Pure Land School, Chan School, Tiantai School, Huayan School, Lotus School, and Esoteric School. 2. The eight schools transmitted in Japan are the Kegon School, Hossō School, Sanron School, Jōjitsu School, Kusha School, Ritsu School, Tendai School, and Shingon School.

^[7] Longjun 龍軍: this is a Chinese translation of the original Sanskrit name Nāgasena; he is also called Nāgasina or Nāgasena. The years of his birth and death are unknown. He was also called Naxian, but he was not the Nāgasena who lived during the reign of King Milinda.

^[8] Eight periods 八時: this means that in India a full day and night were divided into eight periods, whereas in China they were divided into six periods.

^[9] Bandhuprabha 親光: an Indian Yogācāra scholar who lived in the sixth century CE.

^[10] Vasubandhu 世親: also called Tianqin, he was a great Indian master who lived around the fourth century. He was a native of the city of Puruṣapura in Gandhāra, northern India. He was the second son of the Brahmin royal preceptor Kauśika and the younger brother of Asaṅga.

^[11] Dharmapāla 護法 (S: Dharmapāla): an eminent Indian monk who lived around the sixth century. A native of Kāñcīpura, he was the son of a chief minister of the kingdom of Drāviḍa in southern India and was one of the ten great Yogācāra treatise masters. He passed away at the age of thirty-two.

^[12] The twelve divisions of the scriptures: also called the Twelvefold Teaching, the Twelvefold Sacred Teaching, and the Twelve Divisions of the Sutras. These are twelve categories of scripture distinguished according to their mode of presentation and doctrinal content. They comprise: sutra (prose discourse), repeated verse, prediction, independent verse, self-spoken discourse, causes and conditions, parable, accounts of past events, birth stories, extensive teachings, unprecedented events, and doctrinal discussion.

^[13] Doctrinal classification 判教: the critical analysis and classification of the teachings delivered throughout the lifetime of Shakyamuni Buddha, such as the Tiantai School’s five periods and eight teachings and the Huayan School’s five teachings. In addition, each Mahayana school has its own system of critical analysis and classification.

^[14] Bodhiruci 菩提流支 (S: Bodhiruci): an eminent monk from India who lived during the Northern Wei dynasty and a scholar of the Mahayana Yogācāra tradition. Naturally intelligent, he was versed in the entire Tripiṭaka, highly proficient in dharani practices, and resolved from an early age to propagate the Dharma. In 508, during the reign of Emperor Xuanwu of the Northern Wei, he arrived in Luoyang and was held in great esteem by the emperor. The emperor invited him to reside at Yongning Monastery and undertake the translation of Sanskrit scriptures into Chinese. He translated a total of thirty-nine works in 127 fascicles.

^[15] Three kinds of grasses: as stated in the “Medicinal Herbs” chapter of the Lotus Sutra, there are three kinds of medicinal grasses: small, medium, and large. Likewise, there are two kinds of trees: large trees and small trees.

^[16] Dharmakṣema 曇無讖 (S: Dharma-raksa) (385–433): also called Tanwuchan, Tanmouchan, and so forth. He was a renowned Indian monk of Brahmin descent who went to China and translated scriptures during the Northern Liang dynasty.

^[17] Paramārtha 真諦 (S: Paramāratha) (499–569): a renowned Indian monk and celebrated translator of sutras and treatises. He belonged to the Brahmin Bharadvāja clan and came from northwestern India. In 546, he carried scriptures across the sea to China.

^[18] The Three Kāśyapas 三迦葉: they should not be confused with the Venerable Mahākāśyapa. The three Kāśyapa brothers were Uruvilvā-Kāśyapa, Nadī-Kāśyapa, and Gayā-Kāśyapa. They were originally followers of a fire-worshipping religion and had, respectively, 500, 300, and 200 disciples. After the Buddha attained enlightenment, all three brought their entire followings to take refuge in the Buddha.

^[19] The eight Prajnaparamita scriptures 八部般若: entry 31 of the Daming Numerical Categories of the Tripiṭaka states that the eight Prajnaparamita scriptures comprise the Larger Prajnaparamita, Smaller Prajnaparamita, Light-Emitting Prajnaparamita, Light-Praising Prajnaparamita, Practice of the Way Prajnaparamita, Diamond Prajnaparamita, Prajnaparamita of the Victorious Deva King, and Mañjuśrī’s Questions on Prajnaparamita.

^[20] Jñānagupta 蛇那崛多 (523–600): his name is translated into Chinese as “Virtuous Resolve,” “Resolute Virtue,” or “Buddha Virtue.” He lived during the Chen and Sui dynasties. A native of the kingdom of Gandhāra in northern India, he entered monastic life at an early age at Mahāvana Monastery. During the Wucheng era (559–560) of Emperor Ming of the Northern Zhou, he arrived in Chang’an and resided at Caotang Monastery. He later went to the Monastery of the Four Heavenly Kings to translate scriptures.

^[21] Dharmagupta 達摩笈多 (?-619), also known as Dharmagupta, Gupta, Dharma-mitra, and Dharma-piṭaka. He was an eminent Indian monk from the country of Lāṭa and belonged to the kṣatriya caste. He was gentle in disposition, upright and dignified in appearance, and possessed few desires. In 590, he arrived at Chang’an, the capital of China, and by imperial decree took up residence at Daxingshan Monastery. In 606, together with Jñānagupta, he established a scripture translation institute in Luoyang, where they translated nine works in 46 fascicles.

^[22] Layman Liu: possibly Liu Yimin (352-410), a Chinese Buddhist layman and follower of the Pure Land School who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was from Pengcheng, Dongshan County, Jiangsu Province; his personal name was Chengzhi, and his courtesy name was Zhong’en. At first he served as an official, but later resigned from office and retired to Mount Lu, where he took Master Huiyuan as his teacher.

^[23] The elder merchant Trapuṣa 提謂長•者: this is an abbreviated designation; properly speaking, it refers to two persons. They were the two merchants whom the Buddha accepted as his first lay disciples: Trapuṣa and Bhallika. The two were brothers from northern India.

^[24] Nālandā Monastery 那蘭陀寺 (Nālandā): a great monastery north of Rājagṛha, the capital of Magadha in ancient central India, in what is now the area of Baragaon, approximately 11 km north of Rajgir. At the beginning of the fifth century, King Śakrāditya of the Gupta dynasty built it for the bhikṣu Rajavamasa to preside over. Over successive generations it was repeatedly expanded, becoming a vast Buddhist monastery and center of learning in ancient India. At the end of the twelfth century, however, it was destroyed by Islamic forces.

^[25] Śīlabhadra 戒賢: an eminent Indian treatise master of the Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism, who lived around the sixth and seventh centuries. Born into a Brahmin family, he awakened to the Way upon hearing Dharmapāla teach the Dharma and then requested ordination. He presided over Nālandā Monastery and propagated the doctrine of Consciousness-Only. When he was more than one hundred years old, Xuanzang came to study at Nālandā and received the Dharma transmission from him. At that time, the Sangha addressed him by the Dharma title Treasury of the True Dharma.

^[26] The two classes of ordinary beings 二凡: the two kinds of ordinary beings, namely external ordinary beings and internal ordinary beings. Practitioners of the Three Vehicles, prior to seeing the truth—that is, realizing the truths of Buddhism—remain at the stage of ordinary beings. This stage is divided into two classes. Those who merely hear the teaching and place faith in it are external ordinary beings. Those who actually practice the teaching and draw near to the noble stages are internal ordinary beings. The three worthy stages of the Lesser Vehicle and the stage of the Ten Faiths in the Mahayana are those of external ordinary beings. The four wholesome roots of the Lesser Vehicle and the Ten Abodes and higher stages of the Mahayana are those of internal ordinary beings.

^[27] The six compound interpretations 六合釋: also called the six analytic and synthetic interpretations, or the six compounds. These are six methods for interpreting complex Sanskrit terms—terms composed of two or more words. In their application, a term is first divided into its components and explained analytically, after which the components are combined and explained synthetically; hence they are called the six analytic and synthetic interpretations.

This method originated in Sanskrit scriptures and treatises, but after being transmitted to China, its content underwent some modification. The six compounds are: 1. Interpretation as dependency on the principal. 2.

Interpretation as a coordinative compound. 3. Interpretation as an appositional compound. 4. Interpretation as a numeral compound. 5.

Interpretation by proximity. 6. Interpretation as a possessive compound.

^[28] The Three Bodies are the three bodies commonly taught in the scriptures: the transformation body, the reward body, and the Dharma body.

^[29] A deva shrine 天祠 (Skt. Deva-kula): a shrine dedicated to the devas; that is, a place in India where offerings were made to deities of the celestial class, such as Maheśvara.

^[30] The six schools of philosophy: Mīmāṃsā; Sāṃkhya; Yoga; Vaiśeṣika; Nyāya; and Vedānta.

^[31] The beings of the eight classes comprise devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kiṃnaras, and mahoragas.

^[32] Harītakī 呵梨勒: according to fascicle 1 of the Vinaya Miscellaneous Matters, this is one of five medicines: emblic myrobalan, harītakī, vibhītaka, long pepper, and black pepper. These five medicines may be consumed as desired, whether one is ill or not, and whether at the proper time or outside the proper time.

^[33] The pearl of the fine hair is the pearl affixed at the center of the white-hair mark on a Buddha image; that is, it is situated between the two eyebrows.