Toh 338The Exposition of Karma

Summary

In The Exposition of Karma, the Buddha
presents to the brahmin youth Śuka Taudeyaputra a discourse on the workings of
karma. This is enlivened by many examples drawn from the rich heritage of
Buddhist narrative literature, providing a detailed analysis of how deeds lead
to specific consequences in the future. For the Buddhist, this treatise answers
many questions pertaining to moral causation, examining specific life situations
and their underlying karmic causes and emphasizing the key role that intention
plays in the Buddhist ethic of responsibility.

Acknowledgements

This sūtra was translated into English from the Tibetan and the Sanskrit
by Bruno Galasek-Hul with Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpoche (Evam Choden Buddhist
Center, Kensington, Berkeley, California) as the consulting Lama.

The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of
84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.

We gratefully acknowledge the generous sponsorship of Late Ng Ah Chon,
Late Lee Tiang Chuan, Lee Cheng Watt and family, Late Lee Cheng Boon and family,
Lee Boon Tee and family, Lee Pheck Tiang and family, Lee Pheck Choo and family,
Lee Siang Choo and family. Their support has helped make the work on this
translation possible.

Introduction

The Exposition of Karma (Karmavibhaṅga) opens in Prince Jeta’s grove,
where the Buddha announces to the brahmin youth Śuka Taudeyaputra that he will deliver this exposition on karma. The ensuing
teaching provides a detailed analysis of the complex workings of karma. This
is enlivened by many examples drawn from the rich store of Buddhist
narrative literature, especially the Buddha’s past-life stories. It begins
with a section in which the Buddha poses and answers a series of questions
about how conspicuous differences in life circumstances such as longevity,
happiness, illness, and appearance have been determined by past deeds. A
second section follows, in which questions relating to specific causes for
rebirth in various worlds are answered. A third section contains a series of
miscellaneous questions and answers that examine the specific outcomes of
deeds when certain factors are either present or absent in their
performance. Two final sections focus more broadly on virtuous and
nonvirtuous deeds and their respective positive and negative consequences.
In each of these contexts, the relationship between actions and their
results is illustrated by examples and morality tales from Buddhist
narrative literature.

Karma

The central theme of the Karmavibhaṅga is the concept of cause and effect, the complex
system of positive and negative results that, in Indian religious thought,
are attributed to karma (“action”) itself. In the Buddhist context, the term
karma designates both
morally good (kuśala) and
bad (akuśala) actions of
body, speech, and mind. Once committed, all such deeds “ripen” (vipāka) into their corresponding
pleasant and unpleasant (or neutral) results, called “karmic fruition”
(karma-phala). From this standpoint, the entire
universe and everything in it is the result of individuals’ actions. According to the Karmavibhaṅga, certain unpleasant features of
one’s environment are the direct outcome of the ten nonvirtuous courses of
action. The botanical or
agricultural metaphor employed in the Buddhist description of the karmic
process of the individual is perhaps noteworthy: through the
ripening of karma one reaps or
harvests the fruits of one’s
actions. Although the historical Buddha was not the first teacher in ancient
India to teach the concept of karmic cause and effect, it has been argued
that he advanced and redefined the existing notions of karmically relevant
actions as consisting primarily in mental intention (Skt. cetanā; Tib. sems pa). This
is summarized in the frequently cited passage from the Aṅguttara Nikāya of
the Pāli canon: “By action I mean intention, monks. Having formed a (moral)
intention, one carries out an action with body, speech, or mind.”

The textual references in the Karmavibhaṅga

The Karmavibhaṅga is rich in
references to sūtras and citations from Buddhist literature. Its longest
illustrative story is a version of the popular narrative from the Maitrakanyakāvadāna (Divyāvadāna no. 38) of the voyage of the sea merchant’s son
Maitrakanyaka (called Maitrāyajña in the Karmavibhaṅga), who undertakes a sea voyage to make his
fortune, disregarding his mother’s pleas for him to remain on shore and
instead physically mistreating her. Because of his disobedience and abuse,
he is shipwrecked on the shores of a foreign country and ends up suffering
the torments of his personal hell. Another popular story is that of the
sthavira Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who is refused alms by a family and subsequently
reveals to a stranger their karmic relationship. Both stories are widely
known among Tibetan Buddhists from orally transmitted anecdotes of Tibetan
lamas. However, many of the other stories and text titles referenced in the
Karmavibhaṅga are either completely
unknown to us or differ from their better-known versions and other extant
texts that bear identical or similar titles.

The Karmavibhaṅga’s Significance and Geographical Distribution in

the Buddhist World

Lokesh Chandra, writing about the Javanese Buddhist monument the
Borobudur, notes the wide-ranging influence of the Karmavibhaṅga: “It was a popular text from the island of Java
to the sands of Central Asia and as far as the sprawling land of China, that
is, wherever the doctrine of Buddha held sway.”

A further measure of the work’s widespread popularity is the diverse
range of languages in which we find extant versions or fragments of the
work: Sanskrit, Pāli, Khotanese, Kuchean, Sogdian, and Chinese. Indeed,
it was translated into Chinese five times over eight centuries. Thus, in a
variety of cultural contexts, the work served as an important source for the
central Buddhist doctrine that humans are responsible for the consequences
of their actions.

The design of the Borobudur on the island of Java in Indonesia is
thought to include pictorial representations drawn from the Karmavibhaṅga. According to Lokesh Chandra, the monument is a physical
model of the Buddhist path to awakening in terms of the four sambhāras or accumulations of
merit (puṇya), wisdom
(jñāna), tranquility
(śamatha), and special
insight (vidarśanā)
according to the Lalitavistara, while skillfully integrating
and harmonizing other textual traditions. The lowest or most basic level of
religious merit (puṇya),
which must be accomplished before one can ascend to the higher levels of the
path, is represented by Borobudur’s so-called hidden base, which features
reliefs depicting stories from the Karmavibhaṅga that illustrate the law of karma.

The title of the text

The exact original title of Toh 338 cannot be established beyond a
doubt. Sylvain Lévi, the first to edit and translate the text, referred to
it as the Mahākarmavibhaṅga (MKV).
However, the adjective mahā- (“great”) only occurs in the title given to one of the
two surviving nearly complete manuscripts (called MS[A] by Kudo
Noriyuki), and only in an appendix to the text. The second
of the two nearly complete manuscripts (called MS[B] in Kudo’s edition)
bears the title Karmavibhaṅgasūtraṃ.
There are similar variants in the Tibetan translations of the text preserved
in the different Kangyur collections.

For the sake of simplicity, we here follow Kudo and use the title
Karmavibhaṅga instead
of Mahākarmavibhaṅga or
Karmavibhaṅgasūtra to
refer to the text translated here (Toh 338), with the caveat that different
versions of this text with either the same or a different title are
extant. The
Karmavibhaṅga belongs to a group of
texts which has been labeled the Karmavibhaṅga- or Śukasūtra class.

Genre

Although one manuscript (MS[B]) contains the word sūtra in its title, there is
insufficient evidence from the extant Sanskrit manuscripts to determine
whether the Karmavibhaṅga
actually belonged to the scriptural category of sūtra or not. As indicated by the example
of the Cakravartisūtra—a
text the Karmavibhaṅga
quotes four times—texts that were designated as sūtras may nevertheless have
belonged to the Abhidharma Piṭaka of one of the early Buddhist schools. Indeed, from the point of
view of style, the actual “sūtra-portion” of the Sanskrit version as edited
by Lévi seemingly ends after presenting a mere list of eighty karmic
categories. Subsequently, something more akin to
a commentary on those categories is inserted, bracketed by the list and the
title (Karmavibhaṅgasūtraṃ samāptam; given
in the colophon of MS[B]) that formally marks the end of the text. But there
is no “classical” sūtra ending such as a statement that the assembled
audience was delighted and rejoiced in the Blessed One’s words.
Indeed, the Karmavibhaṅga’s diction is
rather characteristic of a treatise or commentary (Sanskrit śāstra): the different actions
and their karmic results are presented in the form of a (hypothetical)
dialogue in which replies are given to questions about the expected outcomes
of specific types of action. This seamless inclusion of what reads like a
commentary as well as the diction of the sūtra, which appears to be more in
line with a commentarial treatise, is unusual for the sūtra genre. Equally
unusual is the absence of a formulaic, sūtra-typical closure in the Sanskrit
version of both MS[A] and MS[B].

The Tibetan tradition on the other hand regarded the Karmavibhaṅga as belonging to the sūtra
category (mdo sde), and the
Tibetan version possesses the characteristic sūtra frame. All the editions
of the Tibetan Kangyur available through the website Resources for Kanjur and Tanjur Studies classify it under the
sūtra category. The Degé Kangyur contains the Karmavibhaṅga in a subsection called
Collection of Sūtras Belonging to the Hīnayāna (theg dman gyi mdo mang), in the vicinity of such
celebrated Buddhist classics as the Udānavarga
and the Karmaśataka.

Extant versions of the text

A good deal of excellent scholarly work has been done on the Karmavibhaṅga and its related texts. In what
follows we collate and summarize some general information about the extant
versions of the Karmavibhaṅga and the
existing scholarship.

Sanskrit versions

The Sanskrit text of the Karmavibhaṅga was first edited and published together with
a French translation by Sylvain Lévi (1932). Lévi used handwritten
copies of the original manuscripts. His edition and translation of the
text remains the most comprehensive study, bringing together in one
place most of the extant versions and fragments of this important text.
Kudo Noriyuki (2004) has published a transliteration of the original
manuscripts together with extensive annotations on the quotations of the
Karmavibhaṅga.

Pāli versions

As is the case with so many sūtras, we have little concrete
information about the origin, the circumstances, or the age of the text
of the Karmavibhaṅga. Perhaps one of the oldest
canonical versions of a more detailed discussion of the Buddhist
formulation of the doctrine of karmic cause and effect—if one accepts
that parts of the Pāli canon are among the oldest representatives of
Indian Buddhism, that is—can be found in two texts (Pāli sutta) of the Majjhima
Nikāya of the Pāli canon: the Cūḷakammavibhaṅgasutta (MN 135) and the Mahākammavibhaṅgasutta (MN 136). The
phraseology and the “cast of characters” of the Cūḷakammavibhaṅgasutta, which contains altogether fourteen
karmic categories that partly overlap with those of the Karmavibhaṅga, bear some resemblance to
the Karmavibhaṅga. The Pāli version of
the brahmin youth’s name, Śuka, is Subha.

Chinese translations

According to Lokesh Chandra, the Karmavibhaṅga was popular in China. Different recensions of
the text were translated into Chinese altogether six times—some of them
probably from versions transmitted via Central Asia, where the text was
equally well known. The earliest translation dates to the third century
ce. All the different translations
bearing various related titles, and possibly representing different
recensions of the text, have been collectively called the Śukasūtra-class after Śuka
Taudeyaputra, the
protagonist of the frame story. The Chinese translations, in the order
of their dates of translation, are as follows:

Of these, Taishō 80 is given as the Chinese translation
equivalent of the Tibetan text translated here, the las rnam par ’byed pa (Toh 338).

Central Asian versions

We can infer from the large number of surviving fragments of
versions of the Karmavibhaṅgasūtra
from the Buddhist centers of the Central Asian oasis towns along the
ancient Silk Road that this text and its cognate versions must also have
been very popular among Central Asian Buddhists. We know of an old
Khotanese version, a Central Asian fragment in Sanskrit, several fragments
of a Kuchean version, and a Sogdian
version.

Tibetan translations

Apart from the Sanskrit and the Central Asian recensions of the
Karmavibhaṅga, three different
Tibetan versions are preserved in different Kangyurs. While the Kangyurs
of the Tshalpa (tshal pa) line
mainly contain the versions of the text as preserved in Toh 338 and Toh
339, the Kangyurs belonging to the Thempangma (them spangs ma) line contain the Toh 339
version and, instead of the Toh 338 version, another version of the
text. The mixed-lineage Lhasa Kangyur includes all three.

A text bearing the title las rnam par
’byed pa zhes bya ba (Karmavibhaṅganāma) in the Tengyur (Toh 3959) is an
independent work attributed to the authorship of Atiśa Dīpaṅkaraśrījñāna
(982–1054) and has no direct or explicit relation to the Karmavibhaṅga or the Tibetan versions.
Apart from the Nepalese Sanskrit commentary contained in Lévi’s 1932
edition of the Karmavibhaṅga, we are
aware of only one (combined) commentary on the las rnam par ’byed pa (Toh 338) and the (here so called)
las rnam par ’gyur ba’i mdo (Toh
339) by Choné Lama Drakpa Shedrup (co ne bla
ma grags pa bshad sgrub, 1675–1748). No canonical commentary on the Karmavibhaṅga is known to us.

None of the other known versions is an exact match of Toh 338.
In other words, we do not possess, and do not know whether there ever
existed, a complete Indic source text of the las rnam par ’byed pa. The relationships of the different
Tibetan versions of the Karmavibhaṅga
as well as their relationships to the other extent versions in other
languages await further research.

Notes on the English translation

We have based our English translation on the Tibetan text (Toh 338)
of the Degé Kangyur as well as the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and prioritized the diction
and register of the Tibetan translation. However, we have also perused the
Sanskrit editions made by Lévi and Kudo in parallel with the Tibetan text
and have chosen to translate the corresponding Sanskrit passage instead of
the Tibetan in cases where the Tibetan translation was ambiguous or
unintelligible. Our preferences are recorded in the notes.

The Translation

The Exposition of Karma

Homage to all the buddhas and bodhisattvas!

Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavān was staying in Śrāvastī,
in Prince Jeta’s grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.

There the Bhagavān addressed the brahmin youth Śuka thus: “Son, I will teach you The
Exposition of Karma.
Listen carefully and remember it well, and I will teach!”

“Please do so, Bhagavān!”

The brahmin youth Śuka having thus assented, the Bhagavān said to
him, “Son, I say that beings are owners of their own actions,
they originate from their actions, they are heirs of their actions, and they take action as their
refuge.
In this way, son, beings are divided into high, middle, and low
in terms of their actions.

“In this regard, there are, for instance, the actions that lead to a
short life.

“What kind of action leads to a short life? Killing, rejoicing in
killing, celebrating killing, instigating the
death of an enemy, praising the death of an enemy, causing death in the
womb, praising the causing of
death in the womb, and preparing the sacrificial ground where buffalo, cows,
pigs, birds, and so on are to be killed. The children and grandchildren of
the originator of this sacrifice, as well as other people hoping for a
positive result or acting out of fear, will kill many beings as they
continue to carry out this initial sacrifice.

“For example, in a certain city in Kāśmīr, a certain mendicant who
was an arhat was sitting at the door of a house. On a road leading straight
to this house, a miserably mooing cow was being led along on a lead. The
mendicant, having seen the cow, exclaimed, ‘Alas! What a misery!’

“The people then asked the mendicant, ‘Ācārya, why did you say,
“Alas! What a misery”?’

“He replied, ‘Although I usually do not speak to those without
faith, in this particular case I will speak.’ Then he
said, ‘That cow being led along there, mooing, was in a former existence a
rich merchant. He had prepared a piece of land for the yearly sacrifice and
killed a great many cows there. When the time of his death drew near, he
called his sons and said to them, “Sons, if you love me, you will also
execute this yearly cattle sacrifice after I am dead!” So instructed, the
sons agreed and said, “We will.” Then this man died and,
because he had killed out of confusion, was reborn as a cow in his own
house. After having been reborn there again and again, and having been
killed time and again, this is now the sixth time he is being led to the
sacrificial ground.’

“The mendicant then said to the cow with pity, ‘You yourself have
prepared this very sacrificial ground. You yourself have performed this very
sacrifice and killed many cows. Your mooing is to no avail! What is it
good for?’ So it was said.

“Seeing the preparation of a sacrificial ground such as this is like
witnessing a battle during
which many beings such as humans and horses are killed, or like
being thrilled about the accoutrements of war.

“As the Buddha has said in the Kālikasūtra:

“ ‘Ānanda, resorting to killing and having grown accustomed to it
and practiced it often becomes the cause for rebirth in the hells, in
the animal realm, or as a ghost.’

“When killing is done few times and on a small scale, it leads to
having a short lifespan.

“What kind of action leads to a long life? Abstaining from killing;
speaking praise of abstaining from killing and encouraging others to do so;
freeing people and cattle, pigs, birds, and so forth that are to be killed;
giving protection to those stricken with fear; arousing thoughts of kindness
toward those who are without protection; arousing thoughts of love toward
those who are sick, children, and the elderly; giving food to and arousing
thoughts of love toward those who are in need; and rejecting all those
things referred to above concerning war and so forth, and instead
practicing virtue such as renovating and restoring stūpas and
monasteries that have fallen into disrepair.

“It is said in that same sūtra:

“ ‘For he who restores what has fallen into ruin,

Untimely death will not occur.’

“This kind of action leads to a long life.

“What kind of action leads to having many illnesses? Anger and
hitting someone with the fist or the palm of the hand; enjoying hitting somebody with the fist
or the palm of the hand; speaking praise of the merit of hitting someone
with the fist or the palm of the hand and encouraging it; causing one’s
parents mental or physical distress; causing monks who possess moral discipline
mental distress; feeling glad when one’s enemies are stricken by illness;
feeling unhappy when one’s enemies recover from an illness; and not giving
medicine and giving indigestible foods—this kind of action leads to having
many illnesses.

“What kind of action leads to having few illnesses? Not hitting
someone with the palm of the hand or with the fist; encouraging
others to abstain from hitting with the palm of the hand or the fist and
praising the merits of abstaining from hitting; rejoicing in not hitting;
serving one’s ill parents, householders, and monks, regardless of whether
they are senior or junior monks;
caring for the sick; not feeling happy or glad when one’s enemies fall ill;
rejoicing in their recovery; and giving medicine and digestible food —this
kind of action leads to having few illnesses.

“What kind of action leads to having an ugly appearance? Anger, enmity,
resentment, spite, speaking ill of one’s parents,
speaking ill of householders and of senior or junior monks, soiling stūpas and monasteries
and the site of a stūpa, extinguishing offering lamps at stūpas and images,
deriding ugly people, and having little sense of cleanliness—this kind of
action leads to ugliness.

“What kind of action leads to beauty? The opposites of anger,
enmity, resentment, and spite; donating clothing; plastering stūpas and monasteries
with white lime; donating
beautiful bowls;
making an offering of incense, scented ointment, cloth, and ornaments;
praising one’s parents; praising noble ones and those who possess moral
discipline; cleaning and sweeping the court around a stūpa, a monastery, and
one’s house; not deriding ugly people; not deriding others in general, whether old
or young; and being very cleanly—this kind of action leads to beauty.

“What kind of action leads to having little power? Avarice; envy; being unhappy about others’
successes; being unhappy when others are praised; despising one’s parents;
despising noble ones and those who possess moral discipline; despising the
sick, the old, and the young; praising what is vile, what is lacking
Dharma, and the roots of nonvirtue; and
turning away from the mind of awakening—this kind of action leads to having
little power.

“What kind of action leads to being powerful? Not being avaricious;
not being envious; rejoicing in others’ successes; not rejoicing in others’
failures; rejoicing in hearing about others’ glory, renown, and good
reputation;
being happy when others are praised; building stūpas and
monasteries in commemoration of the Bhagavān; turning away from what is
vile, from what is lacking Dharma, and from the roots of demerit;
encouraging others to engage in the roots of merit that lead to distinction;
aspiring to reach awakening; and aspiring to attain distinction through the
dedication of all roots of merit —this kind of action leads to being powerful.

“What kind of action leads to being born into a low social status?
Vanity; conceit; not honoring one’s father and mother, śramaṇas, and
brāhmaṇas; not respecting the head of a family; not attending to one’s parents; not attending to noble ones,
to those who possess moral discipline, and to others occupying a position of
authority, such as one’s preceptor and one’s teacher; and despising people
of low class—this kind of action leads to being born into a low social
status.

“What kind of action leads to being born into a family of high
social status? Having little vanity; having no conceit; honoring one’s
father and mother, śramaṇas, and brāhmaṇas; honoring the head of the
family; attending to one’s parents; attending to noble ones, to those who
possess moral discipline, and to others occupying a position of authority,
such one’s preceptor and teacher; and not despising people of low class.

“For example, the Buddha has said in a sūtra:

“ ‘Monks, you should know that a community that is approached by monks who possess moral discipline,
are celibate, and possess the quality of virtue can expect five
benefits. What are the five? It develops faith in the ones
possessing moral discipline who have approached them. Furthermore,
monks, at that time, that community enters the path leading to rebirth
in heaven. And what is more, monks, the moment the community greets and
welcomes those approaching who possess moral discipline, the community
has already entered the path leading to rebirth in heaven.’

“This kind of action leads to being reborn in a family of high
social status.

“What kind of action leads to poverty? Stealing; encouraging others
to commit theft; speaking praise of stealing; taking pleasure in stealing
and in having stolen; depriving one’s
parents of their livelihood; depriving noble ones and those who possess
moral discipline of their livelihood and stealing the livelihood of monks, children, the elderly, the poor,
and the sick; rejoicing when others fail to gain wealth; preventing others
from gaining wealth; and rejoicing in a bad harvest—this kind of action
leads to poverty.

“What kind of action leads to wealth? Abstaining from stealing;
rejoicing when someone abstains from taking what was not freely given to
them by others; providing one’s parents with a livelihood; providing noble
ones and those who possess moral discipline with a livelihood; offering sustenance to
the sick, children, the elderly, the poor, and others; rejoicing in the gain
of others; and rejoicing in a good harvest.

“In the same sūtra it is said:

“ ‘What is more, monks, when the merit-collecting communities
make offerings to those approaching them who possesses moral discipline
they enter the path leading to prosperity.’

“This kind of action leads to great wealth.

“What kind of action leads to low intelligence?
Here, one does not ask the learned śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas or others, ‘What is the Dharma? What
is not the Dharma?
What, when done by me, is conducive to happiness?’ One
associates with people who lack intelligence and abandons wise people.
One teaches what is not the true Dharma, and even though one knows that a
reciter of the Buddhist scriptures has spoken well, due to one’s being
opinionated one does not say ‘well done!’ But when
a reciter has spoken what does not correspond with the Dharma, one says
‘well done!’ One praises wrong views and criticizes right views. One
denigrates writers and reciters of manuscripts and deprives them of their
livelihood. This kind of action leads to low intelligence.

“What kind of action leads to great intelligence? Here, one has a
disposition that dares to inquire and asks the
learned śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas questions; one completely shuns those lacking
wisdom; one extols the true Dharma and elucidates it; one criticizes what is
not the true Dharma; and one praises the confidence of the Dharma
reciters and says ‘well done!’ One
acclaims those who speak coherently and steers clear of those who speak what
is unacceptable; one praises right view and
criticizes wrong view; one
makes offerings of paper, ink, and reed pens; and,
as explained in the Nandikasūtra, one does not drink alcohol. The
thirty-five faults of drinking alcohol
that are taught in that sūtra will be discussed later in the section on the
nonvirtuous actions. This kind of action
leads to great intelligence.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth as a hell being? Carrying out
gravely negative actions of body, speech, and mind with intensely angry
thoughts; entertaining the wrong view of annihilation, the wrong view of
eternalism, and the wrong view of nihilism; speaking with hostility; ingratitude; performing
the evil actions that bring immediate retribution; and flinging false
accusations at noble ones and those who possess moral discipline—this kind
of action leads to rebirth in the hell realms.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth in the animal realm?
Carrying out moderately bad actions with body, speech, and mind and the
varied actions stemming from desire,
hatred, and confusion; presenting improper gifts to one’s parents or Buddhist monks; ridiculing beings who are reborn in the animal realm; and
making the aspiration to be reborn there as, for example, when someone
practices the ox vow or the dog vow, thinking, ‘May I be
reborn like that!’

“As an example, one may here relate the Heroic Past Deeds of the
Bodhisattva from the Siṃhajātaka, or the
story of the brahmin Varṣākāra’s rebirth as a monkey.

“The brahmin Varṣākāra saw the sthavira Mahākāśyapa on Vulture Peak,
flying in the sky above the city of Rājagṛha. Because of his close association with Devadatta and
Prince Ajātaśatru, he harbored hostile thoughts in his mind and made this insulting
comment: ‘This monk flies through the air from mountain peak to mountain peak
just as a monkey swings from tree to tree.’

“When the brahmin Varṣākāra, his mind filled with hatred, had made
this insulting comment, the Buddha was asked, ‘Venerable Bhagavān, what will
be the karmic result of this?’

“The Bhagavān replied, ‘By the karmic ripening of these abusive
words, the brahmin Varṣākāra will be reborn as a monkey during five hundred
future lives.’

“Varṣākāra then became frightened and developed faith in the Buddha.
He asked the Bhagavān at the time of his parinirvāṇa, ‘Where will this
deed become exhausted?’

“The Bhagavān said, ‘During these five hundred lives you will be
reborn in Rājagṛha in the Jambu continent, the Rose-Apple continent, which
derives its name from the fruits called jambu that are the size of large earthen pots and
delicious like the pure honey of bees. From there,
leaving this incarnation, you will reach heaven.’

“To give another example, having been reborn among lions by virtue
of a thought of hatred, the Bhagavān spoke the following stanza in reference
to this topic:

“ ‘Long is the night for the one who lies awake;

Long is a yojana for the one who is exhausted.

Saṃsāra is long for the foolish,

Even if they are acquainted with the holy Dharma.’

“This kind of action leads to rebirth in the animal realm.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth in the realm of ghosts? Here, someone adopts a
negative course of conduct of body, speech,
and mind with a mind full of anger and hatred or craving; pursues a wrong
way of making a living due to improper desire; dies while being angry, hungry, or thirsty; or dies
while having thoughts of attachment to material things.

“ ‘The Bhagavān said to Ānanda, “Ānanda, either an action done
by a person in a previous lifetime resurfaces and becomes present, or it
becomes the force that leads to wrong views at the time of death.”
’

“This kind of action leads to rebirth in the realm of ghosts.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth in the realm of the asuras?
Someone’s committing only small or minor misdeeds with body, speech, and
mind; pride;
arrogance; the pride of identification
with a self; the pride of
inferiority;
dedicating the roots of virtue of one’s positive actions to rebirth in the
world of the asuras; and following an immoral course of conduct yet in an intelligent
manner that springs from refined desire—this kind of action leads to rebirth in the realm of the
asuras.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth as a human? Here, one
cultivates the ten virtuous courses of action. What are the ten? One
abandons the ten nonvirtuous actions: the three physical actions of killing,
stealing, and
sexual misconduct; the four verbal actions of lying, slander, harsh speech,
and idle talk; and, furthermore, the three mental actions of
covetousness, malice, and wrong views. This kind of action leads to rebirth as a human.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth as a deva belonging to the
realm of sensuous desire? Here,
someone practices well, and brings to perfection, the ten virtuous courses
of action—this kind of action leads to rebirth as a deva belonging to the
realm of sensuous desire.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth as a deva belonging to the
realm of form? Someone practices well the ten virtuous courses of action,
accomplishes them, and brings them to perfection to an
especially superior degree—this kind of action leads to rebirth as a deva
belonging to the realm of form.

“What kind of action leads to rebirth as a deva belonging to the
formless realm? One enters the four attainments of the formless states and,
having entirely and completely transcended all notions of form, and the
notion of materiality having vanished, through disengaging the mind from the
notion of distinctness, thinking, ‘Space is infinite,’ one has perfected the sphere of infinity of
space and abides in it. Having entirely and
completely transcended the sphere of infinity of space, thinking, ‘Consciousness is
infinite,’ one has perfected the sphere of infinity of consciousness and
abides in it. Having entirely and completely transcended the sphere of
infinity of consciousness, thinking, ‘Nothing at all exists,’ one has
perfected the sphere of nothingness and abides in it. Having
entirely and completely transcended the sphere of nothingness, one has
perfected the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception and abides in
it. This kind
of action leads to rebirth as a deva belonging to the formless realm.

“What kind of action is performed but not accumulated? Having carried out an action, one feels shame, remorse, and deprecation, and
one confesses and openly admits one’s faults; one parts with it and vows not
to do it again in the future. This kind of action is performed but
not accumulated.

“What kind of action is accumulated but not carried out? An action
that is to be completed with the body and concerning which one
says with a defiled mind, ‘I will do this,’ but then does not actually
follow through —this kind
of action is accumulated but not carried out.

“What kind of action is both carried out and accumulated? Having carried out an action, one does not feel
shame; one does not remedy it, regret it, deprecate it, confess it, admit
it, renounce it, or give it up; and one does not vow to not do it again in
the future—action like this is both carried out and accumulated.

“What kind of action is neither carried out nor accumulated? An action that one has intentionally carried
out or made someone else carry out in a dream —action like this is neither carried out nor
accumulated.

“What kind of action leads to being reborn in hell and passing away
from there only after having completely exhausted the lifespan of the
hell? In this regard, one has carried out actions
that lead to rebirth as a hell being, and these actions are accumulated,
but
having carried out these actions, one feels neither shame nor remorse, and
one neither deprecates nor confesses and admits the actions done. One does
not vow not to do them again in the future but instead rejoices and is
satisfied like, for instance, Devadatta, Kokālika, and so forth. Action like this leads to
being reborn in hell and passing away from there only after having
completely exhausted the lifespan of the hell.

“What kind of action leads to being reborn in hell and passing away
from there after only half the lifespan of the hell is exhausted? In this
regard, someone has carried out actions that lead to becoming a hell being
but feels shame and remorse and deprecates, confesses, admits, rejects, and
gives up those actions and vows not to do them again in the future. In this
way does this kind of action lead to being reborn in hell and
passing away from there after only half the lifespan of the hell is
exhausted.

“What kind of action leads to passing away from hell immediately
upon being born there? In this regard, one has carried out actions that lead
to rebirth as a hell being, and these actions are accumulated; but, having
done these actions, one feels shame, remorse, and deprecation, confesses and
admits those actions, and gives them up. By making the promise, ‘From now on
I will not do it again!’ one will pass away from that state immediately upon
being reborn there.

“For example, when King Ajātaśatru heard that he would go to the
Avīci hell for carrying out the evil actions that bring immediate
retribution—namely, murdering his father, splitting the monastic saṅgha,
releasing the wild elephant Dhanapāla, and hurling a boulder onto the Tathāgata to kill
him—he became distraught
and developed faith in the Bhagavān. He confessed his sins and, as is
related in the Śrāmaṇyaphalasūtra, restored his
roots of virtue. When he
was about to die, he prayed, ‘From the core of my being I take refuge
in the Buddha. I have carried out intolerable actions, for which I feel
remorse and which I confess; by promising not to do such actions ever again,
they will diminish and eventually be completely erased.’ Then he went silent.

“This kind of action leads to passing away from hell immediately
upon being born there.

“What kind of action leads to a predetermined rebirth? As for that,
a person carries out an action, and, by dedicating the action in a certain
way—‘May I be reborn as such a one!’—that person will be reborn as that
one. For example, in the Śyāmākajātaka, the Bhagavān relates accordingly how one is reborn
through the power of a strong aspiration. This kind of action
leads to a predetermined rebirth.

“What kind of action leads to an unpredetermined rebirth? As for
that, a person carries out an action but does not dedicate it by specifying
‘May I be reborn as such and such!’ This kind of action
leads to an unpredetermined rebirth.

“What kind of action leads to the ripening of a karmic result in a foreign country? In this
regard, there will be ripening of a pleasant or painful karmic result in a
foreign country either in this very life or in the next.

“For example, the Bhagavān has told the following story:

“ ‘Monks, once upon a time, when the lifespan of humans of the
Jambu continent was indefinite, like that of the king Māndhātar, there lived
in a certain city a sea merchant’s son named Maitrāyajña. Surrounded by five hundred friends, he went to an
orchard, where his friends said to
him, “In this city, merchants like your father were sailors
traveling to foreign lands like, for instance, the Golden Island to see other continents and accumulate
riches. We, yourself included, should set sail and accumulate
riches, too.”

“ ‘Maitrāyajña replied, “So be it!” and when darkness fell, he went
home to his mother and said, “Mother, I will go to the Golden Island.”

“ ‘His mother replied, “Son, there is already such immeasurable
wealth in this house. Don’t go!”

“ ‘Maitrāyajña, after hearing his mother’s words, which persuaded
him not to go, immediately went back to the orchard. The friends said, “In
this matter, you need to entreat your mother even more.”

“ ‘Having heard their words, he said, “So be it!” and again went to
his mother to ask. But she clasped his feet, and so, again, he stayed. Immediately upon having asked
her for a third time, he went back to the orchard.

“ ‘His friends said to him, “This is impossible! We must go!” And Maitrāyajña went once again to his mother
and said, “I will go to a foreign land!” The mother then gathered all their
possessions, clasped one of his feet, and made him stay once again.

“ ‘Therefore, once more the boy went to the orchard, and his
friends said, “It is your fault that we, too, still have not left.
We will now leave on the thirteenth day!”

“ ‘Then Maitrāyajña, without his mother’s knowledge, drew out their
abundant merchandise and put it on the street. His mother, standing in the
doorway, clasped his feet again and said, “Son, don’t go!” but Maitrāyajña,
in his anger, stepped on his mother’s head, left, and went to the shore of the
sea.

“ ‘There he instructed his friends, “When we are going to set sail,
it is uncertain whether we will live or die. Therefore, we should all
maintain the eight precepts!” And they, heeding Maitrāyajña’s words,
promised to maintain the precepts.

“ ‘Thus, they set sail, and when they had gone far into the center
of the ocean, they were caught by a mighty storm, and their ship capsized.
All the others died, but Maitrāyajña had seized a large copper vessel whose
mouth could be closed with a piece of fabric, and eventually he reached the
end of the ocean. He then continued to wander until he came to a city with
a golden city wall and an orchard and a lotus pond that was pervaded by a
pleasant fragrance. He saw flower petals scattered everywhere and many
wreaths made from silk ribbons that had been put up as ornaments. From inside this city, four goddesses appeared and,
taking him by the hand, led him inside. Then, after he amused himself with
them for many years, many hundreds of years, many thousands of years, and
many hundreds of thousands of years, the goddesses ordered him,
“Son of noble family, since you are a stranger in this land, you should
not go outside. However, if you happen to leave sometime,
head north!”

“ ‘On another occasion, Maitrāyajña left the city and continued
wandering until he arrived at a city with a silver city wall and an orchard
and a lotus pond that was pervaded by a pleasant fragrance. He saw flower
petals scattered everywhere and many wreaths made from silk ribbons that had
been put up as ornaments. From inside the city, eight goddesses appeared.
Like before, after he had amused himself with them, at some other time he left.

“ ‘After wandering and wandering, he arrived at a city with a lapis
lazuli city wall. Just as before, he saw flower
petals scattered everywhere and many wreaths made from silk ribbons hung up
as ornaments. From inside the city, sixteen goddesses appeared, and they,
too, took him by the hand and led him inside, and with them, too, he amused
himself for many hundreds of thousands of years.

“ ‘At a later time he left, and after wandering and wandering, he
arrived at a city with a rock-crystal city wall, and he saw everything like
before—from the scattered flower petals to the wreaths made from silk
ribbons. From inside this city, thirty-two goddesses appeared, and they,
too, took him by the hand and led him inside. As before, after he had amused
himself with them, they ordered him, “Son of noble family, since you are a
stranger in this land, you should not leave this city. However,
if you have to go, head north!”

“ ‘Immediately afterward, he left the house, faced north, and
walked and walked. Eventually, he came to a thicket of thorns and saw a city
with a black iron city wall. He approached, and as soon as he stepped
inside, the city’s gates slammed shut. Looking up the city walls, he saw
them rising higher, and he could hear a dreadful sound coming
from beyond them. “What kind of place is this?” he thought, and he became
terrified when he saw a man whose head was cut by a wheel made of sword
blades that was rotating above his head.

“ ‘ “Hey, you! What is this?” he asked, and that hell being
replied, “This is a personal hell.”

“ ‘Maitrāyajña asked, “What sins have you committed?”

“ ‘The man told his story: “In the Jambu continent there is a city
called Mahākośalī. There I used to live, and I, too, happened to be a son of
a sea merchant. Surrounded by five hundred friends, I went to the city’s
large orchard.

“ ‘ “There my friends said, ‘Your father is the head of the sea
merchants’ guild. And following his lead, they, our fathers, traveled to foreign lands and
procured vast riches. They saw the Golden Island, the island of Sri Lanka,
and many other islands. We, too, with you as our leader, will travel to
foreign countries.’ So they pledged.

“ ‘ “Then I went home and said to my mother, ‘I will go aboard a
ship and voyage the ocean to go to foreign countries!’

“ ‘ “My mother replied, ‘Son, your father, too, has gone aboard a
ship, and having gone to many foreign countries, he died. Son, you are all I
have left! Our house is filled with
riches. Don’t go!’

“ ‘ “I, too, promised my mother that I would not go. In this way,
mother clasped my feet three or four times, bidding me to stay, and I
stayed. But at another time, I went to the orchard and my friends said, ‘We
will go anyway.’

“ ‘ “ ‘Well, we should go then!’ I said, and by making this
promise, we departed.

“ ‘ “My mother clasped my feet at the door and said, ‘It is not
right to leave me behind!’ But I stepped on my mother’s head and went off
with my five hundred friends to the shore of the sea.

“ ‘ “After we took up the eight precepts, we set sail. We were well
on our way to the Golden Island when a strong gale caught us and capsized
the ship, killing all the friends. As for myself, after many days I reached
the end of the ocean. I started to wander, and after continuously walking I
eventually arrived at a city with a golden city wall and an orchard and a
lotus pond that was pervaded by a pleasant fragrance. I saw flower petals
scattered everywhere and many wreaths made from silk ribbons that had been
put up as ornaments.

“ ‘ “From inside that city, four goddesses appeared, thirty-two goddesses
appeared, and so on as before, until I saw
a city enclosed by an iron wall and went inside. As soon as I stepped
inside, the gates slammed shut. There, too, I saw a man with a wheel
made of swords rotating above his
head. And there and then the wheel was transferred to where I was standing
nearby, onto my own head. Due to the ripening of the karmic fruit of my
action of having desisted from leaving home by obeying my mother’s words
four times and taking up the eight precepts, I enjoyed a personal heaven in
four cities. Due to the ripening of the karmic fruit of my action of
stepping on my mother’s head when setting out, a wheel made of sword blades
is now rotating above and lacerating my head.”

“ ‘Upon hearing this, Maitrāyajña thought, “I, too, have in the
past carried out an action that is very similar to that one. I can see that
the ripening of the karmic fruits of my own action is immanent!”

“ ‘The hell being asked Maitrāyajña, “Where do you come from?”

“ ‘ “It is true then!” said the hell being. “I heard a voice
coming from the sky that said, ‘The karmic fruit of your action is
exhausted. One will come whose name is Maitrāyajña, the son of a sea
merchant, who has committed an action similar to yours.’ ”

“ ‘Maitrāyajña asked, “What kind of food do you eat here?”

“ ‘ “I eat the flesh, pus, and blood flowing from my own shredded
head.” Then this man died there. Maitrāyajña,
terrified and distraught, made this aspiration for the
sake of his mother:

“ ‘ “In all the countless worlds—

From the Peak of Existence downward, from the Avīci hell upward—

May the assemblies of gods, asuras, and mahoragas be happy,

And may their suffering be taken on by me!”

“ ‘With an earnest intention, he bowed down in reverence to his
imagined parents and made another aspiration: “Wherever I am reborn, I will
honor my parents! I will remain here in this individual hell for the sake of
those who will be reborn here. To those in the world who are engaged in
proper conduct and those who are liberated, I bow in reverence. I
pray that they will protect me.” And he stayed there as a being of this
individual hell and made a further aspiration for the sake of his parents:

“ ‘ “From the Avīci hell down below, up to the Peak of Existence,

May all the beings bound by the fetter of death,

As many as there are without exception, live happily, intent on
virtue,

And may they experience the ageless, deathless nirvāṇa!”

“ ‘Due to this utterance, the wheel remained in the air above,
rotating but without touching his head. And also, because his mother
perpetually made this aspiration, “If there is any benefit to be derived
from the merit that I have accumulated through my practice of generosity,
ethics, and being a faithful wife, may the fruit of this merit lead to the
happiness of my son, whatever and wherever he may be,” he was at peace.

“ ‘And having stayed there in this personal hell, he passed away
before even sixty years had passed.’

“Accordingly, for example, King Ajātaśatru passed away without
having entirely completed his lifespan in hell. But since the karmic fruit
of actions do not dissipate, he sometimes suffered from excruciating headaches.

“Then, when the right time had come, the Bhagavān addressed the
monks: ‘Monks, you may think that the sea merchant’s son named Maitrāyajña
was just somebody else at that time. But this is not how you should see it.
I myself was at that time the sea merchant’s son named Maitrāyajña.
Therefore, monks, have faith in my words! You should cultivate
reverence for the Bhagavān! You should cultivate
reverence for the Dharma and the Saṅgha! You should also revere your
parents,
your preceptor, and your teacher! Know this, monks: Those who travel to a
foreign land can experience both pleasure and pain, just like Maitrāyajña,
who after traveling to a foreign country experienced a personal heaven and a
personal hell in a single lifetime. In this way, action that
leads to the experience of pleasure and pain in a foreign country will ripen
accordingly in a foreign country.’

“Hence, the Bhagavān has furthermore said the following: ‘Whether
something is done for me or for your parents, your preceptor, or your
teacher, there is no difference, and the karmic result is the same,
experienced either in this lifetime or the next. How,
then, is the karmic result the same in this very life?’

“For example, once in Śrāvastī some poor person saw the Bhagavān,
together with the Saṅgha of hearers, begging for alms. And because at that
moment he developed reverence in his mind, he accumulated an immense stock
of merit, and since this also created the action that led him to become a
king, that reverence by itself became the seed for his liberation. When this
came to the Bhagavān’s attention, he uttered the following verses:

“ ‘Those who rejoice in it

Are no less remunerated

Than those who carry out a service.

They are both equally entitled to a share of the merit.’

“And:

“ ‘Mind precedes phenomena.

Phenomena appear due to mind, and they disappear due to mind.

When one’s mind is truly devoted,

So will be one’s speech and action in every way,

Always following the person like a shadow.

Then, one will find happiness.’

“Then, at the moment of his death, he was reborn as a god.

“Another example is that of the pratyekabuddha Tagaraśikhin. During a famine, a poor man had
offered some broth, and because of that he was anointed king in this
city on that same day. Later he became a pratyekabuddha.
Furthermore, it is said in the sūtras
that the
karmic fruit of a mind full of devotion similar to that of the
pratyekabuddha whose name is Tagaraśikhin will ripen in this very lifetime.

“When he honored his parent, Maitrāyajña, the son of the sea
merchant, experienced an individual heaven in four great cities because he
had listened to his mother’s words and complied with them four times. Since
it had become the seed for his liberation, the ripening of the karmic fruit
took place in this life.

“Will one go to hell through expressing anger toward the Bhagavān
and one’s parents? An example here is Devadatta, who, after he had become
angry with the Bhagavān, fell into the Avīci hell immediately upon his
death. Or there is the prince Utraka in the city
of Rauruka in the land of Sindhu, who killed his father and
consequently fell into the hell realms. Thus, one will go to the
hell realms through expressing anger toward the Bhagavān or one’s parents.

“Now, is there a difference with regard to the Buddha and one’s
parents, or are they not different? Concerning the
Bhagavān, generating devotion toward him, who during many hundreds of
thousands of cosmic ages has accumulated a stock of merit generated by his
roots of virtue, who taught the Dharma to those lacking a path, and who bestows
awakening upon us, the karmic fruit is immeasurable. To parents the path to
liberation is unknown.
Furthermore, one need not always obey the words of one’s parents. Why not?
Because there are some who hold false views and who say to their child, ‘Child, bring us to an uninhabited
place —you will
benefit from this and be happy!’ or ‘Abandon us in a chasm! Commit us to the
flames!’ When they say such things, this ought not to be done. Why not?
Because through murdering one’s parents one will certainly go
to the hell realms. Therefore, the Bhagavān has said not to accept those who
have killed their parents into the novitiate and that such people should not
be accepted for full ordination, and for this reason such people should
be shunned.

“How, then, are one’s parents, one’s preceptor, and one’s teacher
equal? In
this regard, the Bhagavān has said, ‘Parents love their children from the
depths of their hearts.’ Therefore, when
parents do not give their permission, one should not accept someone into the
novitiate. Take, for example, the noble Rāṣṭrapāla,
among others. When his parents did not let him go, the Bhagavān did not accept him
as a novice. Still
today ordination is not given without parents’
consent. Or,
for example, it is said that when the Bhagavān himself adopted the life of a
mendicant, his parents went blind out of grief for the loss of King
Śuddhodana’s son, because they had wished
for the birth of a son who would uphold their legacy in these five areas:
‘This son of ours that we will give birth to, after being born, will support
us; he will continue to perform our duties; he will become the inheritor
of our wealth; when we die, he will perform the ancestral food
offerings; and he will continue the family lineage.’

“The preceptor and the teacher, however, have compassion as their
priority. Their sole concern is this: ‘So long as he cannot adopt the life
of a mendicant because his parents do not give their permission, how will
this one who has been wandering in saṃsāra since time immemorial reach the
end of it?’ For example, the Bhagavān says the following in the Vinaya:

“ ‘The preceptor regards the pupil as a son. The pupil regards
the preceptor as a father. Thus, they consider each other parent and
child.’

“In this regard, the preceptor and the teacher are equal to the
parents. Furthermore, the Bhagavān says in the Cakravartisūtra:

“ ‘Which action leads to the karmic result of the wheel-turning
monarch obtaining the precious elephant and the precious horse? Carrying one’s parents around
on one’s shoulders, or having them mount a carriage drawn by a horse or
by an elephant, and carrying one’s preceptor and one’s teacher
oneself.
The
wheel-turning monarch obtains the precious elephant and the precious
horse through the karmic ripening of the action of having others
carried. For this reason, too, are the parents and the preceptor and the
teacher equal. Furthermore, for householders, parents are the object of
adoration. For those who have adopted the life of a
mendicant, the preceptors and the teachers are the object of adoration.
For this reason, too, are preceptors and the teachers equal to
parents.’

“To give another example, the Bhagavān addressed the monks as
follows:

“ ‘Monks, suppose someone took their parents on their back and
roamed the Jambu continent with them, provided them with provisions, and
filled the whole of the four continents with riches and gold—even this
kind of generosity could not repay the parents’ kindness. But, if
someone were to cause another person to develop faith in the Buddha, the
Dharma, and the Saṅgha and establish them in the five precepts and in
the moral conduct that is praised by noble ones, in this way children
would be repaying their parents’ kindness. And that is precisely what
preceptors and teachers do!’

“It is for this reason that the preceptor and the teacher are more
distinguished than the parents.
In short, ever since the time of the Bhagavān’s nirvāṇa, all
those pacified and tamed monks, nuns,
laymen, and laywomen, and whoever else, have been pacified and tamed by
their preceptors and teachers. It is
because of this that the Bhagavān has said, ‘Monks, those who believe in my
words should give rise to the highest faith in the Bhagavān, as well as in
the Dharma and the Saṅgha! And they should give rise to the highest faith in
their parents, their preceptor, and their teacher! This will lead to their
benefit and happiness for a long time to come.’ This kind of action leads to the
ripening of a karmic result in a foreign country.

“What kind of action leads to a person being happy at first and
becoming unhappy in the future? If someone were to ask this, one should
reply as follows: ‘Here, a person is stopped by a beggar,
for instance, and, asked for alms or a donation, delightedly accepts and
then gives with joy but afterward regrets having given. When this person is
reborn as a human in a rich and wealthy family, later the wealth is consumed
and depleted. Then this person becomes poor, just as in the story of
Gopaka. He had offered a milk cow to the fully enlightened Buddha
Krakucchanda and his saṅgha of monks. But later, people made him regret it
so that he thought, “It was not good to have given this.” Therefore, because
he had regrets, wherever he was reborn, he first was rich and then later,
due to these regrets, became poor. Later, he was
reborn in Rājagṛha. His mother died at his birth and people
said, “His birth is the reason for his mother’s death! Since he was born
under the constellation Mūla, he will destroy this family. He is bad luck!” And so they just discarded him
together with his mother in the cemetery. But there, through the power of
his merits, his mother’s breasts still produced milk. In this way, he
nourished himself, developed fully, and eventually went to the Blessed One
and became a monk. Thus, this was the
karmic fruit of his action of first offering a milk cow with faith and then
later regretting it. His offering with a faithful attitude in the beginning
became the very seed of his liberation. But due to his later regret, it is
said, he always ended up poor. This
kind of action leads to a person being happy at first and becoming unhappy
in the future.’

“What kind of action leads to a person being unhappy at first and
becoming happy later? If someone were to ask this, one should reply as
follows: ‘In this case, someone is asked to make an offering, accepts only
very reluctantly, and
accordingly makes the offering only reluctantly, but following the offering
they experience joy. Then, when reborn among humans, this person is born
into a poor family at first, but later their wealth increases. This kind of
action leads to a person being unhappy at first and becoming happy
later.’

“What kind of action leads to a person being both happy at first
and happy in the future? In this case, someone is begged by somebody for
alms and delightedly and immediately agrees to give. And, having given alms
joyfully, this person later, too, is happy. Then, when reborn as a human
being, this person will be reborn in a very rich and very wealthy family.
This kind of action leads to a person being both happy at first
and happy in the future.

“What kind of action leads to a person experiencing both
suffering at first and
suffering in the future? In this case, someone is without a spiritual
friend, a spiritual preceptor, who would encourage him to give alms.
Consequently, he gives nothing whatsoever. But he has neither done nor
accumulated any bad actions at all. When he is reborn as a human being, he
will be born into a poor family that has to survive with a scarcity of food
and drink due to hardship. When born there, he obtains food and clothing
only with great difficulty. Also, in the
future his resources will not increase. This kind of action leads to a person
experiencing both suffering at first and suffering in the future.

“What kind of action leads to a person being wealthy and stingy? A
person makes only a small offering to those who possess moral discipline and
who are recipients worthy of offerings, but he does not make a habit of the
attitude of giving away. Then, when he is reborn as a human being, due to
the power of generosity, he will be born into a rich family having great
riches. However, because he did not make a habit of the attitude of giving
away, he becomes stingy with his wealth. This kind of action leads to a
person being wealthy and stingy.

“What kind of action leads to a person being poor and generous? In
this case, a certain person makes offerings liberally to animals and to
people who are ill behaved. Then, when he is
reborn as a human being, he will be both poor and generous. By
virtue of having made practicing generosity a habit, he will be poor yet
generous. This kind of action leads to a person being poor and being
generous.

“What kind of action leads to a person being rich and generous? In
this case, someone makes liberal offerings to those who possess moral
discipline and who are worthy recipients of offerings and makes a habit of
the attitude of giving. Therefore, when he is reborn as a human being, he
will be rich, and his wealth will be extensive. For example, consider the
householder Anāthapiṇḍada. He first offered Prince Jeta’s grove to the
completely perfect Buddha Krakucchanda and had a monastery erected for the
monks there. In the same manner, in former births he offered Prince Jeta’s grove to the
completely perfect buddhas Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa, and Sarvārthasiddha, and he
will equally offer it to Maitreya with its entire ground strewn with gold. This kind of action leads to a person being
rich and generous.

“What kind of person has exhausted their lifespan but not their
actions? A person who dies in a hell realm and is reborn in that same hell
realm, a person who dies as an animal and is reborn as an animal, a person
who dies in the realm of ghosts and is reborn in the realm of ghosts, and a
person who dies as a god and is reborn as a god. The brahmin Varṣākāra, for
instance, died repeatedly and was reborn as a monkey. Or, for instance, the
aforementioned householder was repeatedly reborn as cattle. When a certain
poor householder in Śrāvastī died, an ox with an ulcer on its shoulder was
standing in front of the house. Because the householder was very attached to
his house, after he had died, he was reborn as a maggot in the ox’s ulcer.
Immediately after he was reborn, a crow ate him, and later he
was reborn in that same spot again as a maggot. In this manner, during one
single day, he died and was reborn seven times in this same spot!

“Or, for example, when the venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana was
wandering through the country of Magadha collecting alms, he entered a house
in which a householder sat together with his wife, holding their son in his
lap. They were eating a meal of fish, while in front of them sat a dog, to
whom they tossed the fish bones. Then, when the householder saw
Mahāmaugalyāyana, he said to him, ‘Friend, nobody here gives alms to
beggars. Go away!’ And Mahāmaugalyāyana turned around.

“At the door of that house, there had been sitting all the while
some man who had come from another country and who
knew the sthavira Mahāmaudgalyāyana. When he saw what had happened, he was amazed and said,
‘Oh dear! This venerable monk is the foremost among those possessing magical
powers. He has tamed the kings of the nāgas, Nanda and Upananda. He shook the divine palace Vaijayanta with his left toe, and through
that the king of the gods, Indra, marveled. He traversed the realm of the
trichiliocosm in the blink of an eye. These things being so, it is
astounding that he was sent away without having been offered alms!’

“Then, the sthavira Mahāmaudgalyāyana, to instill in him a sense of
weariness with saṃsāra, said, ‘My dear, it is not so very astonishing.’

“ ‘Well, what then is astonishing?’ the man asked.

“He replied, ‘This householder here, eating fish curry, is
astonishing! The fish was his father. He would frequently scoop out and eat
fish from the pond behind the house that carried a lot of fish. Then he died
and was reborn as this very fish. His son, too, frequently scooped out and
ate that fish many hundreds of times. And he, too, was reborn
in that same spot many times, again and again. This female dog here was the
householder’s mother. She, overpowered by greed, never made an offering to
anybody. And she never safeguarded ethical conduct but instead meanly
hoarded possessions for the sake of the family lineage. And after she had
died with her thoughts attached to this same house, she was reborn here as
that female dog. Then, after she died again, she was reborn again and again
in this same place. This dog circles around the house on the outside for the
whole night, afraid that somebody could enter. The son sitting in the lap of
that man was the wife’s lover. When the householder found out that his wife
was sleeping with another man, he pretended that he had to go to another
city. As soon as he left, the woman slept with the other man, but her
husband returned home and killed him. But because
he was attached and attracted to that woman, he was reborn in her womb. See,
my dear: The meat they eat is their father’s. The one to whom they toss the
fish bones is the mother. The enemy, the adulterer, who is the one who was
killed in a rage, they cradle in their lap. Therefore, it is only reasonable
to feel disgust for the faults of saṃsāra, because this
is truly astounding.’

“Then the monk Maudgalyāyana recited a verse to instill a sense of
weariness with saṃsāra in the many people of the western regions:

“ ‘With a consciousness obscured by delusion and desire,

He eats his father’s meat,

Tosses his mother the bones,

And nourishes his wife’s lover.’

“This kind of person is someone whose lifespan is exhausted but not
their actions.

“What kind of person has exhausted their actions but not their
lifespan? A person who was happy at first and becomes unhappy in the future,
or a person who was unhappy at first and in the future becomes
happy—this kind of person is someone who has exhausted their actions but not
their lifespan.

“What kind of person has exhausted both their actions and their
lifespan? A
person who dies as a hell being and is reborn as an animal, a person who
dies as an animal and is reborn in the realm of ghosts, a
person who dies as a ghost and is reborn as an asura, a person who dies as
an asura and is reborn as a human being, and a person who dies as a human being and
is reborn as a god—this kind of person has exhausted both their actions and
their lifespan.

“What kind of person has exhausted neither
their lifespan nor their actions but has exhausted the kleśas? A stream
enterer, a once-returner, a non-returner, and an arhat —this kind of person has exhausted
neither their lifespan nor their actions but has exhausted the kleśas.

“What kind of person is well in body but unhappy in mind? A worldly,
ordinary person who has acquired merit is well in body but not in his
mind—for example, the brahmin, the householder, the king Māndhātar, and
so forth in the country of Magadha. This kind of person is well in body but unhappy in
his mind.

“What kind of person is happy in mind but unwell in body? For
example, the arhat Karmaśa, who was happy in
mind but unwell in body. Or, in the same manner, the noble Śoṇottara, who,
in a former life, gave a ball made of cow dung mixed with cowhage to a pratyekabuddha for his
bath. Through the complete ripening of this action, he suffered from leprosy
spreading all over his body. The following verse is said to illustrate
this:

“Acts are more powerful

When their objects are precious.

When under their sway,

I will experience suffering.

“Or consider, for instance, Jaṅghākāśyapa: When a certain
pratyekabuddha came to Benares, Jaṅghākāśyapa thought, ‘I will offer him a
meal.’ Then, after a long time, he offered food after the appropriate
mealtime had passed. Through this action, in a future time, when he had
become a noble person himself, while going on his morning alms round, he
arrived too late to obtain any food. A person like this is happy in mind but
unwell in body.

“What kind of person is well in both body and mind? An arhat who
has destroyed the contaminants and who has accumulated merit. For example,
Bakula, the son of the king
Dharmayaśas, roared this lion’s roar: ‘In the eighty years since I have gone
forth, I have not even experienced a light headache.’ In the past, he was a
perfume seller in Benares. There he offered medicine to cure the sick to the
Buddha Krakucchanda and his saṅgha of hearers. Also, he once gave a
myrobalan fruit to an arhat. Through the karmic ripening of these actions,
he was free from illness and obtained perfect health. This kind of person is
well in both body and mind.

“What kind of person is not well in both body
and mind? An ordinary person who has not accumulated any merit, roves
about other peoples’ homes, has no family or kin, and is without clothes,
food, and drink. This person furthermore suffers from diseases like leprosy,
chronic cough, dysentery, ulcers, skin rashes,
and so forth,
or this person is missing limbs, such as a foot or a hand, or is blind. Such
a person is unwell in body and in mind.

“What kind of person has a pleasing body that is beautiful, shiny,
of brilliant color, handsome, and lovely to look at despite
being reborn in the lower realms? A wicked person, whose wickedness is due
to desire, who is reborn in the lower
realms—for example, the peacock, the parrot, the thrush, the goose, the ruddy shelduck, and so forth. In this way, when a person behaves
wickedly due to desire, they will have a pleasing body that is beautiful,
shiny, of brilliant color, attractive, and lovely to look at, despite being
reborn in the lower realms.

“What kind of person is reborn in the lower realms with an
unpleasant appearance, rough skinned and unattractive? A wicked person,
whose wickedness is due to hatred, who is reborn in the lower realms—for
example, the tiger, the lion, the raven, the jackal, the bear,
the spectacled cobra,
ghosts, flesh-eating demons, and so forth. In this way, when a person
behaves wickedly due to hatred, they will be reborn in the lower realms and
with an unpleasant appearance, rough skinned and unattractive.

“What kind of person is reborn in the lower realms, in a
foul-smelling place, with underdeveloped and slow faculties? A
wicked person, whose wickedness is due to ignorance, who is reborn in the
lower realms—for example, the muskrat, vermin, the constrictor, the louse,
the black honeybee, and other bugs, as well as the twenty kinds of
worms living in the human body. Such a person is reborn in the lower realms,
in foul-smelling places, with underdeveloped and slow faculties.

“There are ten courses of action that are nonvirtuous. What are the
ten? There are three actions of the body, four actions of speech,
and three actions of the mind. The karmic ripening of those ten
nonvirtuous courses of action causes the ten kinds of external things to
deteriorate.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of killing, the earth loses its vitality
and luster. The karmic result equivalent to the action is
that one will have a short lifespan.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of stealing,
hail, birds, locusts, mice, vermin,
and so forth will appear on the earth and eat the crops. The karmic result
equivalent to the action is that one will experience the loss of one’s
wealth.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of sexual
misconduct, bad-smelling herbs and forests will grow on the earth. The karmic result equivalent to the action is entering
the state of a prosperous layman or laywoman. In this regard, there are
three avadānas: the avadāna of Śvabhrapāda; the avadāna of Susudhī, the
unfaithful wife of the king of Benares; and the avadāna of Kālodāyin in his former rebirth in Devāvataraṇa.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of lying
come
diseases of the mouth and throat, bad breath, and so forth. The karmic
result equivalent to the action is that one will be deceived by lies.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of slander,
painful sensations arise from the touch of pebbles and gravel on the ground.
The karmic result equivalent to the action is that one’s servants and
retinue are likely to be divisive.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of harsh
speech, winds carrying dust and dirt will rise, and heavy rains and so forth
will fall to the ground. The karmic result equivalent to the action is that
one will hear unpleasant sounds and see unpleasant sights.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of idle
talk, high and low grounds, deep valleys, ravines, precipices,
and so forth will materialize. The karmic result
equivalent to the action is that no one will believe one’s words.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of
covetousness, fruits, as well as the seed heads of barley, wheat, and so
forth, will be small. These and other faults of awn and stalk will be rife.
The karmic result equivalent to the action is that one’s possessions will be
carried off by strangers.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of malice,
the field crops and fruits will be pungent and bitter. The karmic result
equivalent to the action is that one will see repulsive things.

“Through the karmic ripening of the nonvirtuous action of wrong
views, small fruits that are poisonous and putrid smelling, and so forth, or no fruits at all, will
appear. The karmic result equivalent
to the action is that one will be a nihilist and believe in the treatises of the nihilists, the wrong view
of annihilation or that of the materialists, and
other wrong views.

“The more one cultivates the courses of the ten nonvirtuous
actions, the stronger they become. Therefore,
during the eon of the universe’s dissolution, even if there are sesame
seeds, no sesame oil can be produced; even if there is sugarcane, no
sugarcane juice can be produced; even if there is sugarcane juice, no
sugarcane molasses and no sugar can be produced; even if one has a cow, it
will not produce any milk; and even if one has milk, no butter will
be produced. In
this way, as an effect of the karmic ripening of the ten nonvirtuous
actions, external things will deteriorate.

“By way of correctly
adopting the ten virtuous courses of action, the external world will thrive. What are the ten?

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up killing living beings,
the productivity and vitality of the soil will not be lacking.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up stealing, no
mice and worms will appear, and no hail and no famines, and so forth, will
occur.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up sexual misconduct, no
deposit of dirt and dust, no wind, and no torrential rains will occur.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up lying, no unpleasant
smells will occur.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up harsh speech, one’s feet
will not come into contact with pebbles, gravel, and potsherds.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up trivial talk, no thickets
of grass, impenetrable forests, or thickets of thorns will appear.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up covetousness, field crops
and so forth will always bear fruit.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up ill will, harvests will
be abundant, and the fruits and seeds will not be bitter and pungent.

“Through the karmic ripening of giving up wrong views, one will not
get seeds that produce no or only very small fruits. By way of properly
engaging in these ten virtuous courses of action, the ten external kinds of
things will flourish.

“Now,
regarding killing, one should know that ten evil consequences will ensue.
What are the ten? One will have many enemies; one will see repugnant
things; one will have immoral thoughts that will lead to the destruction of
living beings; one will sleep feeling uneasy; one will wake up feeling uneasy; one will
have bad dreams; at the time of one’s death one’s mind will be
clouded; one will feel remorse; one will do and accumulate actions that lead
to a short lifespan; and after one has died, one will fall into the
lower realms of existence, into evil destinies—one will be reborn in the
hell realms.

“Regarding stealing, one should know that there are ten evil
consequences. What are the ten? One will receive enmity; one will have
qualms; one will wander about at inappropriate times, for instance at
nighttime; one will associate with bad friends; one will be abandoned by
good friends; one’s ethics will be faulty; one will receive harm through
regal punishment; one will receive harm through penalty; one will do and
accumulate actions that lead to being bereft of one’s wealth; and after one
has died, one will fall into the lower realms of existence, into evil
destinies—one will be reborn in the hell realms.

“Regarding sexual misconduct, one should know that there are ten
evil consequences. What are the ten? Those who sleep with others’ wives will
likely be attacked by Māra; there will be quarreling with one’s
partner; one’s nonvirtuous characteristics will increase;
one’s virtuous characteristics will starkly diminish, and eventually they
will be lost completely; one will be unable to hide and to protect oneself,
one’s children, one’s wife, or one’s wealth; one will have pangs
of conscience; one will not be trusted by one’s close friends, family
members, paternal relatives, or maternal
relatives; one will do and accumulate actions that
will lead to committing adultery and the like; and after one has died, one
will fall into the lower realms of existence, into evil destinies—one will
be reborn in the hell realms.

“Regarding lying, one should know that there are ten evil
consequences. What are the ten? One will have bad breath; the deities
will leave one’s body;
nonhuman beings will seek an opportunity to harm; even when one speaks the
truth, as a liar one will not be trusted; one will speak even more lies; in
matters that one must accept on faith, one will not think it necessary to
consult the experts; one will praise, extol, and voice untruth; poetry will
be nonexistent; one’s words will not be received sympathetically; one will do and
accumulate the action of slandering; and after one has died, one will fall
into the lower realms of existence, into evil destinies—one will be reborn
in the hell realms.

“Regarding the loss of mindfulness induced by drinking beer made
from fermented barley and other intoxicating liquors, thirty-six evil consequences should be known.
What are the thirty-six? In this lifetime one’s wealth will be lost; one
will become a ground for disease; quarrels, fights, and conflicts will
increase; one will expose oneself; one will disgrace oneself; one’s
intelligence will deteriorate; one will not obtain new possessions; one will
completely lose the possessions that one has acquired; one will preach
secrets in public; one will fail in carrying out one’s duties; one will
become a source of suffering for others; one will become weak; one will have
disrespect toward one’s mother; one will have disrespect toward one’s
father; one will have disrespect toward śramaṇas; one will have disrespect toward brāhmaṇas; one will pay no respect
to the head of the family; one will have no reverence toward the Buddha; one
will have no reverence toward the Dharma; one will have no
reverence toward the Saṅgha; one will be associated with bad friends; one
will be completely abandoned by virtuous friends; one will become shameless;
one will become immodest; one will become someone who has no
self-control; one’s
mindfulness with regard to women will fail; one will appear unattractive to
many; one will be in disharmony with many people; one will be loathed by
one’s paternal and maternal relatives and the noble ones; one will ardently
embrace what is not the true Dharma; one ardently abandons the true Dharma;
one will not want to pay attention to the experts; one will indolent
regarding what one should be careful about; one will be far away from
nirvāṇa; one will do and accumulate actions that lead to intoxication;
and
after one has died, one will fall into the lower realms of existence, into
evil destinies—one will be reborn in the hell realms.

“There are ten blessings of paying homage at a
tathāgata’s stūpa with one’s palms joined in reverence. What are the ten? One will obtain birth in a distinguished
family, an excellent body, and a large entourage
of servants, and one will receive plentiful offerings and veneration; one
will obtain extensive wealth, great erudition, great faith, an excellent
fragrance, great intelligence, and great wisdom. These are the ten blessings
of paying homage at a tathāgata’s stūpa with one’s palms joined in
reverence.

“There are ten blessings of prostrating to a tathāgata’s stūpa. What are the
ten? One’s body will be pleasing and will have a color like that of gold; it
will be attractive and lovely to behold; one will have a pleasant voice, and
one’s words will be creditable; one will move fearlessly in an
assembly; one will be dear to gods and humans; one will be a very
charismatic person with considerable prestige; the buddha-bhagavāns, the
bodhisattvas, and the Buddha’s hearers will be one’s company; one will have
great prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain
complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of prostrating at a
tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of
sweeping at a tathāgata’s stūpa. What are the ten? One’s body will be
pleasing, a pleasure to look at, and beautiful, and one will have a pleasant
voice; one’s attachment, hatred, and ignorance will diminish; when one
walks on a path, there will be no grass, gravel, or pebbles; one will be
born into a noble family; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn
in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten
blessings of sweeping at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of offering a parasol at a tathāgata’s
stūpa. What are the ten? One will be like a parasol in the world; one’s body
will never be scorched by heat; one’s mind, too, will not be
distressed; one will become a support for the
world; one
will do and accumulate actions that lead to becoming a sovereign; one will
obtain the empire of a wheel-turning monarch; one will become a powerful
notability; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven;
and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings
of offering a parasol at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of offering a bell at a tathāgata’s stūpa.
What are the ten? One’s body will be pleasing; one will have a pleasant
voice; one will speak charmingly; one’s speech will become like the voice of
the kalaviṅka bird; one’s words will be received sympathetically; one will become
exceedingly happy; one will hear delightful, sublime sounds; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven; one
will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of
offering a bell at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of
offering a flag at a tathāgata’s stūpa. What
are the ten? One will be like a victory banner in the world; one’s close
friends, family members, paternal relatives, and maternal relatives will
show one respect, and one will be revered, venerated, and worshiped by them;
one’s glory, praise, renown, and good reputation will manifest in all
directions;
one will have a pleasing body and will be a pleasure to look at and
beautiful; in one’s future lives one will have a long lifespan, and one will
stay long; one will become a powerful notability; one will be born into a
noble family; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven;
and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of
offering a flag at tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are twelve blessings of offering garments at a tathāgata’s stūpa. What are the twelve? One will be beautiful
and lovely to behold; one will have skin that is soft, silken,
and fine; dust and dirt will be unable to stick to one’s body; one will
possess fine carpets; one will possess fine clothes; one will have a
conscience; one will be endowed with decorum; one will
be delightful to look at; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn
in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the
twelve blessings of offering garments at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of offering a flower at a tathāgata’s
stūpa. What are the ten? One will become like a flower in the world; one’s sense of smell will never
deteriorate; one’s body will never smell bad;
one’s body will exude fragrance; the fine fragrance of moral discipline will
pervade the cardinal and intermediate directions; worldly deities will
gather and surround one; one will obtain all attractive
qualities; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven; and
one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of
offering a flower at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of offering a garland at a tathāgata’s
stūpa. What are the ten? One will become garland-like in the world; one’s body will never
smell bad; the fine fragrance of moral discipline will pervade the cardinal
and intermediate directions; one will always be fragrant; one will always be
adorned; one’s entourage will be undivided; one will be
appealing to women;
one will enjoy vast resources; one will be reborn in heaven; and one will
quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of offering a
garland at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of offering a light at a tathāgata’s
stūpa. What are the ten? One will become like a lamp in the world; one’s
physical eyes will be completely purified; one will
become clairvoyant; the wisdom to discriminate virtuous and
nonvirtuous qualities will emerge; ignorance and
the darkness of mental obscuration will be cleared away; the light of wisdom
will dawn; even while wandering in saṃsāra, one will not be in
darkness; one will have great prosperity; one
will be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa.
These are the ten blessings of offering a lamp at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are ten blessings of offering scented water at a tathāgata’s stūpa. What are the ten? One will become
perfume-like in the world; one’s sense of smell will be completely purified;
one’s body will never smell bad; one will always be fragrant; one’s body
will be pleasing; worldly deities will gather and surround one; one will
obtain all attractive qualities; one will have great prosperity; one will
be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are
the ten blessings of offering scented water at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There
are ten blessings of offering music and cymbals at a tathāgata’s stūpa. What
are the ten? One’s body will be pleasing and lovely to behold; one will have a
pleasant voice; one’s speech will be charming; one will be famous; one’s
words will be creditable; one will always be joyful; one will obtain an
exalted voice that pleases all; one will have great prosperity; one will be
reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are
the ten blessings of offering music and cymbals at a tathāgata’s stūpa.

“There are eighteen blessings of
erecting a tathāgata stūpa. What are the eighteen? One
will be born in a noble family; one’s body will be pleasing; it will be
beautiful and a feast for the eyes; one will become a powerful
notability; one will have a very large retinue; one’s entourage will be
undivided; one will have great prosperity; worldly deities will gather and
surround one; one will become a support for all; one’s glory, renown, and
good reputation will spread throughout the ten directions; one will be
celebrated by gods and humans; one will possess great riches and wealth; one
will obtain the empire of a wheel-turning monarch; one’s lifespan will be
long; one will have an adamantine body; one will be endowed with the major
and minor physical marks; one will be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly
attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the eighteen blessings of
erecting a tathāgata stūpa.

“What are the ten blessings of offering a cushioned seat? One will
enter a high rank in the world; one will become praiseworthy; one’s glory,
praise, renown, and good reputation will spread far and wide; one will have
much happiness and satisfaction of mind; one will be furnished with a
carriage, a cushioned seat, and servants; worldly deities will gather and
surround one; one will have great prosperity; one will become a powerful
notability; one will be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain
complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of offering a cushioned seat.

“What are the ten blessings of offering shoes? One will never lack
a carriage; one’s legs will be well formed; one will persevere when
traveling on a road; one’s body will not get tired; when walking, one’s feet
will not be injured by thorns, gravel, or rocks; one will obtain magical
powers; one will have servants; one will have great prosperity; one will be
reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are
the ten blessings of offering shoes.

“What are the ten blessings of offering a bowl? One will become
like a container for all good qualities of the world; one’s complexion will
be radiant; one’s mindstream will be supple; one will not suffer thirst; if
thirsty, water will appear; one will not be reborn among the
ghosts; one will be dear to gods and humans; one will have great prosperity;
one will be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa.
These are the ten blessings of offering a bowl.

“What are the ten blessings of offering food? One will have a long
life; one will have a beautiful appearance; one will be powerful; one will possess good memory and will be quick
witted; one will move intrepidly in an assembly; one will easily sway the
assembly in one’s favor; one will be dear to gods and humans; one will have great
prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven; and one will quickly attain
complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of offering food.

“What are the ten blessings of offering a vehicle? One’s feet will always be
youthful; one will be surefooted; when walking, the body will not get tired; one
will be happy; one will not have many enemies; one will obtain the excellent
four bases of magic powers; one will never be short of a means of
transportation; one will have servants; one will be reborn in heaven; and
one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of
offering a vehicle.

“The blessings of giving shelter are many. What are they? The one who
gives shelter will be fearless; one will obtain very soft mats and clothes;
and one will obtain the five objects of sensual pleasures of gods and
humans. If someone should wish, ‘May I be born into a family of a great and
exalted royal lineage,’ or ‘May I be born into a family of a
great and exalted brahmin lineage,’ or ‘May I be born into a family of a
great and exalted householder lineage,’ then this wish will be fulfilled.
Should one wish, ‘May I become the chief of a village,’ or ‘May I become the
chief of a town,’ or ‘May I become the chief of a large city,’ or ‘May I
become chieftain of a remote border-city,’ or ‘May I become ruler of a
vassal kingdom,’ or ‘May I become a powerful monarch,’ then this wish will be fulfilled accordingly.
Should one wish, ‘May I become the sovereign of one continent,’ or ‘May I
become the sovereign of two continents,’ or ‘May I become the sovereign of
three continents,’ or ‘May I become a wheel-turning monarch,’ then one’s wish will be fulfilled. Should one wish, ‘May I be born having equal
status with the devas belonging to the retinue of the Four Great Kings,’
then this wish will be fulfilled. Or, the wish ‘May I be born having equal
status with the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the devas of the
Yāma class, the devas of the Heaven of Joy, the devas of the Heaven of
Delighting in Emanations, and the devas of the Heaven of Mastery over
Others’ Emanations’ will be fulfilled. Should one wish, ‘May
I be born having equal status with devas belonging to Brahmā’s
Retinue,’ then this wish will be fulfilled. Or, the wish
‘May I be born having equal status with the devas of the heavens called
Brahmā’s Ministers, Great Brahmās, Limited Radiance, Boundless Radiance,
Luminous Radiance, Limited Virtue, Boundless Virtue, Perfect Virtue,
Cloudless, Abundance of Merit, Great Fruit, None Greater, Sorrowless, Beautiful, Delightful Appearance, and
those of the Highest Heaven” will be fulfilled. Should one
wish, ‘May I be born having equal status with the devas belonging to the
Sphere of Infinity of Space, the Sphere of Infinity of Consciousness, the
Sphere of Nothingness, and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor
Nonperception,’ then this wish will be fulfilled. Should one wish, ‘May I
attain the fruit of becoming a stream enterer,’ then this wish will be
fulfilled. Should one wish, ‘May I attain the fruit of becoming a
once-returner, a non-returner, and an arhat, and may I attain the awakening
of a pratyekabuddha,’ then this
wish will be fulfilled. Should one wish, ‘May I completely awaken to the
unsurpassed completely perfect awakening,’ then this wish will be fulfilled.
These are the many blessings of offering shelter.

“What are the ten blessings of offering a beverage? All one’s sense
faculties will be complete; one will have a bright forehead, and
one’s face will be as if always smiling; one will
be endowed with merit; one’s mindstream will be supple; one will not suffer
thirst; even when thirsty, water will appear; one will not be reborn as a
ghost; one will have great prosperity; one will be reborn in heaven; and one
will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of
offering a beverage.

“What are the ten blessings of monastic renunciation? The one who renounces will
not hanker after offspring, a spouse, or riches; one will not be in the grip
of desire; one will delight in living
in a forest as a recluse; one will be devoted to the Buddha;
one will avoid the realm of Māra;  one will thoroughly strive for those
qualities that cause one to obtain the happy, higher realms of existence and
avoid those qualities that cause one to fall into the lower realms of
existence; one will desire nothing, either from gods or from humans; one will always
become a nun or monk in the Buddha’s teaching; one will be reborn in heaven;
and one will quickly attain complete nirvāṇa. These are the ten blessings of
monastic renunciation.

“What are the ten blessings of retreating to the forest life? One will leave behind society; one will resort to strict
seclusion; one’s mind will focus on contemplation; one will aspire to the state of the
buddha-bhagavāns; joy, happiness and gladness will arise in the body;
obstacles will not occur; one will develop full understanding of the meaning
of the Dharma as one has received it; one will reach calm abiding; and one
will reach insight. These are the ten blessings of
retreating to the forest life.

“What are the ten blessings of living on alms? One will become
accustomed to walking; one will become familiar with one’s alms round; one’s
arrogance will be cut off; one applies oneself purposefully for one’s gain;
one will firmly establish others in virtue; one will elucidate the teachings
of the Buddha; one will make them shine for future generations; one will not
cause harm for one’s
companions in the holy life; one will establish a humble attitude; and for
the well-disciplined ascetic, alms will manifest without obstruction.

“What are the ten blessings of the ten kinds of confidence? With
confidence one enters a village; with confidence one leaves the village;
with
confidence one enters into homes; with confidence
one teaches the Dharma in an assembly; with confidence one appears among the
saṅgha; with confidence one approaches one’s preceptor and teacher; with
confidence one approaches one’s disciples with
kind thoughts; with confidence one uses one’s permitted possessions: robes,
begging bowl, bedding, and medicine to cure illnesses; with confidence one
loudly performs one’s recitations; and with confidence one passes away at the
time of death.

“Brahmin youth, it is like this: beings are owners of their own
actions, they originate from their actions, they are heirs of their actions,
and they take action as their refuge. Beings are divided into high, middle,
and low by their actions. From now on, honor what I have said!”

When the Buddha had finished this discourse on Dharma, the brahmin
youth Śuka developed faith in the Bhagavān and said, “Gautama, when you intend to go to the
houses of other lay people in Śrāvastī, I beg you to consider also going to
the house of my father, the brahmin Taudeya. This will lead to
happiness and benefit in the house of the brahmin Taudeya for a long time.”
By remaining silent, the Bhagavān consented to the brahmin youth Śuka’s
request. Then, when the brahmin youth Śuka recognized that the Bhagavān had
consented through silence, he was delighted about the
Bhagavān’s teachings. Having rejoiced, he departed from the Bhagavān.

“The Exposition of Karma” is
complete.

Notes

Abbreviations used in the notes to this

translation

Abhidh-k-bh

Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam of
Vasubandhu in Abhidh-k-bh(P)

Abhidh-k-bh(P)
Pradhan and Haldar, eds., Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam

AKK

Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu, as
included in the commentary (bhāṣya), the Abhidh-k-bh(P)

AN

Anguttara-Nikaya of the
Sutta-Pitaka

DN

Digha-Nikaya of the
Sutta-Pitaka

Negi
Negi, Tibetan–Sanskrit Dictionary

Sigla of Kangyur editions used

H
Lhasa (lha sa/zhol) printed Kangyur

J
Lithang (li thang/’jang sa tham) printed Kangyur

Y

Yongle printed Kangyur

Bibliography

Tibetan Sources

Sanskrit and Pāli Sources

Secondary Sources, Editions and Translations of

Consulted Works

Utraka

u tra ka
ཨུ་ཏྲ་ཀ

Susudhī
susudhī

Śvabhrapāda
śvabhrapāda